Psychology Module II

MODULE II
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Scope of the Module

This module consists of three lessons, namely:
Lesson 1 Intelligence
Lesson 2 Personality
Lesson 3 Attitudes and Attitudes Changes
Lesson 4 Lifespan Development
Overview of the Module

In the first module, you learned the nature of psychology, the interaction of
heredity, maturation, and environment, and the response mechanisms of the body. In the
present module, you will study how humans differ in terms of intelligence, personality,
and attitude.
Objectives of the Module

After studying this module, you should be able to:
1. discuss the nature of intelligence and how it can be measured;
2. define personality and enumerate how it can be assessed; and
3. explain the nature of attitude and tell how attitude can be measured.
PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

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PYB 101 / Psych 1
Module II
Lesson 1: INTELLIGENCE
Lesson Objectives:
After studying this lesson, you should be able to answer the following questions:
1. What is the definition of intelligence?
2. What are the different theories of intelligence?
3. How can intelligence be measured?
4. What do IQ scores actually mean?
5. What are some people retarded?
6. How does the interaction of environment and heredity influence intelligence?
7. What is the definition of intelligence?
Supplement your knowledge!

 Different Kinds of Intelligence, history of intelligence testing:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9xTz3QjcloI
 An online IQ Test that claims to be very accurate: http://www.iqtest.com
 Gardner’s Theory of Intelligence:
http://www.womenfolk.com/creativity.intelligence.htm
In popular language, intelligence is often characterized as brightness or sharpness.
These words suggest responsiveness, perceptiveness, and the ability to cut through
appearances and confusions to reach understanding. Lack of intelligence is
characterized as dullness, which suggests lack of responsiveness, perceptiveness, or
understanding. Others have defined intelligence as the ability to learn or profit from
formal instruction. Still others think of intelligence as the ability to adapt effectively to the
environment or the ability to reason.
Psychologists have also come up with varied concepts of intelligence. Terman and
Tyler, (1969) said that an individual is intelligent in proportion to his ability to carry on
abstract thinking. Some psychologists see intelligence as a cluster of relatively distinct
abilities, such as memory, reasoning, and verbal fluency. Other psychologists contend
that the limits of intelligence are fixed by heredity; still others believe that experience
plays an important part in its development.
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE?
Pioneer measurements of intelligence

Alfred Binet (1857-1911), a French psychologist, and Theodore Simon, a French
psychiatrist, were commissioned to construct a test that would assess the intellectual
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level of French school children. Binet believed that intelligence was too complex to be
described by one number. He limited his measurement to the abilities (rather than
achievements) to learn. Binet and Simon rejected the earlier tests utilized that were
narrowly sensory and physiological in nature. Instead, they developed a scale around
relationship between two tests - vocabulary and arithmetic. The early Binet-Simon tests
later became the basis for modern IQ tests which have expanded to measuring a level
of general intelligence called G, which Binet himself did not advocate.
Lewis Terman (1877-1956), an American psychologist, modified the original tests
and develop a standard IQ test we now know as the Standford-Binet (SB) test, which
expresses intelligence in terms of a single number called intelligence quotient, or IQ.
Terman defined intelligence as “the ability to think abstractly.”
Another psychologist, David Weschler (1896-1981), was not satisfied with the
existing IQ tests and developed his own version now known as the Weschler Adult
Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Weschler gave a commonly acceptable definition of
intelligence as “an overall ability to act purposely, to think rationally, and to deal
effectively with the environment.”
Spearman’s Theory: Intelligence as a General Ability

Charles Spearman (1863-1945), an English psychologist, believed a general factor
of intelligence he called g was at the core of different mental abilities (which can be
represented as s, for specific factors). Psychologists who follow Spearman’s theory will
today refer to the g factor (general intelligence factor) as the IQ score. Spearman’s
theory claimed that people who show ability in one intellectual undertaking also exhibit
abilities along other lines. In his later studies, Spearman proposed the existence of
additional general factors such as p, o, and w, which stands for preservation,
oscillation, and will, respectively. He said that preservation represents the inertia of the
individual’s supply of mental energy, and oscillation the extent to which it fluctuates from
time to time. W, on the other hand, represents will, a motivational personality factor that
enters into the talking of intelligence tests.
Thurstone’s Theory: Intelligence is a Cluster of Abilities

Louis Thurstone (1887-1995), disagreed with the idea that intelligence is a single,
general mental ability. Rather, he believed in the organization of mental abilities in terms
of group factors. He conceived of these factors as correlation clusters. He offered
evidence for seven primary mental abilities that are independent of each other. He
believed that the g factor linked these seven abilities together. These seven are:
1. (V) Verbal: The ability to understand and utilize verbal ideas effectively and
primarily measured by vocabulary and other verbal tests.
2. (N) Number: The ability to carry out the fundamental arithmetic operations of
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division accurately and rapidly.
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3. (S) Spatial: The ability to deal with objects in space and spatial relationships,
as demanded in geometric problems.
4. (P) Perceptual Speed: The ability to identify objects quickly and accurately, as
required in reading, map work, and the like.
5. (M) Memory: The ability to learn and retain information.
6. (R) Reasoning: The ability to perceive and utilize abstract relationships; to put
together past experience in the solution of new problem s.
7. (W) Word Fluency: The ability to think of words rapidly. Word fluency may be
related to personality variables as well as to intellective factors.
On the basis of these factors, Thurstone undertook a program of test construction.
He believed that assessing an individual’s intelligence in terms of a single, overall score
was wrong. Instead, the testee’s standing on each of the primary mental abilities was
reported in terms of percentile.
Cattell: Fluid Intelligence & Crystallized Intelligence

Raymond Cattell (1905-1998) provided a theory that was an extension of the
Spearman and the Thurstone analyses. Cattell says that Spearman’s and Thurstone’s
techniques provide evidence of two fundamental types of intelligence: crystallized
intelligence and fluid intelligence.
Fluid intelligence is a capacity for insight into complex relationships. It is the capacity
for acquiring new concepts and demonstrating general brightness and adaptability in
novel situations. Fluid intelligence is independent of education. It seems to be
influenced by heredity. Crystallized intelligence, on the other hand, is a combination of
acquired knowledge and developed intellectual skills. It shows the influence of the
environment.
Example: Being able to solve word usage problems, such as fill-in-the-blank
definitions would require reliance upon previous learning and thus the use of crystallized
intelligence. However, solving anagram problems requires both knowledge and
flexibility, and thus fluid intelligence. Completing a sentence “Wearing apparel for a foot
is called a ______”, requires crystallized intelligence, while recognizing that the letters in
the word “shoe” can be found in the word “honest” requires more mental flexibility, or
fluid intelligence.
Guilford: Structure of Intellect

In 1967, J. P. Guilford published The Nature of Human Intelligence in which he
proposed a radically different theory concerning the “structure of the intellect.” He
denied the existence of a general factor, G, and even rejected the possibility of
intelligence being reduced to just a few factors. He specified three major dimensions of
mental functioning – content, operations and product. Content refers to what we think
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about. Operations refer to the way we think. Product refers to the results and
conclusions we gain from performing operations on content.
In view of this, Guilford posted 120 unique intellectual abilities. This number is
derived by using the formula 4 X 5 X 6 = 120, i.e. 4 contents, 5 operations, and 6
products involve a total of 120 unique intellectual abilities.
The 4 Contents
The four basic varieties of content are figural (concrete material as perceived by the
senses), symbolic (letters, digits, and other conventional signs), semantic (verbal
meanings of ideas), and behavioral (knowledge regarding other persons).
The 5 Operations
The five areas of operations are cognition (discovery), memory (retention or the
ability to bring forth information learned previously), convergent production
(searching for a correct solution to a problem), divergent production (searching for
multiple, creative or novel solution to a problem), and evaluation (placing a value
judgment upon knowledge and thought).
The 6 Products
The six products consist of unit (production of single word definition or isolated bit of
information), classes (production of an analogy, an opposite, or other form of
relationship), system (production of an internally consistent set of classifications of
various forms of content), transformations (production of a change of meaning,
arrangement, or organization), and implications (production of information beyond
the data given).
Guilford’s theory carries the advantage of breadth and variety and it can better
account for creativity than traditional theories. It is difficult, however, to measure so
many different combinations of abilities.
Gardner: Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner (b.1943) took Thurstone’s idea that there are different mental
abilities that are relatively independent elements of intelligence. Gardner also claimed
that such abilities cannot be captured by a single measure of intelligence. He did not
believe that there was a single general intelligence. He claimed that intelligence had to
be defined within the context of a particular setting or culture. He identified eight types
of intelligences which he called “multiple intelligences.”
These eight intelligences are linguistic (adept in language), logical-mathematical
(good use of logic, reasoning and mathematics), musical (good in composing, singing,
etc.) spatial (visualizes space and movement), body-kinesthetic (good control of body
motions, playing sports), interpersonal (understanding other people’s emotions, motives
and intentions) intrapersonal (understanding one’s own emotions, motives and
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intentions) and naturalist (keen ecological awareness). Many of these abilities cannot be
measured on standardized test yet. They are, however, considered to be very useful in
many cultures.
Sternberg’s Theory of Triarchic Intelligence

Robert Sternberg (b.1949) also believed there are different mental abilities but
disagreed with the idea that these are separate and independent intelligences. His
triarchic theory of intelligence is based on research on how people go through in solving
problems. For Sternberg, there are three distinct (but not independent) forms of
intelligence – analytic (ability to solve problems), creative (ability to apply old information
to new problems) and practical (ability to adapt to the environment). The triarchic theory
advocates the concept of successful intelligence which have both a universal aspect
(similar to the g factor) as well the quality of adaptation (similar to independent
intelligences). The theory emphasizes skills in being successful in interacting in a social
environment and getting by in the daily life. Sternberg would define intelligence as “the
ability to achieve success in life according to both personal and sociocultural
standards.”
HOW CAN INTELLIGENCE BE MEASURED?
History of measurement
If intelligence is difficult to define, it must be equally difficult to measure. James
McKeen Cattell published a mental test in 1890 which did not work out. He administered
the test to Columbia freshmen marking the first large-scale testing of human subjects for
the purpose of determining the range of individual differences. The field of psychology,
however, profited from Cattell in that he influenced the development of American
psychology in the direction of an eminently practical, test-oriented approach to the study
of mental processes.
The mental test movement is said to have begun in 1905 with the development of
the first intelligence test by Alfred Binet with the help of physician Theodore Simon.
Binet was asked by the French Ministry of Education to develop an assessment
procedure to determine which school children would be successful in the French school
system and which children should be given specialized instruction. Binet revised his test
twice, in 1908 and 1911.
In 1916, Lewis M. Terman published the Stanford-Binet modification of Binet’s test
for use in the United States. Terman later made revisions of this version which
dominated the mental assessment field until David Wechsler produced the Wechsler –
Bellevue Intelligence Scale (WAIS). A special children’s version of this test was
produced, which was hence called the Wechsler Pre-School and Primary Scale of

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Intelligence (WPPSI).
Today, among the different types of intelligence tests available, the Standford-Binet
(SB) test and the Wechsler tests stand out as the most prominent and commonly used
by psychologists. They have been revised to be reliable, valid and standardized which
are three qualities of a good intelligence test.
Meaning of IQ scores
Today, your IQ is measured by statistically comparing your performance on an IQ
test with that of others of your age. Different tests have their own ways of calculating
your scores. The common standard for an average IQ is around a score of 100. A
person is said to be of average intelligence if the IQ calculated is between 90 and 110.
A person who scores 70 and below is considered as mentally retarded, while one who
scores more than 140 is regarded as a near genius or genius.
Below is a distribution of intelligence quotients based on the Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale.
IQ score
Above 130 Very superior
120 – 129 Superior
110 – 119 Bright normal
90 – 109 Average
80 – 89 Dull normal
70 – 79 Borderline
Below 70 Defective
Calculating intelligence level

The Stanford-Binet test calculates IQ using the concept of mental age (MA) as
related to one’s chronological age (CA). Mental age refers to the age of most people
who can perform a particular test item successfully. The idea of mental age as a
measurement of intelligence assumes an orderly process of intellectual growth common
to all individuals. MA is derived from the test scores. The value obtained for mental age
represents the performance which would be expected from the average person at that
age. Chronological age refers to one’s actual age. Intelligence Quotient is calculated by
dividing the mental age by the chronological age, then multiplying this by a hundred.
IQ = (MA/CA) x 100
Examples:
9-yr-old Mario passed all 6 subjects at seven-year age level, 5 subtests at eight, 3 at
age ten, 1 at age eleven, and none at age twelve. In this testing situation, Mario’s

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basal age is seven, his ceiling age is twice and his mental age is nine years. Let us
say his MA score is calculated in this way, based on the testing procedures:
MA = (7 x 12) + (12 x 2) = 108 months or 9 years
In this example, Mario is calculated to have an MA of 9 years. His IQ is calculated
using the formula for IQ:
IQ = (MA/CA) x 100
= (9/9) x 100
= 100
Where MA = 9
CA = 9
Based on the score, Mario can be regarded as a person with average and normal
intelligence.
Let us say that another child took the same test. 6-yr-old Vilma is tested and also
obtains a mental age of 108 months (9 years). She and Mario have the same mental
age regardless of their actual age. They both can be expected to perform at level
comparable to the average nine years old. Is Lisa as intelligent as Mario?
By applying the formula above, you can calculate that Vilma got an IQ score of 150,
which put her in the category of intellectually gifted. Compared to Mario, Vilma is
actually a genius.
Does a high IQ score surely indicate high intelligence?

Psychologists do not claim that IQ is the same thing as the intelligence. At best, your
IQ score simply indicates your present intellectual functioning and cannot measure your
intellectual potential. Davidoff (1976) considers the two concepts as different.
Intelligence is an overall capacity for particular mental activities that cannot be
measured directly. The IQ, on the other hand, is a number that indicates how a person
has fared on a particular test as compared to others in the same age bracket.
Intelligence tests were originally intended to predict how much students would profit
from additional academic instruction, and they have suited this purpose better than any
other for which they have been used. Predictions are not perfect because of the
influence of variables such as motivation, health, family circumstances, and the like, but
IQ scores are found to correlate with academic performance. In other words, people
with high IQ tend to perform better in school. IQ scores, however, cannot predict how
successful a person will be in real life.

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WHAT DO IQ SCORES ACTUALLY MEAN?
Real intelligence is fairly constant

A great number of people hold that one’s intelligence is constant. This means that a
person with a high intelligence will demonstrate intellectual excellence throughout his
life. This also indicates that he is not bright this year and then dull the next year. McCall
(1975) points out that a good intelligence test can trustingly reflect “real” intelligence and
that a child’s score should be stable from one assessment to another.
IQ scores can actually change over time

Although scores in IQ tests can be stable in points of time, it has been found that a
portion of the population m ay show marked shifts in their IQ scores. In fact, McCall
relates of studies on IQ change in Yellow Springs, Ohio. Results revealed that one-third
of middle and upper class children may fluctuate as much as 30 IQ points from their
highest and lowest scores throughout childhood. Also, one in every seven children
shows a range of scores spanning from 40 or more IQ points.
These findings indicate that although many individuals do not change very much in
their relative performance on an IQ test, others do show marked shifts in their status.
This shows that an individual is not locked into a given level of performance throughout
his life.
The stability of measured intelligence over a lifetime has been a major research
area. Results of the research have been contributory and have led to a general
conclusion that IQ stability will depend upon the life experience of the individual being
tested. Changes in IQ seem to be influenced by the person’s continued familiarity with
testing situations, type of employment, lifestyle and other experiences.
Male and female differences in intelligence

Comparisons of the measured intelligence of male and female individuals have
shown that overall IQ values are approximately the same. (Intelligence tests are usually
geared to avoid an overall bias favoring one sex or the other.) Studies of subtest results,
however, have shown noticeable differences in performance related to sex. In general,
the females score higher on subtest involving vocabulary skills, and manual dexterity
while the males often perform better on mechanical, numerical and spatial tests.
Expectations can affect IQ

Robert Rosenthal and his colleagues have studied this expectation effect. In one
study, students selected at random were mentioned to the teacher as potential
“intellectual bloomers.” The teacher thus expected that those students would show
increased IQ scores at the end of the school year. When intelligence tests were
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administered at the end of the year, some of these selected students had indeed shown
significant gains in measured intelligence as compared to the other (control) students.
Rosenthal suggested that the teacher’s expectation may have contributed to this
increase.
Occupational status and IQ

The general findings regarding the relationship between IQ and occupations indicate
that persons with higher measured intelligence tend to be found in workers with a higher
status or in more prestigious jobs. A second aspect of this relationship is that measured
intelligence is a fairly good predictor of how well a person will train for a job, but not a
good predictor of how well the person will actually perform on the job after training.
Research studies in industry have shown that the correlation between measured
intelligence and job performance is sometimes very low (below + 0.15). Some of the
jobs for which this type of finding was obtained include pottery decorators, welders,
meat packing workers, and electronic parts assemblers. In fact, for jobs involving one
simple assembly task, IQ and job performance showed a negative correlation. In other
words, people who do menial jobs are not necessarily less intelligent than their bosses.
Vice versa, bosses are not necessarily more clever than their subordinates.
Intelligent parents = intelligent kids?

Research studies have shown that, in general, the closer the genetic relationship of
individuals, the greater the similarity of their measured intelligence. This is comparable
to the finding for other personal characteristics such as personality. As mentioned
previously, the closer the genetic relationship of individuals, the greater the similarity of
their measured intelligence.
Are some races less intelligent?

In the pre-War II era, IQ scores obtained for black population in the United States
showed scores slightly lower than those obtained for comparable White population. This
finding has led to a major controversy. One interpretation suggests that the poorer
performance of blacks can be attributed to heredity, while a second interpretation is that
blacks have had inferior environmental opportunities that have shown intellectual
development. Arguments were advanced supporting both viewpoints, but the consensus
seems to support the environmental explanation of the differences in scores. In short,
no race has been proven by IQ testing to be less or more intelligent than the others.
Are intelligent people more creative?

Not necessarily. Correlations relating to creativity have generally been quite low,
indicating little or no relationship between the two variables. It has been suggested that

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any correlation that does exist may result from variables such as the motivation of the
subject. In other words, not all intelligent people are more creative. And not creative
people are more intelligent. Of course, it is possible for some people to be both
intelligent and creative.
WHY ARE SOME PEOPLE RETARDED?
More than 200 causes of mental retardation have been identified. These causes are
mostly biological. Among the specific identified causes are: rubella (German measles)
in the mother during the first three months of pregnancy; syphilis, meningitis,
toxoplasmosis, Rh-Factor incompatibility between mother and infant, lead poisoning in
young children, malnutrition, and chromosome abnormality. The most common and best
known of chromosome abnormality is called Down’s Syndrome (Mongolism) which
occurs in one out of every 600 babies born, and which usually result in mental
retardation from moderate to severe.
A number of inborn errors of metabolism likewise have been identified which, if not
treated, can cause damage to the nervous system and hence, mental retardation.
Inflammation of the brain associated with childhood measles which is preventable has
been reported to be another cause. Destruction of brain tissue or interference with brain
development in the infant or the young child frequently produces mental retardation.
What about highly intelligent people?

People considered mentally gifted are found at the top end of the distribution of IQs.
The very superior individuals are in the range 130 – 140 and the near geniuses are
found with IQ of 140 and above. Newland says that he has a strong conviction that
“mentally gifted children think in ways that are qualitatively different from those in which
average children think.” Gifted children are particularly capable of quick and generally
accurate generalizations; they can learn highly abstract symbols with great speed and
they can deduce complex relationships.
Contrary to popular myth that intelligent people are socially incompetent geeks,
research evidence available indicated that, in general, people with IQ values of 130 or
above are well adjusted. In addition, they tend to be somewhat healthier, to have more
hobbies and to benefit in general from their intelligence. The difficulty for people with
very high IQs seems to be a lack of understanding on the part of the parents, teachers,
and classmates.
There is also no evidence to support another popular myth that the more intelligent a
person is, the closer to madness he/she is.

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HOW DOES THE INTERACTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND HEREDITY
INFLUENCE INTELLIGENCE?
Munn, et. al., (1974) relates a case study of identical twins born to a mother. Since
this mother had no way of supporting them, one was sent to live with an aunt and uncle
while the other one was sent to an orphanage. After five years the mother was able to
regain possession of them. The twins were tested in order to determine what level in
school they would be placed in. It was found that the child who lived with an aunt and
uncle had considerably higher intelligence than the one who had been reared in an
orphanage. Assuming that the two babies had the same mental ability when they were
born, this finding tends to indicate the environment has a significant effect on the
children’s intelligence.
Research in enrichment education has shown that children’s IQ can be improved.
The usual decline in IQ test performance during the first three years of life can be
arrested by a parent-infant educator with a relatively simple curriculum. Rick Heber and
his associates selected 40 families, all with newborn infants, from an area in Milwaukee,
Wisconsin. This area is defined by the census bureau in America as having the lowest
education and income, the highest population density per living unit, the highest
percentage of dilapidated housing, and the greatest unemployment rate. Only families in
which the mother scored less than 75 on the Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
were accepted in the study. The newborn infants were randomly assigned to either the
experimental or the control group. Treatments were administered to both groups. The
findings indicated that the enriched or experimental group demonstrated substantially
better and more mature levels of performance than did the control group. Moreover, the
former was substantially above average and occasionally superior compared to the
population in general.
These findings show that marked improvement in IQ and even superior levels of
performance can be achieved by environmental stimulation. One of the implications of
these findings on education in our schools is that no matter how weak our pupils are,
still they can be helped to improve their mental ability. Teachers should therefore double
their efforts to give their pupils remedial measures. Early in the school year they should
identify pupils with low abilities and apply corrective measures to help them. Similarly,
children with high cognitive abilities should be given extra development activities that
would meet their nature. These are measures that can meet individual differences. After
all, education can affect intelligence quotient.

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PYB 101 / Psych 1
Module II, Lesson 1
SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TEST
I. Matching Type.
Column A Column B
_____ 1. Pioneer standard IQ test in US a. Raymond Cattell
_____ 2. Multiple Intelligences b. J. P. Guilford
_____ 3. Provided basis for modern IQ c. David Weschler
_____ 4. Intelligence is a Cluster of Abilities d. Standford-Binet
_____ 5. Fluid & Crystallized Intelligences e. Lewis Terman
_____ 6. Defined intelligence as “the ability to think f. Louis Thurstone
abstractly.”
g. Robert Sternberg
_____ 7. Triarchic theory of Intelligence
h. Howard Gardner
_____ 8. Believed in a general factor of intelligence (g)
i. Charles Spearman
_____ 9. Mental functioning has 3 major dimensions
j. Binet-Simon
_____ 10. Intelligence is “an overall ability to act
purposely, to think rationally, and to deal
effectively with the environment.”
II. True or False. Write TRUE if the statement is True. If it is False,

explain how the statement can be made true.
_____ 1. IQ score are correlated with academic performance but cannot predict
how successful a person will be in real life.
_____ 2. Research has shown that bosses are often more clever than their
subordinates.
_____ 3. Real intelligence is fairly constant but IQ can actually change over time.
_____ 4. No race has been proven by IQ testing to be less or more intelligent than
the others.
_____ 5. Intelligent people more often more creative than other people.
_____ 6. Several things that can cause mental retardation, not just heredity.
_____ 7. Gifted children are quick to learn highly abstract symbols with great speed
and they can deduce complex relationships.
_____ 8. Very intelligent people are usually socially incompetent geeks.

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_____ 9. The more intelligent a person is, the closer he is to madness
_____ 10. Research has shown that children’s IQ can be improved through
enrichment education.
III. Fill in the blanks.

_____ 1. The triarchic theory of intelligence advocates the concept of (___)
intelligence which bears both a universal aspect and the quality of
adaptation.
_____ 2. (___) intelligence is a combination of acquired knowledge and developed
intellectual skills.
_____ 3. If intelligence is difficult to define, it must be equally difficult to (___).
_____ 4. (___) age refers to one’s actual age.
_____ 5. The age of most people who can perform a particular test item
successfully is called the (___) age.
_____ 6. Intelligence tests were originally intended to predict how much students
would profit from (___).
_____ 7. Rosenthal’s study of school performance suggested that the teacher’s
(___) may have affected the performance of the students.
_____ 8. One type of mental retardation that is caused by a chromosome
abnormality is called (___).
_____ 9. The IQ level of near geniuses is in the range of about (___).
_____ 10. Marked improvement in (___) can be achieved by environmental
stimulation.
IV. Enumeration.
1. Identify the three distinct forms of intelligence in Sternberg’s theory.
2. Identify the eight types of intelligences in Gardner’s theory.

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PYB 101 / Psych 1
Module II
Lesson 2: PERSONALITY
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to answer the following questions:
1. What are the various theories of personality in psychology today?
2. Is there a way to measure personality?
3. How can the Filipino personality be described?
4. What are the indicators of a mature personality?
5. How can we improve our improving personality?

 Origin of Personality: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o72551HqNlw
 Personality Testing: http://haveford.edupsychperspsycpage.html
There are many terms in psychology that we have often used in everyday situations
but “personality” seems to be a term that is not only overused but misconstrued as well.
How many times have you heard the following remarks?
“Wala namang kapersona-personalidad iyong nangliligaw sa kanya.” (Her suitor
has no personality.)
“Okay sana iyong kaibigan mo, pero kung magtatayo ay talagang walang
personalidad.” (Your friend is OK except that the way he bears himself shows
that he has no personality.)
What does the layman understand of the term “personality?” Apparently, the
speakers of the foregoing statements regard personality as facial feature, bodily posture
or the manner of dressing. In general, he regards it as the outward observed bodily
characteristics of a person. The external manifestation is not how psychology regards
personality. Personality includes a person’s enduring qualities, traits, attitudes as well
as behavior tendencies. This lesson will discuss the basic and fundamental concepts of
personality in the context of existing theories that attempt to explain its nature.
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT THEORIES OF PERSONALITY IN PSYCHOLOGY

TODAY?
There are as many definitions of personality as there are various theories regarding
it. Each definition is based on how the proponent of the theory views personality. But in
the interest of simplicity, only a few representative theories are presented here. Chaplin
and Krawiec (1979) grouped representative theories into the following:

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1. The psychoanalysis, as represented by Sigmund Freud.
2. The factorial, as represented by Raymund B. Cattell.
3. The individual, as represented by Gordon W. Allport.
4. The personalistic, as represented by Henry A. Murray.
5. The behavioristic, as represented by Burrhus F. Skinner.
The Psychoanalytic Theory

Sigmund Freud is the forerunner of the psychoanalytic theory. Experts say that of all
the theories of personality, it is psychoanalysis which has dominated the 20 th century. It
has profoundly influenced the fields of psychology, as well as art, literature, ethics,
philosophy and other related disciplines.
Freud’s structure of personality centers on the id, ego and superego, which are all
interrelated in many ways. The id is the most, known of the three, but Freud says that it
consists of a mass of wild, blind instincts that does not have direction. He says that it is
“chaos, a cauldron of seething excitement.” It is the raw, savage part of personality. It
has no logical sense of time, no sense of values, and it cannot distinguish between
good and evil.
Freud drew the id from dreams and neurotic symptom foundation because its
processes are unconscious. The id is the unconscious portion of personality that has
become its driving force. The Freudian point of view regards libido as the important
instinct in the id. Libido is defined by Freud as the bodily and mental aspects of the sex
instinct. It is the mental desire and longing for sexual relations. Libido has been used by
Freud to include behavior and motivational phenomena not considered sexual by
others. He calls all of these similar aspects as eros (life instinct) which includes self-love
(narcissism), love for others (altruism), “the instinct for self-preservation, the desire to
propagate the species, and the tendency to realize one’s potentialities.” On the other
hand, Freud says that man has also the tendency to destroy himself and to destroy
others. He calls this thanatos (death instinct). These are all manifestations of the id.
The ego is the other aspect of personality. It is the realistic portion of personality by
virtue of its nearness to the external world. Freud says that the ego serves the purpose
of receiving stimuli and protecting the organism like the cortial layer with which a particle
of living substance surrounds it. When the id is in the ascendancy, out to display its raw
nature such as in a man with lustful desire toward a girl, the ego comes out dominantly
to remind this man of the reality that this sexual desire will result in a legal case for him.
In the real world a man does not just cohabit with anyone if the said girl is not his wife.
The ego performs a protective seal over the id. The ego then dethrones the pleasure
principles of the id and makes the reality principle prevail. Chaplin and Krawiec (1979)
explain that the ego is the logical, ordered aspect of personality. It possesses the
organizational, critical, and synthesizing abilities to make a “life of reason despite the

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fundamentality animalistic nature of man.” The ego, however, derives power from the id,
and the main function of the former is to meet the demands of the latter realistically. The
ego is like an executive whose powers have been derived from the id.
The third aspect in the structure of personality is the superego, regarded as the
conscience of man. Freud believes that the moral and judicial aspects of the superego
come mainly from internalization of parental restrictions, prohibitions, and customs
through the process of identification. For this reason, the child’s superego is modeled on
that his parent’s superego, not on his own ego. In this way, the superego becomes the
vehicle which hands racial traditions from generation to generation. A tendency for
perfection emanates from the superego.
The id, ego and superego are a triumvirate that structures personality in the thinking
of Freud. They are not in harmony, however, as the id and the superego are in constant
quarrel. The id wants to press its carnal, savage desires but the superego thrusts its
moralistic pressures all on the ego. As Freud puts it, the ego has to serve three harsh
masters, and it has to meet the demands of the three if it has to maintain its position in
society.
Due to the demands of the id that the ego cannot satisfy, the latter experiences
anxieties. When, on the other hand, it satisfied the id, the superego punishes the ego by
inflicting on it a sense of guilt and inferiority. Thus, a tug-of-war results, making the ego
employ defense mechanisms. The id is considered the biological component of
personality, the ego the psychological, and the superego the social.
The chief criticisms of Freud’s psychoanalysis are his unbiased samples, his
uncritical acceptance of his patient’s statements, and his instinct-oriented approach to
personality (Lamberth, 1980). Nevertheless, Freud’s chief attributes lie on his concept of
unconscious determination of much of our behavior, his casual determinism, and his
emphasis on childhood as the critical period for personality development.
The Factorial Theory

Raymund B. Cattell, its chief exponent, defined personality as “that which permits a
prediction of what a person will do in a given situation.” He started by identifying the
possible units of description and measurement of behavior of the individual in his
natural environment. He identified the types and traits in the behavior of people. He
believed that the trait approach is the most fruitful in describing personality. He defines
traits as “characterological or relatively permanent features of personality” (Chaplin and
Krawiec, 1979).
He drew two types of traits, the surface and the source. Surface traits are those
observed descriptive units that people demonstrate as they carry on their daily chores
and as they solve their problems. This being the case, there is a large number of
surface traits. Source traits, on the other hand, are deeper, less variable, and more

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significant aspects of personality.
In the factor analysis conducted by Cattell, there appeared 20 source traits which
were later reduced to 16 now known as the Sixteen Personality Factors. A personality
test was developed known as the 16PF personality test. This instrument is a popular
test in the country. It measures the personality of the individual in terms of 16 bi-polar
traits
 Reserved - Outgoing  Trusting - Suspicious
 Less Intelligent - More Intelligent  Practical - Imaginative
 Emotional - Stable  Forthright - Shrewd
 Humble - Assertive  Placid - Apprehensive
 Sober - Happy-go-lucky  Conservative - Experimenting
 Expedient - Conscientious  Group-tied - Self-sufficiency
 Shy - Venturesome  Casual - Controlled
 Tough-minded - Tender-minded  Relaxed - Tense
Theory of Individuality
Gordon W. Allport’s definition of personality is: “It is the dynamic organization within
the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his characteristics
behavior and thought” (Hall and Lindzey, 1970). Dynamic organization means that
personality is developing, changing organization that reflects motivational conditions.
Psycho-physical refers to habits, attitudes, and traits. All port recognized that both
bodily and mental factors must be considered in the description and study of
personality. Systems, on the other hand, refer to complexes of more elemental
processes while characteristics refer to the uniqueness of each individual’s behavior.
Lastly, behavior and thought refer to whatever an individual may do. Fehr (1983)
classifies Allport’s theory still as traits, but Chaplin and Krawiec (1979) regard it as the
psychology of the individual. Allport believes that personality is not just a congeries
aggregation or collection of unrelated traits, but that it also demonstrates a unity and
integration of traits.
The Personalistic Theory

Henry A. Murray defines personality as “the governing organ of the body, an
institution, which, from birth to death, is ceaselessly engaged in transformative
functional operations” (Hall and Lindzey, 1970). The major relevant theme in Murray’s
theory is his emphasis on the physiological ground of personality. Murray, a doctor,
says that personality is located in the brain. He is the exponent of the expression “no
brain, no personality.” Throughout his writings, he has chosen to anchor personality
firmly in the brain.

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He is strongly oriented toward a view which gives adequate weight to the past of the
organism, to the organizing function of personality, to the recurrent and novel features
of the individual’s behavior, to the abstract or conceptual nature of personality, and to
the physiological process underlying the psychological one (Fehr, 1983).
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was devised by Murray primarily in order to
uncover the unconscious state of the individual. Murray is also famous for his regnancy,
i.e. locating or referring all psychological processes to brain function. In this connection,
he says that all conscious processes are regnant but not all processes are conscious.
The Person-Centered or Ego-Integrated Theory

A humanistic theorist, Carl Rogers is the chief exponent of this theory, although
Abraham Maslow with his principles of self-actualization and self-realization is also
aligned with the humanist movement. Maslow with his Dynamic Health Psychology is a
theorist, while Rogers is a therapist who has devoted most of his career to the study
and treatment of disturbed people.
Roger’s self-theory is considered unique in the sense that it grew directly out of
clinical practice. The self-theory consist of positive self-regard which refers to attitudes
of warmth, respect, liking, and acceptance on the part of others toward the self and
similar attitudes with regard to one’s own experiences independent of social
transactions with others. What Rogers wants to say is that every healthy individual
needs both types of regard, social and personal, that the individual cannot be normal
and cannot function adequately if he does not experience regard for others as well as
realistic sense of his own worth (Lamberth, 1980).
Rogers formulated ten characteristics of a normal, fully functioning person. He
described the tendency of the fully functioning individual to live in harmony because of
the rewarding character of reciprocal positive regard. The fully functioning person is
“one who has achieved an optimal adjustment in his interpersonal relations.” In this
regard, he agrees with Maslow that the most important motivational force for all
mankind is the tendency to actualize.
The Behavioristic Theory

The chief exponent of this theory is Burrhus F. Skinner who proposed his theory by
describing rules or principles that govern the relationship between stimuli, responses,
and reinforcements. He assumes that behavior is orderly and that our primary purpose
is to control it. He believes that Freud’s concept of the id, libido, and repression are
sources of confusion since they are difficult to test and are not useful in dealing with the
behavior of the individual. Skinner assumes that all behavior is learned and that
reinforcement plays a major role in it.
In view of this, he opts for controlled experiments. Skinner’s experimental reports

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were made in terms of individual records. He was not after average results. He
considered the individual behavior as more basic. This view is different from that of an
ordinary experimenter who observes and measures group performance.
After presenting the various theories of personality, we shall now define personality
without considering a particular theorist. Fehr (1983) recommends the following
definition:
Personality involves those dimensions of the individual which either depict his uniqueness or
his commonalities with others. These dimensions form a consistent and enduring pattern in a
manner that determines the behaviors and thoughts of the individual and facilitates the accurate
prediction of behavior in a wide variety of interpersonal situations.
IS THERE A WAY TO MEASURE PERSONALITY?
Personality assessment
Fehr (1983) defines personality assessment as any effort to systematically
comprehend, predict, and or explain the personality characteristics of a person or of a
group of people. There are two main kinds of instruments used to assess personality –
objective tests and projective tests.
Objective tests
MMPI. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is one of the most
extensively used and most firmly established personality inventories. It consists of 550
affirmative statements to which the testee must respond with “True,” “False,” or “Cannot
Say” responses. Constructed by Charles McKinley and Starkek Hathaway in 1930, the
items on the MMPI cover a wide variety ofsubjects including social attitudes, family
relationships, overall health, phobias, etc. It involves ten basic clinical scales. One
advantage of the MMPI over other trait inventories is that it possesses four validity
scales.
16 PF. The 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire. Developed by Raymund B. Cattell,
this instrument consists of 16 source traits drawn from a great number of surface traits
through factor analysis. It consists of 187 items. Each item contains three choices,
namely, “Yes,” “Uncertain,” and “No.” Each of the 16 factors is independent of the rest.
In the Philippines, the Child and Youth Research Center has established Philippine
norms for this test; the 16 PF has been used extensively by Filipino researchers.
The California Psychological Inventory. This test is derived in part from the MMPI
by Harrison Gough in the 1950’s. It aims to remedy some alleged weaknesses of the
MMPI. The variables that it measures are the order of dominance, socialization,
femininity. Designed for use among normal people, it contains 480 items designed to
tap personality characteristics that are important determinants of the ability of people to
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function in a world in which social interactional skills are critical. The scoring of the CPI
is an objective as that of both the MMPI and the 16 PF. The results, however, need
interpretation by an experienced psychologist.
Others. Other models of assessing personality include the following: Kelly’s Role
Construct Repertory Test, Edwards Personal Preference Schedule which is used by
Filipino researchers, semantic differential, Personal Orientation Inventory, Q- sort list.
There are also methods of naturalistic observation, experimental observation,
biofeedback techniques, word-association tests, situational tests, and bodily
characteristics.
Projective Tests. Projective tests have undergone heavy criticism for their lack of
reliability. These tests are never used alone in determining personality types or
qualities. Nevertheless, they are still used alongside objective tests. Projective
techniques are the least direct measuring devices that psychologists use in an attempt
to tap elements of the unconscious mind. It is the repository for events long forgotten,
which are in the unconscious mind. The two most popular projective techniques are the
Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test. Projective tests cannot be
administered by an examiner who has no previous training on the instrument. Students
in the graduate school study Rorschach techniques for two semesters and still find
themselves grouping in their actual encounter with the instrument because it is rather
difficult to score and interpret. In the United States, the use of projective tests is waning,
as more reliable and easier tests take their place. Clinicians nowadays use projective
tests mainly as an interactional tool to build rapport as well as get information from the
stories their clients would otherwise using another procedure.
Rorschach Inkblot Test. The Rorschach Inkblot Test was developed by Hermann
Rorschach, a Swiss psychologist in the early 1920’s. Rorschach experimented with
thousands of inkblots but settled for only 10. He died, however, at an early age before
his work could be completed. In this test, the person who is taking it is asked to tell what
these inkblots look like to him, what they remind him of, or what they represent. Within
these limits, wide latitude is provided as to the number, manner, location, and content of
the responses given.
The first or free association phase of the test administration is followed by a more
directed inquiry during which the examiner attempts to ascertain the areas and features
of the blots which have given rise to the responses elicited. The two phases, therefore,
are the free association and the inquiry.
Once this is done, the responses are scored in terms of location, determinant, and
content. On top of the categories, the interpreter pays attention to the emotional tone of
the responses, their organizational features, their possible symbolic meaning, and many
other characteristics. On the basis of all this information, the test interpreter attempts to
arrive at the whole picture of the person in terms of the unconscious.
Holtzman Inkblot Test. The Holtzman Inkblot Test is considered more streamlined
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in that it has only one response to a card, one scoring system, and a qualitative scoring
for 22 variables. It is time consuming; however, it is considered a psychometric
improvement over the Rorschach. Consisting of 45 cards, the test allows an inquiry
conducted immediately following each response. Since it has 45 cards, it provides for a
wider assortment of stimuli. Moreover, the Holtzman cards are more varied than those
of the Rorschach in terms of style, location, color, and shading. The examiner, in this
regard, is permitted to ask only three types of questions: location, characteristics of the
percept, and elaboration. Scoring is done in terms of twenty-two variables.
Thematic Apperception Test. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was
developed by Henry Murray. The TAT consist of 19 cards containing ambiguous black-
and-white pictures and one blank card. There are four sets of these cards for use of
boys, girls, women and men. The respondent/examinee is asked to make a story to fit
each picture, telling what is happening at the moment and what the characters are
feeling and thinking, and giving the outcome. A major problem of the TAT, shared by
many other projective tests, is that there are many approaches to its scoring which can
confuse not just psychology students and professional psychologists as well.
Sentence Completion Test. In this technique, the individual is presented a series of
beginning sentences that he is asked to complete. All sentence completions are
intended as bases for drawing inferences about the client’s fantasies, conflicts, and
thoughts. When the test is used clinically, the individual’s sentence completions are
usually not analyzed qualitatively according to a scoring system. Rather, they are used
as data from which interpretative hypotheses are made. The list below shows some
aspects of the individual’s responses which can be measured by the sentence
completion test:
1. Attitude expressed toward individuals important in the life of the subject, such
as mother, boss, or wife;
2. Attitudes expressed with regard to the subject’s past life history;
3. Source of conflicts;
4. Linguistic and stylistic aspect of the subject’s past life;
5. Personal problems and attitudes toward them;
6. Possible unconscious tensions and conflicts;
7. Ways in which affect is expressed; and
8. Degree of contact with reality.
Advantages of the sentence-completion test are its simplicity and ease of
administration. Moreover, clinicians find it easier to interpret. Scoring the responses
means rating the intensity of the subject’s affect, the conflicts implied in his responses,
and his general levels of adjustment.

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HOW CAN THE FILIPINO PERSONALITY BE DESCRIBED?
Virgilio Enriquez (1978), recognized as the Father of Filipino Psychology, said that
the question “Who is the Filipino?” cannot be adequately answered. A definition of the
Filipino on the basis of birth, geographic origins or blood is inadequate from the
psychological point of view. He suggests that in answering this question, attention
should be focused on the Filipino identity, image, and consciousness. The Filipino
identity is not static; it is varied as his background.
Another noted Filipino psychologist, Angelina E. Ramirez, once said that there is no
such thing as the Filipino personally akin only to Filipinos. Filipinos have common
personality characteristics with other races of the world. Perhaps, if we noted how
Filipinos solve their problems, we shall have an insight into their personality.
This confounds the issue specially when we wish to describe the behavior of the
Filipino. At most what we can do now is to present some Filipino traits and
characteristics with the aim in view of understanding how the Filipino solves his
problems of adjusting to his social and natural environment. This is our way of
describing the Filipino personality.
Hiya
Hiya is a concept which has been extensive usage in the Philippine context. Fr.
Jaime Bulatao, a psychologist based at the Ateneo de Manila who investigated the
concept of hiya, defined it as a “painful emotion arising from a relationship with an
authority figure or with society, inhibiting self-assertion in a situation which is perceived
as dangerous to one’s ego.” It is a kind of anxiety, a fear of being left exposed,
unprotected and unaccepted. It is a fear of abandonment, of “loss of soul,” a loss not
only of one’s possessions or even of one’s life, but of something perceived as more
valuable than life itself, namely the ego, the self.
Bulatao explains hiya by posing its uses in society. Bulatao says that hiya
demonstrates unity within the culture as well as a distance setting mechanism between
individuals. It is an inferior form of morality but it has a place in society. It is a virtue, but
too much of it is a vice.
He further shows evidence of the characteristics of hiya by enumerating a profile of
the Filipino he drew from a study that he conducted comparing American college boys
and girls with Filipino college boys and girls using the Edwards Personal Schedule (a
personality assessment tool.)
 Low Exhibitionism: Retiringness within the group
 Low Autonomous: Dependency
 High Succorance, High Nurturance: Value for close emotional ties
 Low Affiliation: Fear of face-to-face relations with strangers

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 High Abasement, High Dominance: Preference for a system of strong
personal controls, authoritarianism
 Low Heterosexuality: Strong social taboos on public manifestation of sex
 High Aggression: Suppressed, hostile needs, probably resulting from
prohibitions and controls
 Low Change, High Order: Need for a highly structured, traditional
environment
Ningas kugon
Arjona (Enriquez, 1978) says that this characteristics is true for our country because
of foreign domination. Along with it, the mañana habit is believed to be Filipino. Ningas
kugon means starting something and being optimistic about it but not being able to
finish it. Mañana habit indicates that custom of postponing for tomorrow what can be
done today. Arjona observes that Filipinos are enthusiastic as a people but the question
of finishing what has been started is something else. These are bad habits that prevent
people from marching on to progress.
Bahala na
Paguio (Enriquez, 1978) observes that one of our weakest spots is the bahala na
attitude. He claims that this is one reason for the poverty of many people in the country.
He says that bahala na is Filipino fatalism of pre-Spanish origin. Sociologists claim that
bahala na strips people of their ambition in life and any desire to uplift their living
conditions. It also means resignation to whatever lot he has in life.
On the other hand, Quisumbing (Enriquez, 1978) states that bahala na is a useful
psychological mechanism that helps cushion the ego against failure and
disappointment. It also gives the individual confidence in God and confidence in himself.
Hospitality
Estrada (Enriquez, 1978) presents hospitality as an object of beauty in the Filipino.
She says that when he receives and entertains visitors, he does it in measures of
limitless height, breadth, and depth. We just need to observe people around us in order
to know what the nature of hospitality is. Estrada says that the spirit that dominates
Filipino hospitality is the same among the poor and the rich.
While hospitality has its merits, it also has its disadvantages foremost of which is
that the host who entertains the visitors finds the ritual very expensive. Moreover,
sometimes he is deprived of the main conveniences in his house just to give way to the
needs of his guests.

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Utang na loob.
Senden (Enriquez, 1978) says that utang na loob is practiced with the expectation of
something in return. It is one type of reciprocity which compels the recipient to show his
gratitude properly by returning the favor with interest to be sure that he does not remain
in the other’s debt. Every Filipino is supposed to possess utang na loob; that is, he
should be aware of his obligations to those from whom he receives favors and should
repay them in an acceptable manner. Hiya is also involved in utang na loob in the sense
that gifts or services are paid by the recipient to one he owes something from, and that
hiya occurs when he is not able to comply with it.
Smooth Interpersonal Relations (SIR)

Lynch (Enriquez, 1978) observes that for an American who has just arrived in the
country, the most striking quality manifested by Filipinos is their pleasantness. SIR is
achieved and preserved by three means: namely, pakikisama, euphemism, and the use
of a go-between.
Pakikisama means giving in, following in lead or suggestion of another. One very
obvious event among some people is that when a man is offered liquor, he should not
refuse it even when he does not drink at all because this is pakikisama. Or when a
person who has just moved to a new place offers food in his house for some neighbors,
the former calls this pakikisama, which is pursuing SIR.
Euphemism is defined as the statement of an unpleasant truth, opinion or request as
pleasantly as possible. There are many terms that a Filipino cannot say directly
because he may hurt the feelings of his listener. Instead of doing this, he couches what
he wants to say in very careful, sweet language. Not all Filipinos demonstrate this
behavior, however, but Lynch says that this behavior, seemingly, is dominant.
Lynch states another SIR device, which is the use of a go-between. He says that his
has a long history in Philippine society and it still enters into many facets of daily living.
The use of a go-between indicates that a third party is used to assuage a bruise, heal a
wound, or prevent an injury. In fact, it is common today for a person to look for a
“padrino” (sponsor or middle-man) in anything he does or in any office he goes to for
this matter. For example, if you would like to go to a government office for a business,
you might still look for a friend or acquaintance who knows the person you will go to.
Your objective perhaps is to avoidembarrassment in approaching a person you do not
know since you wish to avoid hiya in your face-to-face encounter with him. In short, you
would like to employ a middle man or intermediary.
Strong Family Ties

This is another Filipino value wherein kinship relationship within a family, both
nuclear and extended, is very strong. The nuclear family, consists of the father, the

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mother, and the children while the extended family includes parents, siblings, cousins,
uncles, aunts, grandparents and in-laws. Thus, a so-called Filipino family is usually
large. This size of the family explains the presence of strong family ties.
WHAT ARE THE INDICATORS OF A MATURE PERSONALITY?
An Effective Personality
One’s personality is considered effective when a person’s behavior manifests
successful adjustment to a given area of his environment. As stated by Shoben, “The
individual who is congruent to the model of integrative adjustment, elicits a positive
reaction from others, and comes to acquire wisdom rather than bitterness or withdraw
from frustration.” The key to a good personality is the ability to adjust equally well to
various types of life situations.
Mature Personality
Mature personality development requires the wholistic blending of the physical,
mental, emotional and spiritual aspects of life. CA Sanchez (1987) summarized the
general agreement of behavioral scientists that the following are the indicators of a
mature personality:
1. A mature person accepts responsibilities; he does not shrink from duties.
2. He accepts an unpleasant task, considering it as a normal or ordinary
experience which shapes his life.
3. He does not nurse grudges. Instead he tries to understand others and does
not insist on being understood by them.
4. He is amiable and enjoys the company of many different persons. He tries to
remember every person not by his imperfections but by the desirable qualities
he finds in him. Thus the friendship is long-lasting.
5. He does not expect his fellowmen to be perfect since he knows that everyone
is subject to human frailties.
6. A mature individual has lots of patience and perseverance towards work since
he is aware of the fact that it requires time before he can profit from them.
7. He/she can accept, even enlist help, considering this not a sign of weakness
but of maturity.
8. He/she has tolerance. This is the capacity to listen to another person’s point
of view and to try to understand his values. He allows others to enjoy the
experience of their opinion and beliefs.
9. He/she profits from constructive criticisms. He takes criticism as an ordinary
outlet for improving his qualities or discarding those unpleasantness that the
majority see in him.
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10. He/she knows that he cannot always be dependent upon his parents for
support. Earning will be his next step to be able to run his own life. A mature
individual then tends to increase his responsibility, especially at the time he
has his own family.
11. He/she works with long range plan. Erlich (1967) expresses the view that a
person who has a mature personality is one whose work is motivated by a
long range plan. For instance, a young married couple is said to be working
with a long range plan if they take steps for the future of their children.
12. Experts are one in their view that a mature person has courage to do right
when others around him/her are doing wrong. He/she has a strong
determination not to do a thing he/she fully knows will destroy himself and
others.
This frame of reference may help anyone who is sufficiently motivated to check
his/her typical modes of response with a view to working out a systematic plan of
improving one’s personality. Healthy interpersonal relationships are good for personality
development. It pays to learn to like people, understand them, learn to be considerate
and learn to be socially skillful with them. Improving one’s personality in a sincere and
lasting way will be much work, but will be fun, too, because it centers your attention
upon people, yourself, and others. We can improve our personality by trying to develop
in ourselves a mature personality.
HOW CAN WE IMPROVE OUR IMPROVING PERSONALITY?
There are some factors that have been instrumental in the development of one’s
personality. When you observe that your friend is irritable at most times, that he is highly
sensitive, and he shows a great of imperfection in his behavior, instead of hating him
what you can do is probably study how he developed his personality.
 Biological factors - The personality type is not carried through the genes, but the
tendencies are. This is what you call predispositions. A person may be
predisposed by his genes to have a certain pattern of behavior. A person may
also has some kind of endocrine malfunction that is causing errant behavior.
Sickness can also contribute to such behavior or attitude.
 Psychological Factors - Factors such as intelligence, aptitudes, and maturation
singly or collectively affects personality.
 Cultural Factors - The culture in which the individual has been brought up affects
the production of personality types. You should know, for example, that the
Philippine culture has its own mores, values, and expectations. Therefore, our
culture can help determine our personality.
 Family - Closest to you is your family with its pattern of thinking, relating

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members to one another, including their values. The way your parents regard
you and everyone in the family can be a casual factor in the development of your
personality. The training and guidance your parents and older siblings give you
may also be a factor. Moreover, your parents’ own behaviors are models that you
imitate consciously, and more often, unconsciously.
Aspects of Personality
Personality development can be undertaken in six aspects namely: physical, mental,
emotional, social, moral and spiritual. These are:
 The Physical Aspect: Heredity and environment determine the whole
physiological system. The physical appearance of a person comprises the
posture, body, build and size, complexion and facial expression. It also includes
the manner and appropriateness of dressing.
 The Mental Aspect: The mental aspect depends upon the intelligence of the
individual; the better the education; the better the personality. Evidences of
his/her intellectual capacity include: the way he/she talks, the range of ideas
he/she expresses, the things the person talks about and the person’s values and
mental alertness.
 The Emotional Aspect: The emotional make-up of an individual is shown by
his/her likes and dislikes, whether he is aggressive or docile, how he/she
responds when thing become difficult, how quickly he/she is given to anger,
whether he/she can take a job or not, what kind of sense of humor he/she
possesses, and the like.
 The Social Aspect: This has to do with social contract. It is how a person
conducts himself with other people and how well he observes the rules of
etiquette that govern society. Sociable, approachable, and friendly individuals
know how to get along with friends and foes.
 The Spiritual Aspect: An awareness of the higher values in life. Spiritual value is
expressed in religion. People vary in choosing what to worship and the manner of
worship.
 The Moral Aspect: An awareness of what is wrong and what is right.

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PYB 101 / Psych 1
Module II, Lesson 2
I. Matching Type.
Column A Column B
_____ 1. Personalistic theory a. Gordon Allport
_____ 2. Psychoanalysis b. Raymund Cattell
_____ 3. Behaviorism c. Harrison Gough
_____ 4. Factorial theory d. Hermann Rorschach
_____ 5. MMPI test e. B.F. Skinnner
_____ 6. Individual trait theory f. George Kelly
_____ 7. CPI test g. Sigmund Freud
_____ 8. Ego-integrated theory h. Henry Murray
_____ 9. Role Construct Repertory Test i. Carl Rogers
_____ 10. Ink blot test j. McKinley & Hatthaway
II. True or False. Write TRUE if the statement is True. If it is False,

_____ 1. Gordon Allport claimed that personality is like developing, changing
organization.
_____ 2. Murray believed that human personality could not be located in the brain.
_____ 3. Rogers believed that the fully functioning person is one who has achieved
an optimal adjustment in his interpersonal relations.
_____ 4. Skinnner’s view of the human person was based on experiments and
individual records.
_____ 5. All Filipino psychologists agree that Filipinos have a unique personality as
a people.
_____ 6. Quisumbing claimed that the Filipino value of “bahala na” is a useful
psychological mechanism that helps cushion the ego against failure and
disappointment.
_____ 7. Every Filipino is supposed to possess to be aware of his obligations to
those from whom he receives favors and should repay them in an
acceptable manner.

71
_____ 8. According to Lynch, there are many terms that a Filipino does not say
directly because he may hurt the feelings of his listener.
_____ 9. A Filipino puts great value on kinship relationship only within the nuclear
family
_____ 10. A mature person accepts responsibilities and does not shrink from duties.
III. Fill in the blanks.

_____ 1. In psychoanalysis, the structure of personality is the superego which is
regarded as the (___) of man.
_____ 2. Freud defined (___) as the bodily and mental aspects of the sex instinct.
_____ 3. Cattell claimed that there were two types of personality traits - the surface
and the (___).
_____ 4. Rogers agreed with Maslow that the most important motivational force for
all mankind is the tendency to (___).
_____ 5. The two types of measurements of personality are the objective test and
the (___) test.
_____ 6. The Filipino term “(___)” means giving in, following in lead or suggestion
of another.
_____ 7. (___) is defined as the statement of an unpleasant truth, opinion or
request as pleasantly as possible.
_____ 8. An individual’s personality is considered effective when his behavior
manifests successful (___) to a given area of his environment.
_____ 9. Mature personality development requires the holistic blending of the
physical, mental, (___) and spiritual aspects of life.
_____ 10. (___) includes a person’s enduring qualities, traits, attitudes as well as
behavior tendencies.
IV. Enumeration.
1. Identify 7 values upheld in Filipino culture.
2. Identify 5 aspects of personality development that can be undertaken to improve
yourself.

72
PYB 101 / Psych 1
Module II
Lesson 3: ATTITUDES and ATTITUDE CHANGES
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to answer the following questions:
1. What do we mean by an attitude?
2. What is the importance of attitudes?
3. How are attitudes formed?
4. How are attitudes measured and assessed?
5. Does your attitude determine your behavior?

 Ten Ways to Improve your Attitude:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KlzL2ocQl5I
WHAT DO WE MEAN BY AN ATTITUDE?
Definition
An attitude can be defined as a tendency to react positively or negatively towards an
object in the social environment (e.g. a policy, a group, an event, or an abstract entity
such as religion). Each person has a unique set of attitudes different from any other
individual. Attitude is composed of three basic components – thinking, feeling, and
reacting. The first aspect (cognitive) corresponds to belief; the second aspect (affective)
is related to evaluation of the attitude object; and the third aspect (behavioral) is a
predisposition or action towards the object.
Positive and negative attitudes

Attitudes are learned predispositions (positive or negative). An attitude may include
prejudice, which refers to a negative judgment about the object of the attitude based on
insufficient and inadequate grounds. Many common impressions may actually be a
form of prejudice – such as attitudes towards some kind of nationality or social status.
Discrimination
Discrimination usually follows a prejudice. Whereas prejudice is an attitude,
discrimination is manifest behavior. Discrimination refers to the behavior of treating one
person or group in an unfavorable or unfair way.

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WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE OF ATTITUDE?
Our attitudes are strongly influence our behavior

Our attitudes are important factors of our behavior. It can be said that in general,
positive or negative attitudes toward certain things are manifested in behavior. For
example, a person interested in his job arrives at his place of work on time, works with
enthusiasm, asks pertinent questions so that he may improve his performance, and
unwarily works beyond departure time. On the other hand, the young child who has a
negative attitude towards schooling could successfully feign sickness to avoid attending
class, or fabricate unpleasant experiences with classmates or probably with his teacher
which can justify the cutting-class behavior he is exhibiting.
Our attitudes influence our social perceptions and vice versa.

Smith (1982) points out that social perception and social attitude are interdependent,
each affecting the other. Advertising campaigns of large corporations dedicate
enormous outlays and great deal of effort toward getting people to buy their products.
Government agencies work to create attitudes about protecting the national economy by
using less electricity and by walking more instead of using cars to be able to save on
gasoline, etc. Schools try hard to change student’s study habits and wasteful use of
time. Sons and daughters of the family try very hard to convince their parents to
increase their allowance, towards liking their hair or hair styles, or towards accepting
their friends and weekend activities.
Our behavior can be predicted from our attitudes.

The way we behave shapes our attitudes. Suppose that during the Japanese
occupation of the country a young Filipino witnessed how some of his countrymen were
maltreated by Japanese soldiers; hence his being greatly prejudiced against the
Japanese. Years later, this Filipino was sent to Japan on a scholarship for further
studies in veterinary microbiology. He had pleasant and gainful experiences with
Japanese students taking the same course. Because of his happy associations in that
country he may become less prejudiced against the Japanese. His changed behavior
has brought about changed attitudes as well. However, our attitudes do not always
produce a corresponding behavior if the conditions do not permit the behavior from
happening.
Attitudes can have a strong and lasting impact on individuals, groups, and
societies.
Lamberth (1980) mentioned that people’s attitudes have far-reaching and important
ramifications for an individual, a group, and society. Individuals are usually attracted to
others whose attitudes toward certain things and events are similar to theirs. Close
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friends generally enjoy the same activities such as sports, reading novels, watching
movies, attending gatherings, and so on.
When attitudes are prejudiced or in other ways inaccurate, they can lead to group
tensions and conflict. Years ago, religious prejudice against non-Christians brought
about conflicts between Christians and non-Christians that up to this day have not been
fully resolved. Political prejudices against unfair government practices are allegedly the
main causes of popular youth rallies here and in other countries.
Attitudes help us cope with the world around us

On the whole, attitudes and their associated belief systems (a belief is a judgment
that a proposition is true or false) help us cope with the world. Sartain (1972) points out
that attitudes as interpretations and evaluations of reality provide a basis on which we
can make decisions and act on motivationally relevant matters. As long as our attitudes
and beliefs enable us to deal with our environment adequately, we are likely to accept
them as valid.
HOW ARE ATTITUDES FORMED?
Basic learning processes

Sartain, Morgan and Lamberth and other theorists on attitudes lean heavily on the
learned aspect of attitudes and very highly on genetic factors. Lamberth mentions that
attitudes are learned through three basic ways: classical conditioning, instrumental
conditioning, and imitation.
Parents hold certain attitudes and early in life, children likewise ascribe to the same
position even though their parents have not specifically tried to teach them. These are,
quite possibly, learned by association with pleasant things that occur in social settings in
families – in naturally occurring forms of classical conditioning.
Attitudes are learned through instrumental conditioning when some desired behavior
is reinforced and/or some undesired behavior is punished. An instrumental component
is generally involved in attitude formation in real life situations. Children are often
reinforced for being nice or polite by social and material rewards; they are often
punished for being rude or discourteous.
Studies by Albert Bandura (1965) confirmed that the learned associations can also
be acquired by mere observation. For example, observing another people hurt in a
traffic accident serves to make us more careful along busy roads. We may adopt the
attitudes of our parents or other people close to us because we see how important
those attitudes of our parents or other people close to us because we see how
important those attitudes are to them and feel we and other individuals can benefit from
them too.
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Imitation by modeling is another basic process in the formation of attitudes. Attitudes
can be learned by mere observation of others, i.e., by watching a model. For example,
in school, when a pupil spanks another pupil, a third child may spank the second pupil
also. This is because the third child observes that this is possible. The second child
becomes the object of bullying. The third child learns this through limitation. He forms a
bad attitude.
Major Influences in Attitude Formation

Parental influences primarily shape children’s attitudes from birth to puberty. Morgan
cites studies that showed high correlation in attitudes of children and their parents. The
attitudes of the very young reflect parental influences that obviously have long-lasting
effects.
From twelve to thirty years, the critical period in attitude formation, parental
influences wane and other social influences become increasingly important with the
beginning of adolescence. This starts the critical period of attitude formation which ends
at about 30, whereby most of the person’s attitudes take final form and change little
thereafter. At this time the three main factors that influence the formation of attitudes
after the age of 30 are the news, other media sources, and education.
HOW ARE ATTITUDES MEASURED AND ASSESSED?
There are techniques of attitude measurement. In this lesson we discuss two of

these.
Thurstone Scales
These scales are named after Leonard Thurstone who devised them. Favorable and
unfavorable statements toward an object (e.g. a political opinion, war), are sorted into
eleven categories, where category 1 represents the favorable extreme. The scale value
of the items is then determined. A person taking the test is instructed to check the
statements with which he agrees. His score is the median of the scale values of the
items he has checked. In this example, a low score indicates a pro-war attitude while a
high score, an anti-war attitude. Other Thurstone scales have been developed to
measure attitudes toward the church, capitalism, various nationalities, and others.
Likert Scales
These attitude questionnaires were devised by Rensis Likert. Here, the subject
responds to items in statement forms by indicating the degree of his agreement with
these statements. For example, for the item “Female teachers are superior to male
teachers in handling kindergarten classes for boys,” the alternative to choose from

76
might be as follows:
 strongly agree  undecided  strongly disagree
 agree  disagree
The Semantic Differential Scale
The semantic differential is an instrument used in rating a concept stimulus on
bipolar scales set on seven steps from one end to the other end of the continuum.
Devised by Osgood, he and his staff have explored the power of the semantic
differential exhaustively. Osgood says that it is not a test, but a combination of
association and scaling procedures. It is a device for reporting the nature of concepts so
that you do not ask the question, “What is your concept of Mother?” “Is she hard or
soft?” or “Is she beautiful or ugly?” Instead, you rate Mother on seven-step scales. The
rationale behind the instrument is that across individuals and across concepts, semantic
dimensions vary. The instrument can thus determine the point in semantic space at
which the meaning of a certain concept may be placed. The semantic differential
measures the attitudes a person has of a certain concept.
For example, here is a scale used in the Philippines by Sevilla:
 Good - Bad  Sad - Happy
 Helpful - Unhelpful  Delicious - Unsavory
 Ugly - Beautiful  Black - White
 Clean - Dirty  Not Loving - Loving
 Dark - Bright  Faithful -Unfaithful
The statistic of positiveness and negativeness needed for the semantic differential
scales is known as the popularity analysis. This statistics has been designed primarily to
assess the degree to polarization of ratings on semantic differential scales but it is
appropriate to any situation where it is desired to test the significance of the deviation of
a sample mean from an assumed population mean. And for our purpose in measuring
attitude, the instrument can indicate the positiveness or negativeness of an attitude.
DOES YOUR ATTITUDE DETERMINE YOUR BEHAVIOR?
It seems reasonable to think that your behavior is determined by your attitude, but
that is not always true. Attitudes influence behavior but we do not always behave
according to our attitudes or beliefs. This was demonstrated in the classic study by
Richard La Pierre (1934) who showed that there was a gap between behavior and
attitude. In his study, La Pierre studied American prejudice against Chinese and
observed that even if hotel and restaurant personnel indicated (in their replies in
questionnaires) of their prejudice towards Chinese, they nevertheless continued to
serve Chinese clients. Other related studies supported the idea that prejudiced attitudes
do not always cause discrimination. It seems that your actual situation exerts a strong
77
influence whether your behavior will correspond to your attitude.
On the other hand, it has been shown that your attitude can be changed by changing
your behavior. In another classic study by Leon Festinger (1957), people were made to
do a very boring and monotonous job. Participants in the experiment were then
instructed to lie to another subject that the task was actually fun and exciting. Some
people were paid a very small amount for lying while others were paid more. It would
seem that those who were paid less would be less convinced of their own lie. However,
that was not the case. Those who were paid more actually were less convinced
because they felt that getting paid was justification enough for lying. The smaller pay
given to the other group was too insignificant to justify the lie, and the participants
instead had to convince themselves that they actually liked the job rather than face the
fact that they lied. This is similar to the defense mechanism of rationalization. Festinger
called this cognitive-dissonance. Cognitive-dissonance is an unpleasant psychological
state (dissonance) that happens when two thoughts or perceptions (cognitions)
contradict each other. It happens when there is a gap between behavior and attitude,
and if one cannot change one’s behavior, the attitude is changed instead. The subjects
in Festinger’s experiment could no longer undo what they had done so they changed
their attitude instead.
The theory of cognitive-dissonance can explain fanatical behavior of cult members
and fanatics. Even when presented with contrary evidence, fanatics refuse to change
because they have already committed their attitudes to their behavior. However, this
theory lacks predictive value. It is difficult to predict when dissonance will happen in
individuals or how people will attempt to reduce it. The theory, though, still remains
popular and handy to many psychologists studying social behavior.

78
PYB 101 / Psych 1
Module II, Lesson 3
I. True or False. Write TRUE if the statement is True. If it is False,

_____ 1. Parental influences primarily shape children’s attitudes from birth to
puberty.
_____ 2. At about 30, most of a person’s attitudes take final form and change little
thereafter.
_____ 3. Attitude usually consists of negativeness and positiveness.
_____ 4. The Semantic Differential Scale can indicate the positiveness or
negativeness of our knowledge towards something.
_____ 5. Attitudes can both be learned and unlearned.
_____ 6. Your attitude can sometimes be changed by changing your behavior first.
_____ 7. Attitudes influence behavior so we always behave according to our
attitudes or beliefs.
_____ 8. The theory of cognitive-dissonance is related to the defense mechanism of
rationalization.
_____ 9. The theory of attitude formation explains why fanatics refuse to change
even when presented with contrary evidence.
_____ 10. The Lickert Scale consists of a scale from 1 to 5 that can be used to
indicate attitude.
II. Fill in the blanks.

_____ 1. An (___) can be defined as a tendency to react positively or negatively
towards an object in the social environment.
_____ 2. Attitude is composed of three basic components – thinking, feeling, and
(___).
_____ 3. Smith pointed out that social (___) and social attitude are interdependent,
each affecting the other.
_____ 4. A (___) refers to a negative judgment about the object of the attitude
based on insufficient and inadequate grounds.
_____ 5. The behavior of treating one person or group in an unfavorable or unfair
way is called (___).

79
_____ 6. Attitudes are learned through three basic ways: classical conditioning,
instrumental conditioning, and (___).
_____ 7. Studies by (___) confirmed that the learned associations can also be
acquired by mere observation.
_____ 8. In the (___), the subject responds to items in statement forms by
indicating the degree of his agreement with these statements.
_____ 9. The (___) measures the attitudes a person has of certain concepts such
as beauty, love and faithfulness.
_____ 10. Festinger described (___) is an unpleasant psychological state that
happens when two thoughts or perceptions contradict each other.

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PYB 101 / Psych 1
Module II
Lesson 4: LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to answer the following questions:
1. How do we develop from immature infants to sexually mature adults?
2. How do we develop as social beings?
3. How do our cognitive abilities develop?
4. What is Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory moral development?
5. How do we develop from immature infants to sexually mature adults?

 Pregnancy and Birth: https://www.ourbodiesourselves.org/book-excerpts/health-
topics/pregnancy-birth/
FREUD’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSEXUAL
Freud proposed that human personality underwent developmental stages called

psychosexual stages. His theory later developed into a five-stage theory of personality
development. Freud highlighted the sex drive as a driving force in personality
development. He believed that the sex drive was a very powerful and important factor in
development. At each developmental stage, there was a particular area in the body,
which Freud called the erogenous zone that produces pleasurable feelings. Erogenous
zones are important centers that become focal points in particular stage and become
sources of conflicts during particular stages of development. If the conflict is not
resolved, it results in a fixation, i.e. the person gets stuck in a particular stage of
development. When a person is prevented from satisfying urges for pleasure at the
erogenous zones during crucial stages, his personality will be affected. Adults,
therefore, can grow up to be emotionally or psychologically immature because of
unresolved psychosexual conflicts.
Many of Freud’s theory of development are regarded as out-of-date, but many have
found use for it. Others, like Eric Erikson, expounded on the general framewok. Freud’s
theory is presented as follows:
Stage Age Erogenous zone Difficulties
Oral Birth-1.5 yrs Mouth – sucking, making noises, biting Weaning from the
mother’s breast
Anal 1.5 – 3 yrs Anus – bowel movement Toilet training
Phallic 3-6 yrs Genitals – identification of sex identity Self-image, self-esteem
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Latent 6 yrs to puberty (This stage was added by followers of Freud to fill the gap left by
Freud; Freud did not discuss this stage.)
Genital Puberty to Mature genitals – sexual behavior Immature love, sexual
death relations with partner
HOW DO WE DEVELOP AS SOCIAL BEINGS?
Being part of a community is a natural state for all human beings. How do we learn
to become part of society? Eric Erikson, a student of Sigmund Freud, expounded on
Freud’s concepts and came up with a framework of human development that is so
comprehensive and goes beyond the original Freudian theory that it deserves to be
attributed to Erikson.
Erickson's theory consists of eight stages of psychosocial development. It is is
presented as follows:
Significant Social
Stages Psychosocial Crisis Favorable Outcome
Relations
1st year of life Trust vs. Mistrust Mother or mother Trust and optimism
substitute
(Corollary to Freudian oral sensory)
2nd year Autonomy vs. doubt Parent Sense of self-control and
adequacy
(Corollary to Freudian muscular and anal stages)
3rd-5th year Initiative vs. Guilt Basic Family Purpose & direction ability to
initiate one's own activities
(Corollary to Freudian genital locomotor stage)
Sixth year to Industry vs Inferiority Neighborhood; school Competence in intellectual,
puberty social & physical skills
(Corollary to Freudian latency stage)
Adolescence Identify vs. Confusion Peer groups and out Integrated image of oneself as
groups; models of a unique person
leadership
Early adulthood Intimacy vs. Isolation Partners in friendship Ability to form close and
sex, competition lasting relationship to make
cooperation career commitments
Middle Adulthood Overactivity vs. self- Divided labor and Concern for family society &
absorption shared Household future generations
Old Age Integrity vs Despair "Mankind" A sense of fulfillment with
"My kind” one's life; willingness to face
death

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It is clearly implied in the above traits how important the early stages of development
are and its impact on the later years of development. Certain crisis in a particular stage
needs to be resolved before one makes progress to the next. Failure to do so may
"fixate" or the unresolved crisis may extend to the next level of development, thus,
affecting the development of the proceeding stages and the rest.
HOW DO OUR COGNITIVE ABILITIES DEVELOP?
Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

Very careful and extensive studies of cognitive processes were made by the Swiss
psychologist Jean Piaget. He identified four stages of cognitive development.
1. Sensori-motor (birth to age two): The child learns the difference between self and
other objects, the influence of action upon the environment, and the concept of
object permanence. The world is explored using the senses, rather than by thinking
about the environment.
2. Pre-operational (two to seven years): The child learns the use of language, more
sophisticated classification of objects, the use of numbers, and the principle of
conservation. The child begins to use language as a tool to explore and understand
her world. They still cannot reason logically. Nor can they imagine seeing things
from another person’s point of view. This inability is called egocentrism (the meaning
does not mean selfishness in Piaget’s theory). At this age, the child already
develops the knowledge of object permanence. This means that the child
understands that something continues to exist even when it cannot be directly
observed. For example: the sun is there, although blocked from view of the clouds.
3. Concrete operational (seven to eleven years): Concrete operation means that
cognitive processes are intimately tied to actual objects. The child becomes capable
of logical thought and continues to develop ideas of relationships, but uses abstract
terms only in relation to concrete objects. At this age, the child also develops the
ability of conversation. Conservation refers to the child's ability to reorganize the
properties such as number, volume, mass or weight do not change simply because
the materials are rearranged. For example, the amount of fluid remains the same
when poured from a short squat glass into a tall, thin glass.
4. Formal operational (eleven years and up): The child can think in abstract terms, can
create and reason by hypotheses, and shows concern for the future and ideological
problems. Formal operations can be wholly abstract. For example, the child's
decisions regarding weight relationships would require the actual presence of
weights in the concrete operational stage, but not in the formal operational stage.

83
Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development
Another influential theorist in cognitive development was the Russian Lev Vygotsky.
Unlike Piaget who focused on the development of the child that is the result of natural
growth, Vygotsky focused on how the child learned in the context of her environment.
There are two major ideas derived from Vygotsky’s theory. These are:
1. Scaffolding – This refers to the support provided by peers, teachers, parents and
adults to the child in learning. Scaffolding is the learning process by which the more
skilled person or learner (in the case of peers) provides help to the child who is less
skilled. Over time, less and less support in provided as the child becomes more and
more capable.
2. Zone of proximal development (ZPD) – This refers to the difference between what a
child can do alone compared to what she can learn to do with the help of a teacher.
Vygotsky’s method emphasizes measuring a child’s intelligence by what she can do
rather than in what she knows (as measured in traditional IQ tests.)
WHAT IS LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT?
Children develop their reasoning as they grow. Kohlberg researched on this

development and studied it. He formed a stage called or named by him the stages of
moral development. This stage is divided into three levels. The first level is the pre-
convention, and under this level it has two stages. The first stage is the punishment
orientation and the second is the reward orientation. In this level, we can learn and
understand the reasoning of the child's answer and what stage he is in. The reasoning
of the child in this stage is somehow the "scratch my back and I'll scratch yours."
The second level of this stage is called conventional morality. This talks about the
changes of reasoning of the child wherein he learns to be a part of the society. He
obeys rules of the society to avoid disapproval of others. This level has two sub-stages:
Good boy/good girl orientation (stage 3) and Authority orientation (stage 4).
The third level is the post-conventional morality wherein the individual's reasoning
includes principles of justice, dignity, and equality. The substages of which are: social
contract orientation (stage 5) and ethical principle orientation (stage 6).
LEVELS/STAGES ILLUSTRATIVE BEHAVIOR
Level I Pre-conventional Orientation
Stage 1. Punishment orientation Obeys rules to avoid punishment
Stage 2. Reward orientation Conforms to avoid or to obtain rewards, to have favors returned
Level II: Conventional Morality
Stage 3. Good boy/girl orientation Conforms to avoid disapproval of others
Stage 4. Authority orientation Uphold laws and social rules, censure of authority, and feelings of
84
guilt about not "doing one's duty"
Level III: Postconventional Morality
Stage 5. Social-contract orientation; Action guided by principles or commonly agreed on as essential to
the public welfare; principles upheld to retain respect of peers and
thus self-respect.
Stage 6. Ethical-principle orientation Action guided by self-chosen ethical principles that usually value
justice dignity and equality; principles upheld to avoid self-
condemnation.

85
Psychology 1 A
Module II, Lesson 4
Multiple Choice.
_____ 1. The correct sequence of Piaget's developmental stages is
a. sensori-motor, concrete operations, pre-operational stage, formal
operations.
b. sensori-motor, formal operations, concrete operations, pre-operational.
c. sensori-motor, pre-operational, formal operations, concrete operations.
d. sensori-motor, pre-operational, concrete operations, formal operations.
_____ 2. When a child begins to leave his mother voluntarily, he is expressing a
desire for
a. attention
b. attachment
c. discipline
d. autonomy
_____ 3. Erickson has determined that the principal goal of adolescence is the
achievement of
a. identity
b. love
c. intimacy
d. industry
_____ 4. According to Erickson, the central conflict of young adulthood is
a. identity vs. role confusion
b. intimacy vs. isolation
c. trust vs. mistrust
d. generativity vs. stagnation
_____ 5. A leading theorist in cognitive development is (___). He proposed four
distinct stages of cognitive development.
a. Erickson
b. Piaget
c. Kohlberg
d. Freud

86
_____ 6. The second cognitive stage, which lasts approximately from the age of 2
through the age of 7, is
a. concrete operational
b. formal operational
c. pre-operational
d. sensori-motor
_____ 7. In Vygotsky’s theory, the support provided by peers, teachers, parents and
adults to the child in learning is called
a. zone of proximal development.
b. scaffolding.
c. social learning.
d. concrete operations.
_____ 8. Which is not true of the pre-operational stage?
a. A child assumes that objects have feelings.
b. The child can focus on only one aspect of an event.
c. The child assumes that his dreams are real events.
d. The child can retrace the steps in his thought process.
_____ 9. By the end of adolescence,
a. the individual begins to think in concrete terms.
b. the peer group is of primary importance.
c. parents and teacher have more influence on values.
d. the family is no longer important for emotional life.
_____ 10. When a child conforms just to avoid punishment as well as to obtain
rewards and to have favors returned, in Kohlberg’s theory, this is called
a. reward orientation
b. punishment orientation
c. good boy/girl orientation
d. authority orientation

87
MODULE II
Lesson 1
I
1. D 2. H 3. J 4. F 5. A 6. E 7. G 8. I 9. B 10. C
II
1. T
2. F - Research studies in industry have shown that the correlation between measured
intelligence and job status is sometimes very low (below + 0.15).
3. T
4. T
5. F – Creativity and intelligence are two different things that are not always correlated.
6. T
7. T
8. F - In general, people with IQ values of 130 or above are well adjusted.
9. F – There is no evidence to support this.
10. T
III
1. successful 6. academic instruction
2. crystallized 7. expectation
3. measure 8. Down’s Syndrome
4. chronological 9. 140
5. mental 10. IQ
IV
1. analytic intelligence; creative intelligence; practical intelligence
2. linguistic; logical-mathematical; musical; spatial; body-kinesthetic; interpersonal;
intrapersonal; naturalist
Lesson 2
I
1. H 2. G 3. E 4. D 5. J 6. A 7. C 8. I 9. F 10. D
II
1. T
2. F – Murray, a doctor, once said, “No brain, no personality.”
3. T
166
4. T
5. F - Angelina Ramirez said that there is no such thing as the Filipino personality akin
only to Filipinos; Virgilio Enriquez pointed out that any definition the Filipino
personality would be adequate.
6. T
7. T
8. T
9. F – Value is placed on both nuclear and extended.
10. T
III
1. conscience 6. pakikisama
2. libido 7. euphemism
3. source 8. adjustment
4. actualize 9. emotional
5. projective 10. personality
IV
1. Hiya; Ningas kugon; Bahala na; Hospitality; Utang na loob; Smooth Interpersonal
Relations; Strong Family Ties
2. physical; mental; emotional; social; moral; spiritual
Lesson 3
I
1. T
2. T
3. T
4. F- It indicates our attitude, not knowledge.
5. T
6. T
7. F – This is not true all the time.
8. T
9. F-It is the theory of cognitive-dissonance
10. T
II
1. attitude 4. prejudice
2. reacting 5. discrimination
3. perception 6. imitation

167
7. Albert Bandura 9. Semantic Differential Scale
8. Lickert Scale 10. cognitive-dissonance
Lesson 4
1. d 2. d 3. a 4. b 5. b 6. c 7. b 8. d 9. b 10. a

168
PYB 101 / PSYCH 1:
Introduction to Psychology
Module Test
MODULE II
I. True or False. (20 pts.)

_____ 1. Intelligence can be defined as “an overall ability to act purposely, to think
rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment.”
_____ 2. An IQ score can be correlated with academic performance but cannot
predict how successful a person will be in real life.
_____ 3. Intelligence tests were originally intended to predict how much students
would profit from schooling, but not to rank them according to their IQ
scores.
_____ 4. Real intelligence is fairly constant but IQ scores can actually change over
time.
_____ 5. If intelligence is difficult to define, it must be equally difficult to measure.
_____ 6. The IQ level of geniuses is in the range of 110-135.
_____ 7. The two types of measurements of personality are the objective test and
the empirical test.
_____ 8. Intelligent people more often more creative than other people.
_____ 9. Research has shown that bosses are often more clever than their
subordinates.
_____ 10. Psychological research of school performance suggested that the
teacher’s expectations do not affect the performance of the students.
_____ 11. The researchers, Gardner & Sternberg, both agreed that there are many
types of intelligences that are separate and independent from each other.
_____ 12. Research has shown that children’s IQ can be improved through
enrichment education.
_____ 13. A Filipino puts great value on kinship relationship only within the nuclear
family.
_____ 14. Filipinos have a unique personality that makes them unique and different
from other nationalities.
_____ 15. At about 30, most of a person’s attitudes take final form and change little

177
thereafter.
_____ 16. Attitudes can both be learned and unlearned.
_____ 17. Your attitude can sometimes be changed by changing your behavior first.
_____ 18. The theory of attitude formation explains why fanatics refuse to change
even when presented with contrary evidence.
_____ 19. Attitude is composed of three basic components – thinking, feeling, and
behaving.
_____ 20. When a child begins to leave his mother voluntarily, he is expressing a
desire for autonomy.
II. Fill in the blanks. (20 pts.)

_____ 1. According to Lewis Turman, (___) is defined as “the ability to think
abstractly.”
_____ 2. The triarchic theory of intelligence advocates the concept of (___)
intelligence which bears both a universal aspect and the quality of
adaptation.
_____ 3. The age of most people who can perform a particular test item
successfully is called the (___) age.
_____ 4. One type of mental retardation that is caused by a chromosome
abnormality is called (___).
_____ 5. In psychoanalysis, the structure of personality is the superego which is
regarded as the (___) of man.
_____ 6. Cattell claimed that there were two types of personality traits - the (___)
and the source traits.
_____ 7. Rogers agreed with Maslow that the most important motivational force for
all mankind is the tendency to (___).
_____ 8. According to some psychologists, mature personality development
requires the holistic blending of the physical, mental, emotional and (___)
aspects of life.
_____ 9. (___) includes a person’s enduring qualities, traits, attitudes as well as
behavior tendencies.
_____ 10. An (___) can be defined as a tendency to react positively or negatively
towards an object in the social environment.
_____ 11. A (___) refers to a negative judgment about the object of the attitude
based on insufficient and inadequate grounds.

178
_____ 12. The behavior of treating one person or group in an unfavorable or unfair
way is called (___).
_____ 13. Erickson determined that the principal goal of adolescence is the
achievement of (___).
_____ 14. According to Erickson, the central conflict of young adulthood is (___).
_____ 15. A leading theorist in cognitive development, (___), proposed four distinct
stages of cognitive development.
_____ 16. The second cognitive stage, which lasts approximately from the age of 2
through the age of 7, is (___).
_____ 17. In Vygotsky’s theory, the support provided by peers, teachers, parents and
adults to the child in learning is called (___).
_____ 18. According to Piaget, a child still cannot retrace the steps in his thought
process at the (___) stage.
_____ 19. By the end of (___), the peer group becomes of primary importance in
terms of influence and interest.
_____ 20. When a child conforms just to avoid punishment as well as to obtain
rewards and to have favors returned, in Kohlberg’s theory, this stage is
called (___).
III. Matching Type. (10 pts.)

Column A Column B
_____ 1. Pioneer standard IQ test in US a. Howard Gardner
_____ 2. MMPI personality test b. Binet-Simon
_____ 3. Role Construct Repertory Test c. Raymond Cattell
_____ 4. Triarchic theory of Intelligence d. Daniel Coleman
_____ 5. Theory of Multiple Intelligences e. George Kelly
_____ 6. Believed in a general factor of intelligence (g) f. McKinley &
Hatthaway
_____ 7. “Intelligence is a Cluster of Abilities.”
g. Robert Sternberg
_____ 8. Theory of Emotional Intelligence
h. Charles Spearman
_____ 9. Fluid & Crystallized Intelligences
i. Louis Thurstone
_____ 10. Provided basis for modern IQ tests
j. Standford-Binet

179

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MODULE II

Scope of the Module

Overview of the Module

Objectives of the Module

PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

Supplement your knowledge!

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE?

Pioneer measurements of intelligence

Spearman’s Theory: Intelligence as a General Ability

Thurstone’s Theory: Intelligence is a Cluster of Abilities

Cattell: Fluid Intelligence & Crystallized Intelligence

Guilford: Structure of Intellect

Gardner: Multiple Intelligences

Sternberg’s Theory of Triarchic Intelligence

HOW CAN INTELLIGENCE BE MEASURED?

PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

Calculating intelligence level

PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

Does a high IQ score surely indicate high intelligence?

PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

Real intelligence is fairly constant

IQ scores can actually change over time

Male and female differences in intelligence

Expectations can affect IQ

Occupational status and IQ

Intelligent parents = intelligent kids?

Are some races less intelligent?

Are intelligent people more creative?

PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

WHY ARE SOME PEOPLE RETARDED?

What about highly intelligent people?

PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

II. True or False. Write TRUE if the statement is True. If it is False,

PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

III. Fill in the blanks.

PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

Supplement your knowledge!

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT THEORIES OF PERSONALITY IN PSYCHOLOGY

PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

The Psychoanalytic Theory

PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

The Factorial Theory

PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

The Personalistic Theory

PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

The Person-Centered or Ego-Integrated Theory

The Behavioristic Theory

PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

IS THERE A WAY TO MEASURE PERSONALITY?

PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

Smooth Interpersonal Relations (SIR)

Strong Family Ties

PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

WHAT ARE THE INDICATORS OF A MATURE PERSONALITY?

HOW CAN WE IMPROVE OUR IMPROVING PERSONALITY?

PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

II. True or False. Write TRUE if the statement is True. If it is False,

PYB 101 / PSYCH 1: Introduction to Psychology

III. Fill in the blanks.