applied

sciences
Article
A Measurement System for Time Constant of
Thermocouple Sensor Based on High
Temperature Furnace
Yanfeng Li 1 , Zhijie Zhang 1,2, *, Xiaojian Hao 1,2 and Wuliang Yin 1,3
1 School of Instrument and Electronics, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, Shanxi, China;
liyanfeng2013@126.com (Y.L.); haoxiaojian@nuc.edu.cn (X.H.); wuliang.yin@manchester.ac.uk (W.Y.)
2 Key Laboratory of Instrumentation Science & Dynamic Measurement (North University of China), Ministry
of Education, Taiyuan 030051, Shanxi, China
3 School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
* Correspondence: zhangzhijie@nuc.edu.cn




Received: 25 October 2018; Accepted: 10 December 2018; Published: 12 December 2018


Abstract: In dynamic temperature measurement, thermocouple sensors are widely used, and their
dynamic characteristics directly affect the accuracy of the test results. So before applying
thermocouple sensors to dynamic temperature measurement, their dynamic characteristics should
be obtained, and their dynamic performance parameters should be analyzed. The time constant is
the most important dynamic parameter, which reflects the response speed of a thermocouple sensor.
Therefore, it is necessary to measure the time constant. The time constant is closely related to the heat
transfer mode, so the heat transfer environment of the time constant measurement system should be
similar to the application environment of thermocouple sensor. When using the thermocouple to
measure the temperature in various kilns, the heat transfer is mainly through the radiative mode,
and existing equipment, such as constant temperature water/oil tank, shock wave tube and other
devices, cannot be used to measure the time constant to reflect scenarios in actual measurement
applications. Therefore, this paper proposed a new method to measure the time constant of the
thermocouple by improved high temperature furnace. In the system, the high temperature furnace
was used to generate the stable temperature field, and the fast feed device was used to insert the
thermocouple into the high temperature furnace and generates the ramp temperature excitation.
The temperature can reach 1500 ◦ C in the furnace, and the temperature error in uniform temperature
field is ±1 ◦ C. Finally, the time constant of a K-type thermocouple was measured, and the uncertainty
of the measurement result was analyzed.

Keywords: thermocouple; time constant; high temperature furnace; ramp excitation signal

1. Introduction
Thermocouple sensor is widely used in dynamic temperature measurement in harsh environment
because of its simple structure, low cost, and strong robustness. The temperature measurement
principle of the thermocouple is based on the heat balance, that is, the thermocouple must contact
the object to be measured and achieve the heat balance. The existence of the heat transfer process
causes the thermocouple to have thermal inertia, which affects the dynamic performance of the
thermocouple. The time constant is the most important dynamic parameter and reflects the response
speed of temperature sensor. It refers to the time for the system’s step response to reach 63.2% of its
final temperature value. Before applying the thermocouple to dynamic temperature measurement,
its time constant should be measured first. The time constant of the thermocouple is not only related
to the material and structure of the sensor itself, but also to the object to be measured and the heat

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2585; doi:10.3390/app8122585 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2585 2 of 12

transfer mode. At present, there are many kinds of measurement methods and devices of time constant,
such as constant temperature water/oil tank, hot wind tunnel, shock tube, laser, and so on.
Stable temperature fields in water flow and airflow environments are generated by constant
temperature water/oil tank and hot wind tunnel respectively. The thermocouple is inserted into the
stable flow field rapidly, and the thermocouple is excited by step temperature. The time constant is
obtained by the thermocouple response. Xiong J. and Wang X.N. [1,2] measured the response time
and delay time of the thermocouple by constant temperature water/oil tank, and the dynamic error
was corrected. Zhao S.A. [3] developed a hot wind tunnel with the temperature range from 1000 ◦ C
to 1700 ◦ C, and the step response of the thermocouple was obtained. Shock tube is used to generate
step pressure, which is usually used for dynamic calibration of pressure sensors. After breaking the
film, the gas in the high pressure chamber compresses the gas in the low pressure chamber to produce
the shock wave. The step pressure is generated on the pressure sensor by the shock wave and used to
excite the pressure sensor. At the same time, due to the gas compression, there is also a temperature
step behind the shock wave, which can be used to excite the thermocouple. Meng X.F. et al. [4,5]
modified the shock tube and constructed a new dynamic calibration system for the thermocouple,
which can generate a stable temperature excitation lasting for a long time. Garinei A. et al. [6] heated
the thermocouple to a certain temperature by laser, then turned off the laser, and the thermocouple
was excited by a negative temperature step. Serio B. and Hao X.J. et al. [7–11] used high-power laser
to generate a rapid temperature rise on the thermocouple surface and obtained the time constant.
In addition, there are other methods for dynamic excitation and calibration of thermocouple [12–15].
In the measurement methods and systems for time constant, how to produce stable temperature
field and step excitation is the main research content when the system is established. In the above
measurement methods, the measurement systems under water flow and air flow environments were
constructed for different heat transfer environments. The constant temperature water/oil tank can
provide uniform and stable temperature field, but the temperature is low. Hot wind tunnels and shock
tubes can produce higher air temperature, but the temperature field is less uniform. In some industrial
production, various types of kilns are widely used, such as roller kilns in metallurgical industry, kilns
in ceramic industry and cement rotary kilns in construction industry. The measurement of dynamic
temperature in kilns is of great significance for product process control and energy consumption
reduction. At present, thermocouple sensors are commonly used to measure the temperature, and the
response speed directly affects the accuracy of dynamic temperature measurement in furnace. Time
constants of thermocouple sensors should be measured. Because the heat transfer mode of the
thermocouple in furnace is mainly radiative heat transfer, time constant measurement systems under
water flow or gas flow environment cannot be applied to the time constant measurement. Therefore,
the application of a high temperature furnace to produce stable temperature field was proposed in
this paper.
A new measurement system for the time constant was constructed based on high temperature
furnace [16]. Different from convective heat transfer mode in constant temperature water/oil tank,
hot wind tunnel and shock tube, radiative heat transfer mode is the main heat transfer mode of
the thermocouple in high temperature furnace. In the system, the high temperature furnace can
produce uniform temperature field, the temperature can reach 1500 ◦ C, and the temperature error
in the uniform temperature field is ±1 ◦ C. When the temperature of the uniform temperature zone
is within 300–700 ◦ C, the temperature profile from the furnace mouth to uniform temperature zone
is linear. The fast feed device inserts the thermocouple quickly into the uniform temperature field
and generates the ramp temperature excitation. The speed of the thermocouple inserted into the high
temperature furnace can be set by fast feed device. The time constant of a K-type thermocouple was
measured, and the uncertainty of the measurement result was analyzed.
However, in the actual calibration experiment, it is not feasible to generate step temperature
excitation with rise time of 0 s. The excitation signal is generally an approximate step signal with a
certain rise time, which is called ramp signal. Assuming that the rise time of ramp signal is 𝑟, and
the ramp
Appl. signal
Sci. 2018, can be expressed as
8, 2585 3 of 12
𝑡⁄𝑟 , 𝑡 < 𝑟
𝑢∗ 𝑡 = . (1)
1, 𝑡≥𝑟
2. Analysis of Ramp Excitation Signal
The Laplace transform of Equation (1) is
Because of the wide spectrum, the step signal is usually used as the excitation signal for the
dynamic calibration of sensors. The rise 𝑠 =of1step
𝑈 ∗ time −𝑒
signal𝑟𝑠 from. initial value to stable value is (2) 0 s.
However, in the actual calibration experiment, it is not feasible to generate step temperature excitation
The frequency response function is
with rise time of 0 s. The excitation signal is generally an approximate step signal with a certain rise
time, which is called ramp signal. Assuming |𝑈 ∗ 𝑗𝜔 that| =
the rise𝑠𝑖𝑛 time .of ramp signal is r, and the ramp signal (3)
can be expressed as
The ramp signal and its amplitude spectrum are shown in Figure 1. It can be seen from the figure
(
∗ t/r, t < r
that the larger the rise time of the ramp (t) =
u excitation .
signal, the smaller the width of the first main lobe (1)
1, t≥r
of its spectrum. When the first main lobe is used for dynamic calibration, the working frequency of
The Laplace transform
the thermocouple which canofbe Equation
calibrated (1)isisnarrower. In time domain, the larger the rise time of the
ramp excitation signal, the larger the time constant of the thermocouple which can be calibrated. In
the existing measurement system of timeUconstant ∗ (1 − e−rsthermocouple,
)
(s) = of the . such as hot wind tunnel and (2)
shock tube, the temperature excitation signal is generally rs2 a ramp signal, and the rise time of the slope
signalTheis frequency
often unknown response or difficult
functiontoismeasure. In time constant measurement, the time constant is
obtained from the response signal. If the response signal is considered as the response of step
excitation, but it is actually the response 2  the rω 
|U ∗of( jωramp
)| = signal,
2 sin measurement error of time constant will (3)
rω 2
.
occur.
In order
The ramptosignal
studyand theits
effect of ramp
amplitude excitation
spectrum aresignals
shownwith different
in Figure 1. It rise times
can be seenonfrom
timetheconstant
figure
measurement,
that the larger theassuming
rise timethat theramp
of the time excitation
constant of the thermocouple
signal, the smaller theiswidth 1 s and thefirst
of the thermocouple
main lobe
model
of is a first-order
its spectrum. Whenlag themodel withlobe
first main unity gain, for
is used the dynamic
ramp signals with different
calibration, rise times
the working are used
frequency of
as excitation signals, the time constants are obtained according to the response
the thermocouple which can be calibrated is narrower. In time domain, the larger the rise time of the curves. The results are
shown
ramp in Table signal,
excitation 1. As can thebe seenthe
larger from
timetheconstant
table, ifofthe
themeasurement
thermocoupleerror which of can
the time constant In
be calibrated. is less
the
than 5%, the rise time of the ramp excitation signal should be less
existing measurement system of time constant of the thermocouple, such as hot wind tunnel and shock than 10% of the time constant.
Whenthe
tube, thetemperature
time constant of the thermocouple
excitation signal is generally is 10 as ramp
and 15signal,
s, the andsame thesimulation
rise time ofexperiments were
the slope signal
carried
is out, and or
often unknown thedifficult
resultstoare the same
measure. as that
In time in Table
constant 1. Therefore,
measurement, the relative
the time constanterror of the
is obtained
from the response signal. If the response signal is considered as the response of step excitation, but it of
measurement value of time constant measurement is only related to the ratio of increasing time is
ramp signal
actually to time constant
the response of rampof the thermocouple.
signal, the measurement error of time constant will occur.

0
10
r=1ms
r=5ms
1
r=10ms
-2
10
|U (jw)|
U (t)
*

-4
10

-6
10

0
r Time 0 500 1000 1500
Frequency (Hz)

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Ramp
Ramp signal
signal and
and its
its amplitude
amplitude spectrum.
spectrum.

In order to study the effect of ramp excitation signals with different rise times on time constant
measurement, assuming that the time constant of the thermocouple is 1 s and the thermocouple
model is a first-order lag model with unity gain, the ramp signals with different rise times are used as
excitation signals, the time constants are obtained according to the response curves. The results are
shown in Table 1. As can be seen from the table, if the measurement error of the time constant is less
than 5%, the rise time of the ramp excitation signal should be less than 10% of the time constant. When
the time constant of the thermocouple is 10 s and 15 s, the same simulation experiments were carried
out, and the results are the same as that in Table 1. Therefore, the relative error of the measurement
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2585 4 of 12

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 12

value of time constant measurement is only related to the ratio of increasing time of ramp signal to
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 12
time constant Table of the1.thermocouple.
Estimation error of time constant when ramp signal is used as excitation

Table
Rise 1. Estimation
Time r error
Rise of time
Time constant when
r/Time rampofsignal
Estimate Timeis usedRelative
as excitation
Error
Table 1. Estimation error of time constant when ramp signal is used as excitation
(ms)
Rise Time r Constant 𝝉
Rise Time r/Time (%) Constant (ms)
Estimate of Time (%)
Relative Error
20
Rise Time (ms)
r (ms)
Rise Time
Constant 2 r/Time
𝝉 (%) 1010 (ms)
Estimate
Constant of Time 1.0 Error (%)
(%)
Relative
50 Constant τ (%) Constant (ms)
20 25 1025
1010 2.5
1.0
20 100 2
10 1010
1050 5.0 1.0
50
50 5
5 1025
1025
2.5 2.5
150 15 1075 7.5
100 100 10
10 1050
1050 5.0 5.0
200
150 150 20
15
15 1100
1075
1075 10 7.5
7.5
200 20 1100 10
200 20 1100 10
3. Measurement System for Time Constant Based on High Temperature Furnace
3. Measurement
3. Measurement
The measurement Systemprocedure
System for Time
for Time of Constant
Constant Based on
Based
time constant on
of theHigh
High Temperature
Temperature
thermocouple Furnace
Furnace
mainly includes: generating
a stable temperature
The measurement
The field,
measurement procedure exciting
procedure of the
of timethermocouple
timeconstant
constantof by
ofthe the step temperature,
thethermocouple
thermocouplemainly collecting
includes:the
mainlyincludes: response
generating
generating a
signal
stable of the sensor
temperature and
field, obtaining
exciting the
the time constant
thermocouple from
by the response
step signal.
temperature,
a stable temperature field, exciting the thermocouple by the step temperature, collecting the response The schematic
collecting diagram
the response of
the measurement
signal
signal of the
of the sensor
sensor system
and for time the
and obtaining
obtaining constant
the of the thermocouple
time constant
time constant from response
from response based
signal.
signal.on The
highschematic
The temperature
schematic furnace
diagram
diagram of
of
is shown in
the measurement
the Figures
measurement system 2 and
system for 3 is
for timethe experimental
time constant
constant of of thesetup. In
the thermocouple the
thermocouple basedsystem,
based onthe stable
on high temperature
high temperature
temperature furnace field
furnace is
generated
is
is shown in
shown inbyFigures
the high
Figures temperature
22 and
and 33 is
is the furnace, andsetup.
the experimental
experimental the temperature
setup. In the
In the system,
system,in thethefurnace
the is controlledfield
stable temperature
stable temperature by the
field is
is
temperature
generated by
generated controller.
by the
the high The fast
high temperature feed
temperature furnace, device
furnace, and is used
and the to realize
the temperature the
temperature in fast
in the insertion,
the furnace speed,
furnace is and
is controlled position
controlled by by the
the
control of
temperature the thermocouple
controller. The in
fast the
feed high
devicetemperature
is used to furnace,
realize and
the the
fast thermocouple
insertion,
temperature controller. The fast feed device is used to realize the fast insertion, speed, and position speed, is mounted
and on
position
the slider
control
control of of
thethe
of the fast feed device.
thermocouple
thermocouple ininthe
theThe
high thermocouple
high temperature
temperature output
furnace,
furnace,terminal
and thethe
and is thermocouple
connected to
thermocouple is 0mounted
is°Cmounted
thermostat
on the
on
by compensation
slider of the fastfastwire.
feedfeedThe
device. output
TheThe signal
thermocoupleis collected
output and processed
terminal by amplifier
is connected and
to 0to C◦ data acquisition
thermostat by
the slider of the device. thermocouple output terminal is connected 0 °C thermostat
device. The
compensation time constant
wire. The of
output the thermocouple
signal is collected can
and be obtained
processed by
by
by compensation wire. The output signal is collected and processed by amplifier and data acquisition analyzing
amplifier and the thermocouple
data acquisition
responseThe
device.
device. signal.
The time constant
time constant of of the
the thermocouple
thermocouple can can be be obtained
obtained by by analyzing
analyzing the the thermocouple
thermocouple
response signal.
response signal.

Figure 2. Measurement system for time constant of the thermocouple based on high temperature
furnace.2. Measurement system for time constant of the thermocouple based on high temperature furnace.
Figure
Figure 2. Measurement system for time constant of the thermocouple based on high temperature
furnace.

Figure 3. Experimental setup.

Figure 3. Experimental setup.
 Appl.
Appl.Sci. 2018,8,8,2585
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of1212
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 12

3.1. Generation of Ramp Temperature Excitation

3.1.3.1. Generation
Generation of Ramp
of Ramp Temperature
Temperature Excitation
Excitation
In the system, the inner diameter of the high temperature furnace is 20 mm. At the distance of
In In
120 thethe
mm
system,
system,
from the the the
inner
furnace
inner diameter
diameter
mouth, there of ofthe the high
is high
a uniform
temperature
temperature
temperature
furnace
furnace zone
is 20
is 20 mm.
with
mm.
theAt
At
thethe distance
distance
thickness of 20ofmm,
of
120 mm
120 temperature from
mm from theerror the furnace
furnace mouth,
mouth, there
there is a
is a uniformuniform temperature
temperature zone with
zone °C/min.
with theThe the thickness
thickness of 20
of 20 mm, mm,
of ±1 °C and temperature fluctuation of ≤0.2 temperature of the
temperature
temperature error of±1±°C 1 ◦C and temperature fluctuationofof≤0.2 ≤0.2 ◦ C/min. The temperature of
thetheis
uniform temperature zone can be set by the temperature controller, and the temperatureofrange
error of and temperature fluctuation °C/min. The temperature
uniform
uniform temperaturezone
temperature zonecan canbe beset set by the temperature controller, and the temperature range is from
from ◦ C 300 °C to ◦ C.1500 °C. The highby temperaturetemperature furnace controller,
is heatedand bythe temperature
heating wire, and range
the isheat
300
from to
300 °C to 1500 1500 The
°C. Thehigh temperature furnace is heated by heating wire, and the heat insulation
insulation layer is made uphigh temperature
of ceramic fiber blocks furnace withislowheated by heating
thermal conductivity.wire, Theand temperature
the heat
layer is made
insulation layer up
is of ceramic
made up offiber
ceramicblocks with
fiber low thermal
blocks with lowconductivity.
thermal The temperature
conductivity. The of the uniform
temperature
of the uniform temperature zone is measured by a standard thermocouple which is a second-class
of temperature
the uniform
standard
zone
B-type
is measured
temperature
thermocouple zone by is
and
a standardby
measured
has been verified
thermocouple
a standard which is a second-class
thermocouple
by Shanghai Institute which is astandard
of Metrology. second-classB-type
The output
thermocouple
standard and has been verified by Shanghai Institute of Metrology. The output signal of the
signalB-typeof the thermocouple
standard thermocouple and has been verified
is also by Shanghai
fed back Institute of Metrology.
to the temperature controller which The output
makes a
standard
signal thethermocouple
oftemperaturestandardfurnace is also fed back
thermocouple to the fedtemperature
back to thecontroller which makes awhich high temperature
high generateisdifferentalso temperatures temperature
through the controller
PID control method. makes a
furnace
high temperature generate different temperatures through the PID control method.
In order furnace to study generate different temperatures
the temperature distributionthrough from the the furnace
PID control mouthmethod.to the uniform
In Inorder
orderto to study
study the
the temperature
temperature distribution
distribution fromfromthe furnace
the mouth to
furnace the uniform
mouth thetemperature
to used uniform
temperature zone in the high temperature furnace, the standard thermocouple was to measure
zone in the
temperature zone highin temperature
the high temperaturefurnace,furnace, the standard
the thermocouple
standard thermocouple waswas used usedto tomeasure
measure the
the temperature at the distance of 10, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, and 120 mm respectively, as shown in Figure
temperature
the 4.
temperature at the distance
at the distance of 10,
of 10,by 20, 40,
20,the 60,
40,fast
60, 80,80, 100, and 120 mm respectively,
respectively, as shown in Figure 4.
Figure
shown inpositions
The thermocouple was moved feed device and accurately stays at different in
4. The thermocouple was wasmoved movedby bythethefastfastfeedfeeddevicedeviceand andaccurately
accurately stays atat different positions in inat
thethermocouple
furnace. The temperature of the uniform temperature zone was stays 400◦ °C, different positions
and the temperatures
thethe furnace.
furnace.
different The The
locations
temperature
temperatureare shown of of
the the uniform
uniform
in Figure
temperature zone
5. Ittemperature
can be seen zone from was
was400400
the figure °C, C,
and
that
and
the thethe temperatures
temperatures
temperature from
at
at the
different
different locations
locations are shown in Figure 5. It can be seen from the figure that the temperature from
furnace mouth are to theshown in Figure
uniform 5. It can be
temperature seenincreases
zone from the linearly.
figure that The thetemperature
temperaturedistributions
from the
the furnace
furnace mouth mouth
to the touniform
the uniform temperature
temperature zone zone increases
increases linearly.
linearly. The The temperature
temperature distributions
distributions
from the furnace mouth to the uniform temperature zone were measured at different temperatures
from
from the furnace mouth to to the uniform temperature zone were measured at different temperatures
of the furnace
uniform mouth
temperature the
zone. uniform temperature
The experimental zone
results were
showmeasured
that whenatthe different
temperaturetemperatures
of uniform
of of uniform
uniform
temperature
temperature
temperature
zone is zone.
zone.
less than TheThe
700
experimental
experimental
°C, the
results
results
temperature
show
show that
profile
that when
when
from the
the
the temperature
temperature
furnace mouthof of uniform
uniform
to uniform
temperature zone is less than 700 ◦ C, the temperature profile from the furnace mouth to uniform
temperature zone is less than 700 °C, the temperature profile
temperature zone is linear or approximately linear. When the temperature is greater than 700 °C,◦the from the furnace mouth to uniform
temperature
temperature zonezone is linear
is linear or approximately
or approximately linear. linear.
When When the temperature
thedistribution
temperature is greater
is greater than °C,700 C,
temperature profile is not linear. However, the nonlinear makes the than 700
measurement theerror
the temperature
temperature profileprofile
is notis not linear.
linear. However, However, the nonlinear
the research
nonlinear distribution makesthe the measurement error
of thermocouple time constant smaller. The indistribution
this paper was makes carried measurement error
out at the temperature
of thermocouple
of thermocouple time
time constant constant smaller.
smaller. The
The research research in this paper was carried out at the temperature
of uniform temperature zone of between 300◦ °C in this700
and paper°C, was
◦ C, and carried out at the the
at this moment, temperature
temperature
of of uniform
uniform temperature
temperature zone zone of of between
between 300 300
distribution from the furnace mouth to the uniform temperature zone is linear.°C C and
and 700700°C, andandat at this
this moment,
moment, thethe temperature
temperature
distribution
distribution fromfrom thethe furnace
furnace mouth
mouth to to
thethe uniform
uniform temperature
temperature zone
zone is is linear.
linear.

120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

120 110 100 90 80 70 60mm 50 40 30 20 10
mm
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of temperature measurement positions in high temperature furnace.
Figure
Figure 4. Schematic
4. Schematic diagram
diagram of temperature
of temperature measurement
measurement positions
positions in high
in high temperature
temperature furnace.
furnace.

400
400
Temperature (℃)
Temperature (℃)

300
300

200
200 Temperatures at different positions
Temperatures
Fitting lineat different positions
100 Fitting line
100 20 40 60 80 100 120
20 40 60Position (mm) 80 100 120
Position (mm)
Figure5.5.Temperatures
Figure Temperaturesatatdifferent
differentpositions.
positions.
Figure 5. Temperatures at different positions.
InInorder
ordertotorealize
realizethe therapid
rapidmovement
movementofofthe thethermocouple,
thermocouple,AC ACservo
servomotor,
motor,screw,
screw,and
andslid
slid
In
block order
are to
used realize
to build the
the rapid
fast movement
feed device. of
Thethe thermocouple,
thermocouple is AC
fixed servo
on the motor,
slide
block are used to build the fast feed device. The thermocouple is fixed on the slide block, and the screw,
block, andand
the slid
screw
block arethe
drives
screw used
drives tothe
slide build
block tothe
slide fast to
realize
block feed device.
therealize
movementtheThe thermocouple
of the
movement thermocouple. is fixed on the
AC servo
of the thermocouple. slide
motor
AC block,
has
servothe and has
the the
advantages
motor
screw drives
ofadvantages the
high control slide block
precision,
of high control to
lowrealize the
frequency
precision, movement
low stability,
frequency of the thermocouple.
resonance suppression,
stability, AC servo motor
fast responsefast
resonance suppression, has
speed the
and
response
advantages of high control precision, low frequency stability, resonance suppression,
speed and so on, and cooperating with the lead screw, it can realize the fast start-stop and fast fast response
speed and so on,
movement and
of the cooperating with the lead screw, it can realize the fast start-stop and fast
thermocouple.
movement of the thermocouple.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2585 6 of 12

so on, and cooperating with the lead screw, it can realize the fast start-stop and fast movement of
the thermocouple.
The thermocouple is quickly inserted into the uniform temperature zone from the furnace mouth
by the fast feed device, and the temperature distribution in the furnace is linear, so the thermocouple is
excited by the ramp temperature during the insertion process. In this system, the speed of the fast feed
device can reach 300 mm/s, and the distance from the furnace mouth to the uniform temperature zone
is 120 mm. Therefore, the rise time of the ramp temperature excitation is 0.4 s. According to Table 1,
when the measurement error of time constant is less than 5%, this time constant measurement system
can be used for time constant of the thermocouple whose time constant is larger than 4 s.

3.2. Analysis of Heat Transfer Environment in High Temperature Furnace

In practical engineering, there are usually two or three heat transfer modes at the same time, which
is called composite heat transfer. In the measurement system for time constant of the thermocouple
based on high temperature furnace, the thermocouple is quickly inserted and stays in the uniform
temperature zone at a distance of 120 mm from the furnace mouth, and the thermocouple is heated.
There are three heat transfer modes: radiative heat transfer from furnace wall to the thermocouple,
convective heat transfer from the gas to the thermocouple, and heat conduction from the surface of the
thermocouple junction to the inside.
For bare thermocouple, the thermal resistance of heat conduction is very small relative to that of
radiative and convection heat transfer in the heat transfer environment of high temperature furnace.
The thermal resistance of heat conduction can be neglected, and it is considered that the temperature
distribution inside the thermocouple junction is approximately uniform at any time. Therefore, the heat
transfer modes between the thermocouple and the environment in the high temperature furnace are
mainly radiative heat transfer and convective heat transfer. Because the heat transfer surface area of
the thermocouple junction is much smaller than the inner wall area of the high temperature furnace,
the quantity of radiation heat transfer can be expressed as
h i
Φr = εAσ ( Tω /100)4 − ( T/100)4 , (4)

where ε is the emissivity of the thermocouple, A is the heat transfer area, σ is the Steffan-Boltzmann
constant, Tω is the temperature of the furnace wall, and T is the temperature of the thermocouple.
In order to analyze and calculate complex heat transfer problems, Equation (4) can be generally
converted into a function of the surface heat transfer coefficient as

Φr = hr A( Tω − T ) , (5)
h i
εσ ( Tω /100)4 − ( T/100)4
hr = , (6)
Tω − T
hr can be defined as surface heat transfer coefficient of radiative heat transfer. Assuming that ε = 0.4,
when the temperature of the furnace wall Tw is constant, the surface heat transfer coefficients hr are
obtained at different temperatures of the thermocouple, as shown in Figure 6. It can be seen from the
figure that the surface heat transfer coefficient is related to the temperatures of the furnace wall and the
thermocouple. When the temperature of the furnace wall Tw is constant, hr increases with the increase
of the temperature of the thermocouple. When the temperature of the thermocouple is constant, hr
increases with the increase of the temperature of the furnace wall Tw .
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2585 7 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 12

-6
x 10
3

Tw=1200℃
2.5

h r (W/(m K))
2
Tw=1000℃
1.5

1 Tw=800℃

0.5 Tw=600℃

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
T (℃)

Figure6.6.Relationship
Figure Relationshipbetween
betweensurface
surfaceheat
heattransfer
transfercoefficient
coefficientand
andtemperature.
temperature.

For
Forconvection
convectionheat
heattransfer,
transfer,according
accordingtotoNewton’s
Newton’slaw lawofofcooling,
cooling,the
thequantity
quantityofofconvection
convection
heat transfer can be expressed
heat transfer can be expressed as as
Φc = hc A Tg − T ,


(7)
Φ =ℎ 𝐴 𝑇 −𝑇 , (7)
where hc is the convective heat transfer coefficient, A is the convective heat transfer area which is
where ℎ is the convective heat transfer coefficient, 𝐴 is the convective heat transfer area which is
approximately equal to the radiative heat transfer area, and Tg is the temperature of the gas around
approximately equal to the radiative heat transfer area, and 𝑇 is the temperature of the gas around
the thermocouple.
the thermocouple.
In the high temperature furnace, the total quantity of heat transfer of the thermocouple can be
In the high temperature furnace, the total quantity of heat transfer of the thermocouple can be
expressed as the sum of the quantity of radiative heat transfer and convection heat transfer. Assuming
expressed as the sum of the quantity of radiative heat transfer and convection heat transfer. Assuming
that the wall temperature is equal to the gas temperature in any section of the furnace chamber,
that the wall temperature is equal to the gas temperature in any section of the furnace chamber, i.e.,
i.e., Tω = Tg , the total quantity of heat transfer of the thermocouple can be expressed as
𝑇 = 𝑇 , the total quantity of heat transfer of the thermocouple can be expressed as
ΦΦ = =ΦΦ ΦcΦ==A𝐴


r ++ (hrℎ++hcℎ) Tg𝑇−−T𝑇. . (8)
(8)
Assumingthat
Assuming thatthe
thetemperature
temperaturedistribution
distributionofofeach
eachpart
partofofthe
thecross-section
cross-sectionofofthe
thethermocouple
thermocouple
is uniform, the temperature decreases along the axis, and the heat flux transferred
is uniform, the temperature decreases along the axis, and the heat flux transferred along the along theaxis
axiscan
can
bebeexpressed
expressedasas
dT
dqcd = k f 𝑑𝑇 , (9)
d𝑞 = 𝑘𝑓dl , (9)
𝑑𝑙
where k is thermal conductivity, f is the cross-section area, and dl is the length of the heat flow
where 𝑘 is thermal conductivity, 𝑓 is the cross-section area, and 𝑑𝑙 is the length of the heat flow
transferred along the axis.
transferred along the axis.
When the thermocouple reaches the heat balance, the heat quantity transferred from the inner
When the thermocouple reaches the heat balance, the heat quantity transferred from the inner
wall of the high temperature furnace and the gas to the thermocouple is equal to the heat quantity
wall of the high temperature furnace and the gas to the thermocouple is equal to the heat quantity
dissipated by the thermocouple along the axis by the heat conduction, that is
dissipated by the thermocouple along the axis by the heat conduction, that is

f 𝑑𝑇. .

dT
A(𝐴hrℎ++hcℎ) Tg𝑇−−T𝑇 ==k 𝑘𝑓 (10)
(10)
dl𝑑𝑙
Therefore,the
Therefore, theheat
heatconduction
conductionerror
errorcaused
causedby
bythe
thetemperature
temperaturegradient
gradientalong
alongthe
theaxis
axisofofthe
the
thermocouplecan
thermocouple canbebeobtained
obtained
𝑘𝑓
kf
∆TΔ𝑇 = =
T 𝑇−−T 𝑇== ( T𝑇−−T𝑇b ), , (11)
A𝐴(hℎr ++hℎc ) L𝐿
cd g (11)

where 𝐿 is the insertion depth of the thermocouple, and 𝑇 is the temperature at the furnace mouth.
where L is the insertion depth of the thermocouple, and Tb is the temperature at the furnace mouth.
It can be seen from Equation (11) that in order to reduce the heat conduction error, the depth of
It can be seen from Equation (11) that in order to reduce the heat conduction error, the depth of
the thermocouple inserted into the high temperature furnace should be increased as much as
the thermocouple inserted into the high temperature furnace should be increased as much as possible.
possible. For bare thermocouples, when the ratio of insertion depth 𝐿 to the diameter 𝑑 of the
For bare thermocouples, when the ratio of insertion depth L to the diameter d of the thermocouple
thermocouple is 𝐿⁄𝑑 ≥ 10, a higher measurement accuracy can be obtained. For the case of the
temperature measurement of gas flow with low Reynolds number or higher measurement accuracy,
the ratio should be 𝐿⁄𝑑 ≥ 20~50. In the time constant measurement system, the insertion depth of
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2585 8 of 12

is L/d ≥ 10, a higher measurement accuracy can be obtained. For the case of the temperature
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 12
measurement
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, of gasPEER
x FOR flowREVIEW
with low Reynolds number or higher measurement accuracy, the ratio should 8 of 12
be L/d ≥ 20 ∼ sensor
thermocouple 50. In theis 120timemm, constant
and the measurement system, the insertion
diameter of thermocouple depthseveral
is generally of thermocouple
millimeters,
sensor is
thermocouple 120 mm,
sensor andis the
120 diameter
mm,
so the heat conduction error can be neglected. and of
the thermocouple
diameter of is generally
thermocouple several
is millimeters,
generally several so the heat
millimeters,
conduction error can be neglected.
so the heat conduction error can be neglected.
4. Experiment
4. Experiment
4. Experiment
The time constant of a K-type thermocouple wire with the diameter of 0.5 mm was measured by
The time
time constant
constant of of a K-type
K-type thermocouple
thermocouple wire wire with
with the
the diameter
diameter of of 0.5 mm
mm was was measured
measured by by
the The
measurement systema for time constant of the thermocouple based on 0.5 high temperature furnace.
the measurement
the measurement system system for for time
time constant
constant of of the
the thermocouple
thermocouple based based onon high
high temperature
temperature furnace.
furnace.
Two electrodes of the thermocouple are welded by spherical welding to form the junction whose
Two
Two electrodes
electrodes of the
of the thermocouple are welded by spherical welding to form the junction whose
diameter is 1mm. Thethermocouple
thermocoupleare wirewelded by spherical
was installed in thewelding to form theceramic
high temperature junctionsleeve,
whoseas
diameter
diameter is 1mm. The thermocouple wire was installed in the high temperature ceramic sleeve,
shown in Figure 7. In the radiative heat transfer mode, the time constant of the thermocouple is as
is 1mm. The thermocouple wire was installed in the high temperature ceramic sleeve, the
as shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 7. the
7. In In the radiative
radiative heatheat transfer mode, the time constant of the thermocouple is
function of temperature and is related totransfer mode,
the temperature theof time
the constant
object to beof the thermocouple
measured. is the
Therefore, the
the function
function of temperature
of temperature and is related
and is related measured to the temperature
to the temperature of theof the object to be
object temperatures measured.
to be measured. Therefore,
time constants of the thermocouple at different furnace areTherefore,
different. the
The
the time
time constants
constants of of thermocouple
the the thermocouple measured
measured at at different
different furnace
furnace temperatures
temperatures are are different.
different. The
temperatures of uniform temperature zone in high temperature furnace were set to 300, 400, 500, 600,
The temperatures
temperatures of uniform
of uniform temperature
temperature zone zone in high temperature furnace were toset to 400,
300, 500,
400, 600,
500,
and 700 °C respectively. According to theindefinition
high temperature furnace
of time constant were
and the
◦ C respectively. According to the definition of time constant and the output signals of
set output
300, signals of the
600,
and and 700
700 °C respectively.
thermocouple, the time According
constants are to the definition
101.993, 87.355,of 73.672,
time constant
60.258, and
and the output
48.819 signals of the
s respectively. The
the thermocouple,
thermocouple, the time constants are 101.993, 87.355, 73.672, 60.258, and 48.819 s respectively.
output curves the are time
shown constants
in Figure are
8. 101.993, 87.355, 73.672, 60.258, and 48.819 s respectively. The
The
output curves are shown in Figure 8. 8.
output curves are shown in Figure

Figure 7. K-type thermocouple wire.

Figure 7. K-type thermocouple wire.

800
800
700
700
600
600
Temperature (℃)

500
Temperature (℃)

500
400
400
300
300
200
200
100
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
0 Time
0 100 200 300 (s) 400 500 600
Time (s)
Figure8.8.Output
Figure Outputsignals
signalsofofthe
thethermocouple
thermocoupleatatdifferent
differentfurnace
furnacetemperatures.
temperatures.
Figure 8. Output signals of the thermocouple at different furnace temperatures.
Five
Fiveindependent
independentrepeated
repeatedexperiments
experimentsfor forthe
thethermocouple
thermocouplewere werecarried
carriedout
outatatthe
theuniform
uniform
Five
temperature independent repeated ◦
experiments for the thermocouple were carried out at the
in uniform
temperaturezone
zonetemperature
temperature ofof380380C.
°C.TheTheoutput
output signals of of
signals thethe
thermocouple
thermocouple areare
shown
shown Figure 9,
in Figure
temperature
and the time
9, and zone
time temperature
the constants are shown
constants areofin380 °C. The
Table
shown output
2. The
in Table signals
best2.estimateofofthe
The best thethermocouple
time constant
estimate are shown
of the
of the time in Figure
thermocouple
constant of the
9, andaverage
the time
isthermocouple
the constants
ofisfive areofthat
theestimates,
average shown in Tablethat
fiveisestimates, 2. is
The best estimate of the time constant of the
thermocouple is the average of five estimates, that is
𝜏̅ =1 ∑n 𝜏 = 87.7566 𝑠 . (12)
τ𝜏̅=
=n∑ ∑i=𝜏1 τ= i = 87.7566𝑠s..
87.7566 (12)
(12)
Appl.
Appl.Sci. 2018,8,8,2585
Sci.2018, x FOR PEER REVIEW 99ofof1212

400

350

300

Temperature (℃)
250

200 210

150 208
100
206
50
60 61 62 63
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (s)

Figure9.9.Output
Figure Outputsignals
signalsofofthe
thethermocouple.
thermocouple.

Table 2. Time constant estimates

Table 2. Time constant estimates
n Time Constant (s) n Time Constant (s)
n Time Constant (s) n Time Constant (s)
1 87.7232 4 87.2350
1 87.7232 4 87.2350
2 87.6740 5 87.9329
32 87.6740
88.2180 5 87.9329
3 88.2180
4.1. Analysis of Type A Standard Uncertainty
4.1. Analysis of Type A Standard Uncertainty
When the number of independent repeated experiments is large, the experimental standard
When
deviation themeasured
of the number of independent
value repeated
can be calculated experiments
according is large,
to Bessel’s the experimental
formula, and when the standard
number
deviation of the measured value can be calculated according to Bessel’s
of experiments is small, the extreme difference method can be used. In the measurement formula, and when the
experiment
ofnumber of experiments
time constant, the timeisconstant
small, the extreme
of the differencewas
thermocouple method can befive
measured used. In the
times, measurement
so the standard
experiment of time constant, the time constant of the thermocouple was measured five
deviation which indicates the dispersion of the time constant estimates was calculated by the extreme times, so the
standard deviation which indicates the dispersion of the time constant estimates
difference method. The extreme difference coefficients C and degrees of freedom ν are shown in was calculated by
the extreme
Table difference
3, and the method.
experimental The extreme
standard difference
deviation s(τk ) ofcoefficients
time constant𝐶 is
and degrees of freedom ν are
shown in Table 3, and the experimental standard deviation 𝑠 𝜏 of time constant is
R 0.9830
s(τk ) = 𝑅 = 0.9830s = 0.4219 s. (13)
𝑠 𝜏 =C = 2.33 𝑠 = 0.4219 𝑠 . (13)
𝐶 2.33

Table 3. Extreme difference coefficients and degrees of freedom

Table 3. Extreme difference coefficients and degrees of freedom
n 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
𝒏 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
C 1.13 1.69 2.06 2.33 2.53 2.70 2.85 2.97
𝐶 1.13 1.69 2.06 2.33 2.53 2.70 2.85 2.97
ν 0.9 1.8 2.7 3.6 4.5 5.3 6.0 6.8
ν 0.9 1.8 2.7 3.6 4.5 5.3 6.0 6.8

The
TheType
TypeAAstandard
standarduncertainty
uncertaintyofoftime
timeconstant
constantestimate
estimateisisasasshown
shownininEquation
Equation(14),
(14),and
andthe
the
degrees of freedom is 3.6.
degrees of freedom is 3.6. √
u A = s(τ ) = s(τk )/ n = 0.1887 s. (14)
𝑢 = 𝑠 𝜏̅ = s 𝜏 ⁄√𝑛 = 0.1887 𝑠 . (14)
4.2. Analysis of Type B Standard Uncertainty
4.2. Sampling
Analysis ofinterval
Type B Standard Uncertaintydevice produces Type B uncertainty component. Because
of data acquisition
the time constant obtained from the response
Sampling interval of data acquisition signal
device is the difference
produces between thecomponent.
Type B uncertainty start time and the
Because
time corresponding
the time to the 63.2%
constant obtained fromfinal temperature
the response signal value,
is thethe estimatebetween
difference value ofthe
thestart
timetime
constant is
and the
uniformly distributed in the interval [ τ − ∆t, τ + ∆t ] . The sampling frequency of the acquisition
time corresponding to the 63.2% final temperature value, the estimate value of the time constant is device
was 500 Hz, distributed
uniformly so Type B uncertainty of the time
in the interval constant
𝜏̅ − Δ𝑡, 𝜏̅ + Δ𝑡 estimate is
. The sampling frequency of the acquisition
device was 500 Hz, so Type B uncertainty
∆tof the time constant estimate is
0.002
u B1 = = √ s = 0.0012 s, (15)
kΔ𝑡 0.0023
𝑢 = = 𝑠 = 0.0012 𝑠 , (15)
𝑘 √3
 Appl.
Appl. Sci.Sci. 2018,
2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW
8, 2585 1010ofof
1212

where 𝑘 is confidence factor. When the data is uniformly distributed in the interval, 𝑘√= √3.
where Thek is confidence
thermocouplefactor. When
time the data
constant in theisradiative
uniformly distributed
heat related kto=the 3.
in theisinterval,
transfer mode temperature
The thermocouple time constant in the radiative heat transfer mode is related
of the high temperature furnace, so the temperature error of the furnace will also produce to the temperature
uncertainty
offor
the time
high temperature furnace, so the temperature error of the furnace will also
constant measurement. The temperature of the uniform temperature zone of high produce uncertainty
fortemperature
time constant measurement.
furnace was set toThe temperature
vary from 300 of°Cthe
to uniform temperature
700 °C. The zone ofofhigh
time constant temperature
the thermocouple
furnace was set to vary from 300 ◦ C to 700 ◦ C. The time constant of the thermocouple was measured
was measured every 50 °C. The time constants at different temperatures are shown in Table 4. The
every ◦
curve50of C. The
time time constants
constant at different temperatures
and the temperature are shown
of high temperature in Table
furnace 4. Theascurve
was fitted, shownofin
time constant and the temperature
Figure 10, the polynomial of the curve is of high temperature furnace was fitted, as shown in Figure 10,
the polynomial of the curve is
𝑓 𝑇 = 4.991 × 10 𝑇 − 0.1838𝑇 + 152.8 . (16)
f ( T ) = 4.991 × 10−5 T 2 − 0.1838T + 152.8. (16)
Table 4. Time constants at different temperatures
Table 4. Time constants at different temperatures
Temperature (°C) Time Constant (s) Temperature (°C) Time Constant (s)
300(◦ C)
Temperature 101.993(s)
Time Constant 550 (◦ C)
Temperature 66.88
Time Constant (s)
300 350 94.909
101.993 600
550 60.258
66.88
350 400 87.355
94.909 650
600 54.387
60.258
400 450 87.355
80.071 650
700 54.387
48.819
450 80.071 700 48.819
500 73.672
500 73.672

110
Time constant
100 Fitting curve

90
Time Constant (s)

80

70

60

50

40
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Temperature (℃)

Figure
Figure 10.10. Curve
Curve ofof time
time constant
constant and
and the
the temperature
temperature ofof high
high temperature
temperature furnace.
furnace.

Therefore,
Therefore,the temperature
the sensitivity
temperature coefficient
sensitivity of of
coefficient thethe
time constant
time can
constant bebe
can obtained as as
obtained

∂ f𝜕𝑓
(t)𝑡 = 9.982 × 10
= 9.982 × 10−5 T 𝑇−−0.1838,
0.1838 , (17)
(17)
∂T𝜕𝑇
where 𝑇 is the temperature of the uniform temperature zone of high temperature furnace, and 𝑓 𝑡
where T is the temperature of the uniform temperature zone of high temperature furnace, and f (t) is
is the equation of time constant, 𝜏 = 𝑓 𝑡 .
the equation of time constant, τ = f (t).
The temperature error of the uniform temperature zone of high temperature furnace is ±1 °C,
The temperature error of the uniform temperature zone of high temperature furnace is ±1 ◦ C,
and the temperature is uniformly distributed in the interval 𝑇 ±◦1 °C. So the uncertainty is
and the temperature is uniformly distributed in the interval T ± 1 C. So the uncertainty is
𝑢 𝑇 = ∆𝑇⁄𝑘 = 0.58 ℃ . (18)
u( T ) = ∆T/k = 0.58 . (18)
Therefore, the Type B uncertainty component of time constant produced by the temperature
error of the uniform
Therefore, temperature
the Type zone
B uncertainty is
component of time constant produced by the temperature error
of the uniform temperature zone is 𝜕𝑓 𝑡
𝑢 = 𝑢 𝑇 = 0.0846 𝑠 . (19)
 𝜕𝑇 
 ∂ f (t) 
u B2 =
 u( T ) = 0.0846 s. (19)
∂T
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 2585 11 of 12

4.3. Combined Standard Uncertainty and Expanded Uncertainty

According to the above analysis, the components of the measurement uncertainty of the
thermocouple time constant are independent of each other, and the combined standard uncertainty is
obtained by q
uc = u2A + u2B1 + u2B2 = 0.2068 s. (20)

In summary, when the temperature of the uniform temperature zone of high temperature furnace
is 380 ◦ C, the best estimate of the thermocouple time constant τ = 87.7566 s, the combined standard
uncertainty uc = 0.2068 s, and When the inclusion probability of the determined interval is 95%,
the expanded uncertainty U = kuc = 0.4136 s, k = 2.

5. Conclusions
The time constant of the thermocouple sensor reflects its response speed in dynamic temperature
measurement and is an important performance parameter. Depending on different heat transfer modes,
there are various methods and systems for measuring the time constant. In this paper, the measurement
system was constructed by using a high temperature furnace to produce a stable temperature field.
When the temperature of the uniform temperature zone is within 300–700 ◦ C, the temperature profile
from the furnace mouth to uniform temperature zone is linear. In the system, a fast feed device was
used to insert the thermocouple into the high temperature furnace and generate the ramp temperature
excitation. Compared with other measurement systems for measuring time constant, the developed
system in this paper has many advantages. Compared with the shock tube, the steady state excitation
temperature produced by high temperature furnace is stable and can last for a longer time. Compared
with the hot wind tunnel, the constant temperature field with stable temperature can be generated,
and the fast feed device can enable the thermocouple inserted into the temperature field at different
speeds. In addition, high temperature furnace can produce thermal field of higher temperature.
Because of the close relationship between the thermocouple time constant and heat transfer mode,
if the time constant measured in the laboratory is of guiding significance to practical application,
the measurement environment in the laboratory should be consistent with or similar to the actual
application environment. Therefore, an appropriate measurement method and system should be
selected according to the actual application environment. In the measurement system developed in
this paper, the fact that the main heat transfer mode of the thermocouple is radiative heat transfer
makes it suitable for applications for kiln or boiler. In addition, some scholars have also studied the
on-site measurement method of the thermocouple time constant.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Z.Z. and Y.L.; Methodology, Z.Z.; Validation, Y.L. and Z.Z.;
Writing—original draft preparation, Y.L.; Writing—review and editing, Z.Z. and W.Y.; Supervision, X.H.; Project
administration, Z.Z.
Funding: This research was funded by National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant number 51575499,
61473267 and sponsored by the Fund for Shanxi “1331 Project” Key Subject Construction.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the
study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to
publish the results.

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