ANALYSIS

Today, we were given task and that is to perform the Experiment No. 107:
Latent Heat of Fusion. In this experiment, heat was denoted as the energy that is
being transferred from one body to another through a physical contact with each
other that resulted from difference in their temperature. Heat transfer may root a
substance or a material to undertake a change in its phase (solid, liquid or gas) or in
temperature. Also, the amount of heat that is present and involved during a change
in phase is directly proportional to the mass of substance and depends on its nature.
Thus saying, if the mass of the substance increases, the amount of heat that is needed
for it to change its phase must also be increased.

Moreover, latent heat was also mentioned in this experiment and referred to
the energy absorbed or released by a substance during a change in its physical state
(phase) that occurs without changing its temperature. The latent heat associated with
melting a solid or freezing a liquid is called the heat of fusion; that associated with
vaporizing a liquid or a solid or condensing a vapor is called the heat of vaporization.
The latent heat is normally expressed as the amount of heat (in units of joules or
calories) per mole or unit mass of the substance undergoing a change of state. For
example, when a pot of water is kept boiling, the temperature remains at 100 °C (212
°F) until the last drop evaporates, because all the heat being added to the liquid is
absorbed as latent heat of vaporization and carried away by the escaping vapor
molecules. Similarly, while ice melts, it remains at 0 °C (32 °F), and the liquid water
that is formed with the latent heat of fusion is also at 0 °C. The heat of fusion for
water at 0 °C is approximately 334 joules (79.7 calories) per gram, and the heat of
vaporization at 100 °C is about 2,230 joules (533 calories) per gram. Because the
heat of vaporization is so large, steam carries a great deal of thermal energy that is
released when it condenses, making water an excellent working fluid for heat
engines.

An additional information about latent heat, it arises from the work required
to overcome the forces that hold together atoms or molecules in a material. The
regular structure of a crystalline solid is maintained by forces of attraction among its
individual atoms, which oscillate slightly about their average positions in the crystal
lattice. As the temperature increases, these motions become increasingly violent
until, at the melting point, the attractive forces are no longer sufficient to maintain
the stability of the crystal lattice. However, additional heat (the latent heat of fusion)
must be added (at constant temperature) in order to accomplish the transition to the
even more-disordered liquid state, in which the individual particles are no longer
held in fixed lattice positions but are free to move about through the liquid. A liquid
differs from a gas in that the forces of attraction between the particles are still
sufficient to maintain a long-range order that endows the liquid with a degree of
cohesion. As the temperature further increases, a second transition point (the boiling
point) is reached where the long-range order becomes unstable relative to the largely
independent motions of the particles in the much larger volume occupied by a vapor
or gas. Once again, additional heat (the latent heat of vaporization) must be added to
break the long-range order of the liquid and accomplish the transition to the largely
disordered gaseous state.

Lastly, latent heat is associated with processes other than changes among the
solid, liquid, and vapor phases of a single substance. Many solids exist in different
crystalline modifications, and the transitions between these generally involve
absorption or evolution of latent heat. The process of dissolving one substance in
another often involves heat; if the solution process is a strictly physical change, the
heat is a latent heat. Sometimes, however, the process is accompanied by a chemical
change, and part of the heat is that associated with the chemical reaction.

The objectives for this experiment were 1to use the principles of calorimetry
when combining with different temperatures and 2 to use the Law of Heat Exchange
in determining the specific heat of solid metal. A theory was also used all throughout
the experiment. Calorimetry is the science or act of measuring changes in state
variables of a body for the purpose of deriving the heat transfer associated with
changes of its state due, for example, to chemical reactions, physical changes, or
phase transitions under specified constraints. Calorimetry is performed with a
calorimeter that means measure. Scottish physician and scientist Joseph Black, who
was the first to recognize the distinction between heat and temperature, is said to be
the founder of the science of calorimetry.

In this experiment, we were required to get the latent heat of fusion of ice.
Same in part one we measure the calorimeter, water and the temperature of water
and ice. We put the ice in the calorimeter and melt it. Our initial temperature of ice
is 6 ºC. We get the value of mass of ice by subtracting the total mass from the water
and calorimeter. And once the ice is being moved into the calorimeter, it is important
to wipe off the water from the surface of the ice, because excess water can affect the
mass of the ice when measuring it after melting it in the calorimeter. Since we don't
need the excess water, we could rather wipe it off to get less error. If there will be a
different mass of ice, then the latent heat will depend on the mass of the ice. Mass
of ice is inversely proportional to the latent heat. If mass of ice is greater than its
initial, then the latent heat will decrease.

The materials in this experiment were the beaker, electric stove, extension
cord, thermometer, calorimeter with stirrer, digital weighing scale, and an ice.
BEAKER
- This was used to contain the water while it is
being boiled on the stove.

ELECTRIC STOVE
- This was used to produce flame and boil the
water.

THERMOMETER
- This was used to measure the temperature of
the mixtures.

CALORIMETER WITH STIRRER

- This was used to achieve the objective of this
experiment which is the latent heat of the
mixture.

DIGITAL WEIGHING SCALE

- This was used to measure the masses of the
materials needed.

ICE
- This was used as the main material to
successfully perform the experiment.
 The equations used in this experiment were:

1. QLOSS + QGAINED = 0

2. Q = mLF (when the phase change is from solid to liquid or vice versa)

3. Q = mLV (when the phase change is from gas to liquid or vice versa)

Where:

Q - Heat in calories, cal

mLF - Latent heat of fusion, ccal/g

mLV - Latent heat of vaporization, cal/g

Upon and during the performance of this experiment, there wre some
problems that we encountered and here are some recommendations to minimize
them:

- The room temperature, since we are performing in the laboratory with air
conditioned room; it can be minimized by performing the experiment fast and
consistent.
- The mass of ice before and after putting it in the calorimeter, a sudden change
in the mass of ice will result to an error. In able to minimize the error, we must
wipe off the excess water in the ice before putting it in the calorimeter.
- The measurement of temperature, it can be minimize be measuring it near
- The boiling water to avoid the cold air that also affect the experiment.

On the next page, the tables presented prior in this paper will be discussed and
some interpretations will be drawn from these results. The data in this experiment
were gathered from the equations and procedures provided by the laboratory manual,
which were given to us.
 Determining the Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice
Mass of Calorimeter 47 g
Mass of water 142 g
Mass of mixture 219.4 g
Mass of ice 77.4 g
Initial temperature of ice 6 °C
Initial temperature of water 58.6 °C
Initial temperature of calorimeter 58.6 °C
Final temperature of mixture 32.8 °C
Experimental Latent heat of fusion 77.4 cal/g
Actual Latent heat of fusion 80 cal/g
Percentage error 3.325 %

First, the masses of the materials namely, water, calorimeter and ice were
gathered by placing them on the weighing scale. The first thing to do is to weigh the
calorimeter alone, having a 47 g of mass. Then, add a certain amount of hot water
and weigh it again. This time, the mass that was gotten will be subtracted by the
mass of calorimeter to get the mass of water, which is 142 g. Last for this section of
the table, the mass of ice was measured by subtracting the mass of water from the
overall mass or the mass of the mixture, which yielded a mass of 77.4 g of ice.

Second, for the temperatures of the materials, the thermometer was used to gather
the data. The initial temperature of the ice was achieved by simply placing the
thermometer beside it and wait for the mercury to stop from decreasing, until it
reaches 6 °C. However, the temperature of the calorimeter was said to be equal to
the temperature of water, therefore, their temperatures are both 58.5 °C. Lastly, for
the final temperature of the mixture, which was acquired from mixing up the hot
water and ice. The result was 32.8 °C.

Last, for the experimental and actual values of the latent heat of fusion were
gathered by using the formula provided at the beginning of the performance of this
experiment. The experimental latent heat of fusion was given as 77.34 cal/g. While
the actual latent heat of fusion of ice is said to be 80 cal/g. With these data, the
yielded percentage of error was only 3.325% which establishes an accurate result for
the experiment.

If you have a glass of a cool drink, well supplied with ice, you can expect its
temperature to drop until it is close to 0 ºC. You also can expect (and can easily
check with a thermometer) that it will remain cold, regardless of the outside
temperature, as long as there remains some not melted ice in the drink. Only after all
the ice has melted will the temperature of the drink begin to rise. Why is this?

When a solid substance changes from the solid phase to the liquid phase, energy
must be supplied in order to overcome the molecular attractions between the
constituent particles of the solid. This energy must be supplied externally, normally
as heat, and does not bring about a change in temperature. We call this energy latent
heat (the word "latent" means "invisible"). The latent heat is the energy released or
absorbed during a change of state.
 Included in this paper is the solutions and processes that were used to achieve
the results presented in the table above.

𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐶𝐶 𝑀𝐶 ∆𝑇

|𝑀𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑓 + 𝐶𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝑚 | (𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑥 )

𝑄𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 =
𝑀𝑖𝑐𝑒

𝑄𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
0.217𝑐𝑎𝑙
|(47 𝑔) ( ) (32.8ºC − 58.5ºC) + (142 𝑔)(32.8 − 58.5)| − 77.4 (1)(32.8 − 6)
𝑔
=
77.4 𝑔

𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑄𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 = 77.34
𝑔

77.34𝑐𝑎𝑙 80𝑐𝑎𝑙
− 𝑔
𝑔
𝑃𝐸𝑅𝐶𝐸𝑁𝑇𝐴𝐺𝐸 𝐸𝑅𝑅𝑂𝑅 = | |
80𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑔

𝑃𝐸𝑅𝐶𝐸𝑁𝑇𝐴𝐺𝐸 𝐸𝑅𝑅𝑂𝑅 = 3.325 %

 If the ambient temperature around a piece of ice increases, the temperature of
the ice will increase as well. However, this steady increase in temperature stops as
soon as the ice reaches its melting point. At this point, the ice undergoes a change of
state and turns into liquid water, and its temperature won't change until all of it has
melted. You can test this with a simple experiment. Leave a cup of ice cubes in a hot
car and monitor the temperature with a thermometer. You'll find that the icy water
remains at a frosty 32 degrees Fahrenheit (0 degrees Celsius) until all of it has
melted. When that happens, you'll notice a quick temperature rise as the water
continues to absorb heat from the inside of the car.

When you heat ice, the individual molecules gain kinetic energy, but until the
temperature reaches the melting point, they don't have energy to break the bonds that
hold them in a crystal structure. They vibrate more quickly within their confines as
you add heat, and the temperature of the ice goes up. At a critical point – the melting
point – they acquire enough energy to break free. When that happens, all the heat
energy added to the ice is absorbed by H2O molecules changing phase. There's
nothing left to increase the kinetic energy of the molecules in the liquid state until
all the bonds holding the molecules in a crystal structure have been broken.
Consequently, the temperature remains constant until all the ice has melted. The
same thing happens when you heat water to the boiling point. The water will heat
until the temperature reaches 212 F (100 C), but it won't get any hotter until it has
all turned to steam. As long as liquid water remains in a boiling pan, the temperature
of the water is 212 F, no matter how hot the flame underneath it is.

If you heat a large pan full of water that contains a single ice cube, the water
far from the ice will begin to heat up, but in the immediate environment of the ice
cube, the temperature will remain constant. One way to understand why this happens
is to realize that, while some of the ice is melting, some of the water around the ice
is re-freezing. This creates an equilibrium state that helps maintain the temperature
constant. As more and more ice melts, the rate of melting increases, but the
temperature doesn't go up until all the ice is gone.

It's possible to create a more-or-less linear temperature rise if you add enough
heat. For example, put a pan of ice over a bonfire and record the temperature. You
probably won't notice much of a lag at the melting point because the amount of heat
affects the rate of melting. If you add enough heat, the ice can melt more or less
spontaneously.

If you're boiling water, you can raise the temperature of the liquid still in the
pan by adding pressure. One way to do this is to confine the steam in an enclosed
space. By doing so, you make it more difficult for molecules to change phase, and
they will stay in the liquid state while the water temperature rises past the boiling
point. This is the idea behind pressure cookers.
 CONCLUSION

The concept of the experiment shows how heat of the surrounding can affect
the temperature of an object. Heat can be defined as the form of energy transferred
to another object. There must be a difference in temperatures of the substance to
have heat or energy transfer. The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass
required to raise the temperature by one degree Celsius. The relationship between
heat and temperature change is expressed in the form shown below where c is the
specific heat. The relationship does not apply if a phase change is encountered,
because the heat added or removed during a phase change does not change the
temperature. By this formula, we can see the relationship of heat to mass and
temperature. Heat is directly proportional to mass and change in temperature. The
object needs more heat, which means greater final temperature, if there is greater
mass, and vice versa. Also, from the equation and after the experiment, I can
conclude that heat absorb by the metal depends on the property of the metal to absorb
heat. The more heat it absorb the lesser the specific heat of that metal. They are
inversely proportional to each other. Another thing is mass of ice is inversely
proportional to the latent heat. The more weight the ice contain, the lesser the latent
heat of fusion.

And in performing the experiment we should consider the following factors.

One, the place where the experiment will be held for it can affect temperature of
each object or mixture. Two, the temperature of the given material, from initial to
the final temperature of that specific material must also be given considerations. Due
to the cool temperature of the setting, the experimental value of the results that
involves heat did not bode with the supposed results that should have been acquired
as seen in the table presented above.
 This experiment is one of the best examples to be used to have a control in the
temperature of the setting or the classroom, as it can be a factor in the results of the
experiment. This can better be illustrated by picturing and analyzing the effect of
submerging ice, which is solid, in the calorimeter with hot water almost instantly,
the ice melted into liquid form because the ice absorbed the heat from the hot water.
The same goes when the heated metal was submerged in the calorimeter with tap
water this time however, the metal cooled because the tap water, which is cooler
than the metal, absorbed its heat. This principle of heat transfer is called conduction.

As observed in this experiment, the stirrer was pulled up and down to hasten
heat exchange. The idea behind that, in my opinion, is to introduce heat from the
bottom of the calorimeter to the surface of the calorimeter and to introduce coldness
from the surface of the calorimeter to the bottom of the calorimeter respectively. The
principle behind that is called convection as it talks about how the hot part of a liquid,
being dense, will be forced at the bottom and the cold part, being less dense, surfaces.

Based on the results and data gathered, I therefore conclude that the heat
energy always transfer from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a lower
temperature. If we assume that there is no loss of heat to the surrounding
environment, then the heat that is being gained by the cooler object is equal to the
heat that is lost by the warmer object. Moreover, specific heat is constant and it is
not affected by the change of mass or temperature of the substance. On the side of
latent heat of fusion, I can conclude that it could be determine through the use of
mixture method wherein the quantity of heat lost is equal to the quantity of gained
heat. In this experiment, there are sources of errors that made it quite unsuccessful.
First is the measuring of temperature, since it is not a digital thermometer, the
reading of the temperature is not constant. Next is the ice, since it is in a room
temperature before putting it on the water, there is already a change of phase
(melting) that contributed to the final mass of the water. The application of specific
heat can be used in construction. Use of woods, since this is a good insulator, it has
a high specific heat that will result to warmer houses. Moreover, latent heat can be
seen in our everyday lives just like when drinking a water and you add ice in it, the
latent heat of the ice will be absorbed by the water and making the temperature of
water low.

The experiment could have been repeated and conducted more than once, in
order to obtain average readings which could lead to more appropriate results and
more accurate values and it would help to reduce random errors which affected the
results obtained.

There might have been significant heat loss to the surrounding while
transferring the hot water from the beaker into the calorimeter and this heat loss
might have affected the values and results.

There might have been significant heat gain from the surrounding while
measuring the mass of the ice in the calorimeter and this heat gain might have
affected the values and results.

The main source of error in this experiment was due to the limitation in the
choice of apparatus used, the use of better and more accurate equipment would lead
to more accurate results (results without errors). For example, rather than using a
normal laboratory analogue thermometer which has an error of ± 0.05 °C, it is better
to use a digital thermometer which is more exact leading to more accurate
temperature readings and hence, results.

To limit the heat lost to the environment, better apparatus should be used (i.e.
better insulating materials for the calorimeter). Using larger quantities of ice and
water and conducting the experiment repeatedly would eventually cause errors to
have a smaller effect on the result, such that the result of the experiment approaches
the accepted value.
References:

https://www.phywe.com/en/latent-heat-of-fusion-of-ice.html

https://repository.curriculab.net/files/versuchsanleitungen/p1044700/p1044700e.pd
f

http://www.ecusd7.org/ehs/ehsstaff/gbannon/apchem/labs/specificheat.htm

https://sciencing.com/happens-temperature-ice-melts-8432055.html