V0 dl ¥ Chapter 8: Digital Fiter gy, 418 i tion 8.1 _ Block Diagram Representa ‘As indicated earlier, the input-output rekon of an LTI digital filter can be expressed in yarny indicated earlier. the i . In the time domain, itis given by the convolution sum yt) = > Atk dele — Ale K-00 . or by the linear constant coefficient difference equation N M. yin] = — Dodevln K+ Do pew A ' ko ket {A digital filter ean be implemented on a general-purpose digital computer in software forme special-purpose hardware, To this end, itis necessary to describe the input-output relationship by nx fof a computational algorithm. To illustrate what we mean by a computational algorithm, conser afr order causal LTUIR digital filter described by yn] = ai yl — 1) + poxte] + pixte— 1). i Using Eq. (8.3). we can compute y(n] for n = 0.1.2, input x(n] form = —1,0,1,2.... 310] = =a yf=-1] + poxl0] + pix[-l], YL] = 41 yO] + pox{l] + pix(0], YR] = di yf1] + poxl2] + pixfl], knowing the initial condition y[-1] ate he can continue this calculation for any value of n we desire. Each step of the calculation process 8 Knowledge ofthe previously caleulated value of the output sample (delayed value af te HH 7 present sae oe input sample, and the previous value of the input sample (delayed value of th ‘ap wi ie data values, we ‘ 7 ‘multiply each of them appropriately with coefficients —d1, po. at Ph”, then sum the products to compute the s Present value of the out f rence equi Eq, (8.3) can be interpreted as a valid computational algorithn, | ara 8.1.1 Basic Building Blocks o in block 8% Comeieny represented xe also the pick-off nodes at the input and the o1 c utput There are several advantages in representin oe nting the digital filter in block diagram form: ()) "gh : im by inspecti e the block ss to determine the explicit relation between the outpor serine gt ea © aay ae y ret the input, (3) itis easy to maMiPy as. ‘ : representations from the transfer function ditectly leat ne: ©) it is easy t0 develop itve _ ajck Diagram Representation a xin] Figure 8.2: A cascaded lattice digital filter structure. 412. Analysis of Block Diagrams 419 Dig iter structures represented in block diagram form often can be analyzed by writing down the ‘pesions forthe output signals of each adder as a sum of its input signals, thereby developing a set ‘equtions relating the filter input and output signals in terms of all internal signals. Eliminating the wwaned internal variables then results in the expression for the output signal as a function of the input “land he filter parameters that are the multiplier coefficients. Example 8.1 illustrates the analysis approach. EXAMPLE 8.1 Analysis of a Cascaded Lattice Digital Filter Structure Toaralyze the cascaded lattice digital filter structure of Figure 82, we first write down the expressions forthe output signals of the four adders as given below: 4a) moms oe Wy = - 851. ea Ws = Si + eWo. wo ¥ = pM +52 fons in Eqs. (8.48) t0 eae the figure, Sp = 2-1. Substituting these relations in Eas. ). we obtain (85) (856) (850) (B50) - mbining these i = (e+ 27')We. Cor ne). = W7/( + 82 ad from Ba. (50). 3 = ¢ ations we get 86)Chapter 8: Digital Fiter gy, et, 420 uln) va © vn © alizati delay fe op. Figure 83: (a) An example of a delay-free loop and (b) its equivalent realization with no delay jon for Substituting Eq. (8.6) in Eqs. (8.5a) and (8.54), we finally obtain, after some algebra, the express the transfer function H(z) of the digital filter structure as oy oY a BE BS Yee ye HO = = TE CF aeeT 4 a2 cr) 8.1.3 The Delay-Free Loop Problem is . resent For physical realizability ofthe digital filter structure, itis necessary that the block diagr a isto contains no delay-free loops, that is, feedback loops without any delay elements. Figure a typical delay-free loop that may this 'Y appear unintentionally in a specific structure. Analysis of yields ybe) = B (A (wln] + yin) + vn). ‘The above expression implies that the determination of y[n]. This is physicalt ot ‘the kno" Of the current value of y[n] requires a all Y impossible to achieve due to the finite time required to carry 0M operations in a digital machine. Jay-fe® le A simple graph-theoretic-based method has been proposed to detect the presence of J€18)" i in an arbitrary digital filter structure, along with are ™ethods to locate and remove these A it wt output relations {Szc75b]. The removal is achiewed by replacing oP the structure containing the delay-free loops with an equivalent realization with no delay 7 example, Figure 8.3(b) shows an equivalent re " ali 5 ram of Figure 8 delay-free loop, Provided AB 4 1 ization of the block diagram of Fig4g. Equivalent Structures 424 YQ) xe) XG) Figure 8.4: (a) The original digital filter structure, (b) its transposed form, and (c) redrawn transposed structure. 81.4 Canonic and Noncanonic Structures A digital filter structure is said to be canonic if the number of delays inthe block diagram representation isequal to the order of the difference equation (i.e. the order of the transfer function), Otherwise, i 3 ‘oreanonic structure. For example, the structure of Figure 8.1 isa noneanonic realization since it employs ‘wo delays to realize the first-order difference equation of Eq. (8.3). 82 Equivalent Structures i given transfer function. We de- Ost main objective in this chapter is to develop various realization’ of agen ims clon, We fae two digital filter structures to be equivalent if they have the sot salen structures. HOW” oer i 'e generation of equival Sr and in Chapter 12 «number of eo a genset He Pe ont fairly simple way to generate an equivalent structur tion, which is as follows [Jac70al: (0 reverse all paths, i) replace pick-off nodes with adders, and vice verse. and iy ‘merchange the input and the output nodes: inp\ the outpl we ation in Exam . i. sructure Using the TransPos We “illustrate the application of the transPose © : ‘on of an Equivalent s Ry . ic XAMPLE 82 Illustration of the General . a plying the transpos ined by 8 iin Figure 840) structure obta yn in com i a). The ae Sider the digital filter structure of Figure 8:4¢ . The sete is °Peaion is shown in Figure &:4(b) The redrawn taNsPo OO Aee vv ye Chapter 8: Digital Filter Struct lu 422 : ec developing equivalent structures are basedona sp ite algorithm for each. ATother methods for develop ini of equivalent structures real izing the same transfer juga } ture. There are literally an infinite Moreover. a large variety of algorithms hase ich realizations. Ve be, | u vane prevent us from reviewing each method in gy . re limitatl hors, and spac ‘some commonly used structures. Sy Ives to a discussion of some ; structures peeat be noted that under ininte-precision anithmeie ny given Eon ofa igs should be Ee . tt i tically to any other equivalent structure However, in practice, due 0 the finite wore, aves identica Tunitations, a specific realization behaves differently from its other fable teatzations Hence, i, Tro choose a structure that has good quantization Propels ‘ordlength imp. analyze the inte wordlength effects of each one, and then select the one that is least sensitive, Incenas cases, it is possible to develop a structure that by construction has good quantization properties, Ty, shalyais of quantization effects isthe subject of Chapter 12, which also describes additional sus specifically developed to minimize certain quantization effects. In this chapter, we discuss some snp Rativations that are adequate in many applications. We do, however, compare each of the realizains discussed here with regard to their computational complexity determined in terms of the total number multipliers and the total number of adders required for their implementation. This latter issue is imporan where the cost of implementation is critical. aint it is impossible to develop alls ‘advanced by various aul We therefore restrict oursel 8.3 Basic FIR Digital Filter Structures f ‘We first consider the realization of FIR digital filters. Recall that a causal FIR filter of order Nis chant terized by a transfer function H(z), Ny He) = Yo h{kle*, 8 which is a polynomial in z-! i feria ggumalin =~ of degree 1. Inthe ime domain, the input-output relation of theabore™® Tespectively. Si be dese ase ove . Since FIR filters can filter eoeicients, such fiten ae gee QUENCY ray a 18 a methods for such filters. ne” Preferred in man a 'Y applications. We now outline several eral requires N tiplier coefficients 8 A direct-form rea! 'S indicated in Figure 8.5(a) for N = 4 aster function are « TR filter e 9) Her can be readily developed from Eq. (8 Eq. (8.9), of this structure yields JE] = Alo} ter} + 2) (xt — 1) + apzpep which is precisely ofthe form of Ea, (8.9) ~ A+ ALB]xfx — 3] + Alalxln — 4he ] 423 (b) | Figure 8.5: Direct-form FIR structures. (0) xin] Figure 8.6: Cascade form FIR structure fora sixth-order FIR te Th ‘nine of the structure of Figure 8.5(a), shown in Figure 8.5(0), is the second direct-form ‘oth direct-form structures are canonic with respect (0 delays. faa : Cascade-Form Structures big On . Sencar der FIR transfer function can also be realized as & cascade of FIR sections, with each section Se mae either a first-order or a second-order transfer function ‘Jo this end, we factor the FIR r ion H(z) of Eq. (8.8) and write it in the form y K 1 : (ey = nto) [] (1+ Bae! + Pet is (8.10) ke NRiEN 7 ith Bax = 0. A cascade realization W iseven and K = (N + 1)/2if N is 04, WE pak = oe ee = aks Yea ) reui inFiurgi three second-order sections for N nga 8. can of course also be realized in He transposed direct fOr i. MC and also employs N ewo-inputaddersand N+ 1 Frultipliers for a0 >I ‘yg ct form. Note that the cascade ‘Nth-order FIR transfer © apgofi Dal iter Structures Leabecuece s I i Chapter 8: Digital Fitter p Stet, 424 ization 8.3 Polyphase Real filter is based on the polyphase decomposition of its : sl Tansy ee al es (Bel76), To illustrate this approzeh, consider for singin” inction and results in a parallel 7 pea FIR transfer function H(z) of length “ye H(z) = h{0} + Al]z* + h[2]z7? + h[3]zF + (ale woe + hls|z75 + hl6]z~® + AlT]z~7 + Alg]z8. a fer function can be expressed as a sum of two terms, with one term conning the ee, x ea en ents, as indicated below: intesed coefficients andthe other containing the odd-indexed coeficient H(2) = (ho) + h[2]z~? + hld]z~* + A[6]2~6 + hIB]2~*) + (bli) + ALB]23 + hs]z~* + Al7]2~7) = (h10] + A[2]z~? + h[a}z~* + h[6]z-6 + Al8]z— +271 (All) + AB]z~? + h[5]z~4 + A[7]2-6) . (ay, “a By using the notation Eo(z) = hl0] + h[2\27! + h[4]z-? + Af6]2-3 + AB} Ex) = hl] + hB]z“ + Als]z-? + h[7]273, 6B We can rewrite Eq. (8.12) as H(z) = Eo(z?) + 271, (22), a) {in asimilar manner, by grouping the terms of Eq, (8.11) differently, we can reexpress it in the fom HO) = Eo) +271 B23) 4.22 By), a Where now Eo(z) = hl0) + h[3]2~! 4. hl6]z~?, . 6 Fula) = Al) + ale + prion? et F2(2) = hl] + afsjz—1 + h[8]2-2, The decom position of H(z) in the Polyphase decomposition. In the gen form of Eqs. (8.14) function of Eq. (8.8) of order N is oft eral case, an L-branch Polyphase decomposition of the he form oy “ HQ) = Demme (ety, ad oo Oe nny pwn BS ) and (8.15) is more commonly KW ae Matmie, geomet, "Le isthe integer pan of9. Basic FIR Digital Filter Struct tures Ne ee ; 7 425 $4 acd 61, . 4y Ex(z4) cy Cy eye @ O) © . Figure 8.7: igure 8.7: Polyphase realizations of an FIR transfer rane function. an ni (8) el he for os) Figure 88: Canonie thre-branch polyphase realization of alength-9 FIR fier ra ot ith ifn) ee Pobphase ne Oforn > N. A realization of H(2) based on the decomposition of Eq, (8.17) is called @ real ae realization. Figure 8.7 shows the Featpranch, the three-braneh. and ihe tnvo-branch polyphase ession forthe transfer icon Bs Oe eee tion, As indicated in Eas. 85) and (8.16) the & Thea) is different for each structure and so are the expressions for Ey(2)-and s0 on can biters Em L) in the polyphase realization ‘of an FIR transfer function are also FIR filters and rar dlized using any ofthe methods d tealeair. However. 10 obi a canon realization ofthe veal al ature the delays inal soba Sy oS F ilustrales a canonie polyphase lO OF a Tength-9 FIR transfer func Sed by dely-sharing. It shoud ve noted that in poly ite this realization, we have used the transpose of the structure of Figure 8.7(b). Other canonic “MSE realiza alizations can be similarly devive6OE Ne a e Chapter 8: Dial Fite Stuy, 426 7] 7] 01 wo sara FIR strstres: (a) Type Hand (b) Type 2. jgnal processing for computa aN We showed in Section 7.3 that alinear-phase FIR iter of order NV is characterized by either symnati aw ‘ory an antisymmetric impulse response rear-phase FIR filter can be exploited to reduce FAI? + ABIES Aaa a ae? 4 ‘which canbe rewrite in the form Ho) = +28) 4 ALI) 4 Ss) HARI? 2) shown in Figure 8 46), the structure of Figure 9 “7 FIR filter would 5. compared ersin the direct form re ‘of an FIR iter with an anisymine™‘ust sample requires the knowledge of several past samples ofthe ouput sequen. requires sme fom of feedback, We ulin here eve single ad 841 Direct-Form Structures ty 2N + ui xtices ter transfer function is characte rec sand 20 sop {eNthorder HR dita Si res Consider foe simplicity a thind-order TR tee We) _ pO me= ee 7°AX Woe Chapter 8: Digital Fier Sigg, Mey [| we) [0 Ye) ' ization scheme, 428 gure A possible TR filter ea pigure 8.11: win] wll ata) 8.12 (a) Realization ofthe transfer function Hy (2) = W(2)/X(z) and (b) realization of the transfer Figure 8.12: (a) Realization of s function 2 We), ‘The filter section Hy (2) of Eq. (8.24a) is seen to be an FIR filter and can be realized ae Figure 8.12(a). We next consider the realization of H(z) given by Eq. (8.24b). Note that a timedomit | representation of this transfer function is given by la] = win] — di yln — 1] - day[n — 2] — dsy|n — 3], oa resulting in the realization indicated in Figure 8.12(b), acl A cascade of the structures of Figure 8.12(a) and (b) as indicated in Figure 8.11 leads oar the original IIR transfer funetion H (2) of Eq. (8.23). The resulting structure is sketched in Figue and is commonly known as the directform I structure, Note that the overall realization is 90% Since itemploys six delays to implement a third-order transfer function. The transpose of this te sketched in Figure 8.13(b). Various other noneanonic direct forms can be derived by simple block ‘manipulations. Two such realizations are shown in Figure 8.13(c) and @. ow To derive a canonic realization, we observe that in Figure 8,13(d), the signal variables at 908°" 5 ‘are the same, and hence. the two toy at nod : . p delays can be shi gnal variables and © are the same, which permit yy fared. Likewise, the signal sb the sharing of the two middl he same ae . le delays. Following t we om = the two delays atthe bottom, leading to the final canonic structure shown in Fish Hoh called the drect:form If wealization, The transpose of this is indicated in Figure 8140s Noe den hoelteet-form I and ditect-form Il realizations of nn Wthconder IIR ans” order structures of Figures 8.13 and 8.14, EXAMPLES. Ilustration of Direct-Form Realization Consider the third-order IR transfer function HG) = B42? +0.3622 + 0.02 7 - 0 BF Oe? Oey = Ode! + 0.3622-2 + 0.02273 6 2 zo - 02° TF 042-1 4 ola? — 0.22 transfer function AA direct-form II realization of the abov is shown in Figure 8.15,sot Digital Filter Structures gh ” LO-@ fel wml xn) > Fue a) jel i © © vin j i] -d [et © © (b) ; | \ ) | Fiwre8.13: (a) Direct form I, (b) direct form Ir, (c) and (2) additional noncanonic direct-form structures. of | a) j Po ic | a me is i im ) nd @ sats (a) ion ) Figure 8.14: Direct-form TT and If, structures: 4 oy a he cade Realizations Fi HG) as aproduet “Wy SR the he transfer function H(z) as ‘toning we umetator and the denominator polynomials of # 1e aero tw oder iter Se00S flower degree, a digital filter is often realized as a 8S ae 429io Figure 8.16: Ex: Consider, for example, H(2) = others, “ w Chapter 8: Digital Fier Sty, sy igure 8.15: Directform II realization ofthe IIR transfer Function of Ea. (8.26) igure 8.15: Direct PX) Die PX) DO Pe) 7.2L) re Lp ae L, D@l [De Pol) | sf Ps |, 7 iG Dio ined by different pole-zero paring. P(z)/D(2), expressed as HG) =¥ Ot 4 pga 7 WV gsc Data Fier Structures 4h 431 Figure 8.18: Cascade realization rede IIR transfer function igure 8.18: Cascade realization of a third-order I in july. the polynomials are factored into apr atte expressed as product of first-order and second-order polynomial + polynomials. In (8.28) ine above, for a first = 1a first-order factor, @2¢ = Bak = 0. A possible realization of a third-order transfer fiction 2) rings. isiown in Figure 8.18. EXAMPLE84 Illustration of the Cascade Form Realization edt te cascade eins ofthe third-order IIR transfer function of Eq (826). By factoring mance ad the denominator polynomials of (2) as given in Eg (8.28). weobain ) as shown in Figure 8.19. Another cascade ) (629) ‘pe noted thatthe realization instead of three the same. From the unite shove, weave at 8 cascade realization of H(@ jon is obtained by using a diferent polezere Pairing hn oad + 036 © = \ p08 ie Mose realization is left a is left as an exercise (Problem four delay semplye age 8.19. The a uber of UPL Ca +05: 8.29). However ic wou! 3p ‘ot, arallel Realizations gh transtey ng use of the partial-fraction expansion be tance’ tunction can be realized in @ parallel form by making Mr action in the form of Bq (6.40) 'sfer funct nsfer fi function, A partial-fraction expansio? of the transfer| — HZ Chapter 8: Digital Fier Sty, ty 432 ' ised on direct-form IL gua Acasa eliztion ofthe TR raster function of Fa (8.26) based on realty Figure 8.19: A cascade ralizat each setion 8 % 7 Yor & ® zi Hoy ES 6 toe ® © @ | zi wa 042 bn © @ i : fi Ua or [=] 599 cS (b) Figure 8.20: Parallel realizations ofa third-order IIR transfer function: (a) parallel form T and (b) paral! =" leads to the parallel for . Parallelform 1. Thus, assuming simple poles, H(z) is expressed in the form HO = m4 (tut yu e EAL tong FH O42" Inthe above, fora real pole, azz = yyy = 0 7 A direct partal-fraction ex : ansion of the tr . ot 2 leads to the second basic f sMansfer function H(z Fp nd basic form of the n H(z) expressed as a ratio of Os Simple poles, weanive at" PAtallel structure, called the parcel form If [MitT 72 84! Ww - - : 6 realization of Basic Structures Using Mati ag a 433 Figure 8.21: Example 8.5: (a) Parallel form I realization and (b) parallel form If realization EXAMPLE85 — Ilustration of the Parallel Form Realizations We develop two different parallel realizations ofthe third-order IIR transfer function of Eq. (8.26). To thisend, we make a partial-fraction expansion of H(z) ofthe form of Eq. (640) expressed as ratio of polynomials in 2~? , resulting in H(z) = -0.1 + “ich eas tothe parallel form I realization indicated in Figure 821(3). Filly direct patial-fraction expansion of #Y(z) expressed a 2 ratio of ‘polynomials in z is given by 0.24 0.25 0.2427! HQ) = re 8.2116), 30) "suiting inthe parallel form II realization sketched in Figur LAB as f 5 Realization of Basic Structures Using Mar be easly developed using MATLAB asi Ne : mine 7 i : hi me and IR strctures deserbed in Sections 83 and 84 2 ™, We describe this approach. 3) 8. », Ue realize aie, the a2ation of an FIR transfer function H() Gk (Bag) CMe reali TIR transfer fur ah 2g) ization of an HR tr 4 out iBerige,, Te factorization of a polynomial ¢ be caries Wein, hich determines the second-order factor’ Strate this approach in Examples 8.6 and 84, Ca Teal anenesen ninthe form of Eq.(8.10) rm es its factorization invol¥e) involves is factorization the for CH Ee in MATLAB using the function FY ¢ specified transfer function i3 = iy am me? factorize.m 4.20 TO