“THE USE OF HYPNUM MOSS (Hypnum cupressiforme) IN BAGUIO CITY TO

MONITOR SULFUR DIOXIDE POLLUTION IN THE ATMOSPHERE”

A Quantitative Research
by
Conrad Ellison Esquejo
Christopher Nathan Hoyland
Muhammad Abi Nubli Ocean Sriyanto

Submitted to
Sir Alfonso B. Astudillo III

Berkeley School
September 2018
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The researchers would like to thank their parents, friends, and siblings for supporting

them all throughout this journey. They would most especially like to thank Ma’am Kalai and Sir

Al for providing wisdom, knowledge, and guidance to the researchers responsible for this paper.
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ABSTRACT

Moss has a variety of uses. Mainly used for gardening, it provides aesthetic to anyone’s

place in the right hands. It can come in many forms from the mat-like texture of lush greens to

the woody browns of peat. In a scientific setting, though, these plants are not used for those

purposes. This paper explores that prospect in a local setting being the hometown of the

researchers.

As most people know, pollution is life-threatening. Millions of people die every year due

to this. Whether it be on land, air, or sea, pollution can be the silent killer that may put an end to

all living things. To raise awareness around, the researchers have explored the possibility of

using everyday objects, in this case Hypnum moss (Hypnum cupressiforme), to detect for Sulfur

Dioxide (SO2), one of the most lethal gases present in the Earth’s atmosphere. This can not only

benefit the people around, but it may possibly save lives. That is no guarantee, though because

this is just moss and it would not be able to help in critical situations. The researchers have found

out that Sulfur Dioxide is abundant in the Bonifacio St.-Rimando Rd. area due to their moss

sample being presumably dead when it was time for processing in preparation for analysis by a

scientist. They therefore concluded that moss can indeed monitor the amount of gas present in

the atmosphere even just by observing the changes that affected the organism.

This paper proves that moss can indeed be used for monitoring the amount of Sulfur

Dioxide (SO2) present in the atmosphere. Although unconventional methods were used to

examine the moss, the study proved to be effective even without the use of a laboratory.
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Table of Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................5
Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................................7
Research Objectives .....................................................................................................................7
Scope and Limitations ..................................................................................................................8
Significance of the Study .............................................................................................................8
Chapter 2. Review of Related Literature .......................................................................................10
Bryophytes as Biomonitors for Air Pollution ............................................................................10
Classification of Mosses.............................................................................................................10
Effects of Pollution on Mosses...................................................................................................12
Sources of Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) and its Impact on the Environment .......................................12
Air Pollution and its Effects on Humans ....................................................................................13
Government Interventions to Deter the Effects of Air Pollution ...............................................14
Chapter 3. Methodology ................................................................................................................16
Research Method ........................................................................................................................16
Research Instrument ...................................................................................................................16
Research Design .........................................................................................................................18
Chapter 4. Results ..........................................................................................................................20
Results ........................................................................................................................................20
Interpretation ..............................................................................................................................21
Chapter 5. Conclusions and Recommendations.............................................................................22
Bibliography ..................................................................................................................................24
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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Air pollution has been an underlying cause to deaths all over the world. It has contributed

to over 5.5 million deaths per year worldwide according to a report by Amos (2016). In

developing countries like the Philippines, air pollution has been a great risk to its people

especially those exposed to the harmful fumes of machines and fossil fuels. Based on recent

news (Yee, 2018), the Philippines ranked second in terms of number of deaths caused by indoor

air pollution with an average of 84 deaths per 100,000 Filipinos with Laos coming at first with an

average of 85 per 100,000 people. The number of deaths caused by outdoor pollution in the

Philippines is at 45.3 per 100,000 people placing the country at third place next to China and

Mongolia with a recorded 81.5 deaths and 48.8 deaths, respectively. These data collected by the

World Health Organization (WHO) reflects the current state of the country in terms of air

pollution. With the six criteria pollutants found in the country’s atmosphere being ground-level

ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, lead, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide, it is no

doubt that the Philippines has one of the most polluted air in the entirety of Asia.

This study focuses in Baguio City alone, excluding the rest of the areas in the Philippines.

Locsin (2014) reported about the World Health Organization (WHO) measuring air quality of

particular cities such as Manila, Cebu, and Baguio. It was shown that Baguio came out first with

49 micrograms per cubic meter of air for Particulate Matter (PM 2.5). That is almost five times

the guideline limit set by the World Health Organization (WHO) which is at 10 micrograms of

particulate matter per cubic meter. Over the course of the four-year period, Baguio’s air has

significantly improved. Comanda (2018) reported that the Environment Management Bureau-
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Cordillera Administrative Region (EMB-CAR) has measured 33 micrograms of particulate

matter per cubic meter for PM 2.5. Another report related to this by Fianza (n.d.) stated that the

Department of Environmental and Natural Resources-Environment Management Bureau

(DENR-EMB) head Reynaldo Digamo clarified that air quality is affected by wind speed,

humidity, wind direction, and presence of rain which may reduce pollutants. Thus, Fianza (n.d.)

also reported that the Alay sa Kalinisan (ASK) considered four monitoring locations for

pollution: Upper Session Road, Malcolm Square, Happy Homes, and UP Baguio Campus. These

locations remained to be at “Fair” readings. On the other hand, five monitoring locations: Mines

View Park, Bell Church, Aurora Hill, Veteran’s Park, and the City Social Welfare Office area,

have improved and are now at “Good” readings. A good and a fair rating would mean that the

areas pose no threat for healthy and unhealthy individuals. It was also reported by Fianza (n.d.)

that a rating of anything less than “Fair” would mean that the area is considered unhealthy.

People with respiratory diseases are restricted to enter these areas. It is a welcome change,

although a small one. Nonetheless, any improvement is good improvement.

It is because of this that the researchers decide to use moss to determine air quality by

specifically monitoring Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) in certain places of the city. The species the

researchers have chosen, Hypnum moss (Hypnum cupressiforme) is very versatile and can grow

on places that receive plenty of sunlight and water, just like any other species of plants. It grows

in climatic regions all around the world except for Antarctica. Mosses like these are often

overlooked by most people and they do not find any value in them.

Recent researches in the field of bryology includes those that use mosses as model

organisms for forest research (Müller, et al. 2015) to bioindicators for metals and pollutants that

are harmful to humans and the environment (Palmieri, et al. 1997). In reality, the scope of
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bryology and the researches about mosses, lichens, and liverworts are vast and wide. The

researchers will be focusing on how mosses can be used as bioindicators, specifically on the

Hypnum moss (Hypnum cupressiforme).

Most studies use moss to detect for pollution, specifically heavy metals in water and

traces of lead, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen in the air. To contribute to existing papers, the

researchers decide to detect for Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) in the air of Baguio City using Hypnum

moss (Hypnum cupressiforme). This will be done due to health and environmental concerns

regarding air pollution in the city. The researchers aim to gauge the content of Sulfur Dioxide

(SO2) in the atmosphere of Baguio using biological resources like moss. The Hypnum moss

(Hypnum cupressiforme) would be the chosen organism for this research because it thrives in

environments wherever there is water and sunlight. It grows on walls, tree trunks, rocks, logs,

and other surfaces. The moss also tolerates pollution quite fairly as stated in the research of

Hällingback (1992) so it would be a suitable biomonitor for pollutants nearby.

Statement of the Problem

What is the feasibility of Hypnum moss (Hypnum cupressiforme) to be used as a

bioindicator for sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere?

Physical attributes

Color, onbustibility, dryness

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Research Objectives

Through this study, the researchers aim to determine the feasibility of Hypnum moss

(Hypnum cupressiforme) as a biomonitor for Sulfur Dioxide (SO2).

Scope and Limitations

This study will only cover the Hypnum moss (Hypnum cupressiforme) and no other

species of moss as this is the only available moss that the researchers could acquire in the area. It

will also detect for sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere in Baguio City only. Any other pollutant

such as lead, ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide will be ruled out

because this study focuses on Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) no other gas. The study will not include areas

nearby Baguio City. A few that would be excluded are La Trinidad, Itogon, and Kalinga,

Apayao, Mt. Province, and the rest of its neighboring provinces. The reasons for this exclusion

are: 1.) This would be too much work for amateur researchers; and 2.) These places seem to have

cleaner air than Baguio thus making it futile to conduct a biomonitoring research here.

This study comes with some factors that the researchers cannot control, for instance the

weather, although taken into consideration, may have altered the test. Since this study works

with plants, the researchers cannot guarantee that they are going to respond exactly as planned. A

tight schedule and lack of time may have also contributed to the lack of other tests needed that

could further back this study. The lack of equipment and facilities necessary to process the

biomonitor would also be a limitation to this. Using unprofessional and unqualified materials

may yield inaccurate results when testing and processing the moss.
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Significance of the study

There are plenty of researches about moss as bioindicators that detect for all kinds of

pollution whether it be on air, land, or even on water. One thing to note is that they are mostly

conducted abroad. Only a few are done in the Philippines. One of these is the work of Munar et.

al (2014) which uses ectohydric moss to monitor atmospheric lead (Pb) deposition in the city of

Baguio. They have found out that it is possible for moss to detect lead (Pb) pollution in the

atmosphere.

This study is beneficial to everyone because it provides a cheap alternative to detecting

pollution in an area using moss. This is an inexpensive resource and can basically be found

anywhere.
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Before and after of the mosses (descritpion)

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Bryophytes as Biomonitors for Air Pollutants

Bryophytes are nonvascular land plants that grow closely together on rocks, soil, and tree

barks. They grow on moist areas and places wherever there is ample sunlight and water. This

species is classified into three; mosses, liverworts and hornworts, and lichens. As stated in the

Scope and Limitation part of this paper, the researchers would only be focusing on moss,

specifically the Hypnum Moss (Hypnum cupressiforme). Just like any other moss, this particular

species thrives in moist places with sunlight. These plants are asexual in nature and they breed

through the propagation of spores (Goffinet & Shaw 2008). Based on recent studies about this

class of plant, it is known that bryophytes are used as bioindicators in urban environments as

discovered by Oishi, and Hiura (2017). In their research, they have used moss to determine

atmospheric conditions in an urban setting. From the results they gathered in their research, they

found out that Nitrogen pollution and heat greatly affected the samples they have experimented

on. Another similar research to this was conducted by Di Palma (2016) but the researcher

utilized moss bags to monitor air pollution in the area, instead of simply examining the moss. It

has been proven to be effective yet practical in using moss as biomonitors. These few researches,

among the many, prove that moss, even the most obscure species, can be used to monitor air

pollution in a given environment.

Indicators of Sulfur Dioxide

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) is the main cause for death among lichens and mosses alike. It has

dwindled their species to a bare minimum which is a threat to the whole moss population. One
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can find out if a moss has been affected by the lethal gas by observing its color. Sulfur Dioxide

(SO2) is said to decrease chlorophyll content in leaves and inhibit the process of photosynthesis

(Qin et al., 2018). This effect alters the color of the moss with a yellowish hue in some parts of

its leaves. It also dehydrates the moss because of the lack of chlorophyll in its leaves. This is also

called chlorosis.

Classification of Mosses

Bryophytes can be classified into six classes according to Lepp (2008); Takakiopsida,

Sphagnopsida, Andreaeopsida, Andreaeobrypsida, Polytrichopsida, and Bryopsida. These

classes have distinct characteristics that make them distinct from each other. Takakiopsida has its

capsule raised in a seta that is composed of sporophyte tissue. The capsule opens via a single,

longitudinal, spiral slit. It is under the order of Takakiales which comprises of 1 family, 1 genus,

and 2 species (Lepp, 2008). The next class would be the Sphagnopsida. These have their capsule

raised on a pseudopodium that is composed of gametophyte tissue and opens by means of

operculum. The order would be Sphagnales and Ambuchananiales which comprise of 1 family, 1

genus, between 100 and 300 species and 1 family, 1 genus, 1 species, respectively (Lepp, 2008).

Andreaeopsida have similar characteristics. These classes of moss have capsules raised on a

pseudopodium and opens along several vertical dehiscence lines. Under the two are different

orders which make them distinct. Andreaeopsida covers Andreaeales which consists of 1 family,

2 genera, and under 100 species. On the other hand, Andreaeobryposida covers the

Andreaebryales order which consists of 1 family, 1 genus, and 1 species (Lepp, 2008).

Polytrichopsida has its capsule raised on a seta. It opens by means of an operculum just like the
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Sphagopsida class. What makes it different from that class is that it has peristome teeth in its

capsules. The class covers the orders Tetraphidales which has 3 families, 4 genera and no more

than about 50 species, and Polytrichales which has 1 family, 23 genera, several hundred species

(Lepp, 2008). The last class is the Bryopsida. This class is similar to Sphagopsida and

Tetraphidales because it has its capsule raised on a seta and it generally opens by means of an

operculum. Its capsules also have peristome teeth, just like Polytrichopsida. The Bryopsida

contains 16 orders, 107 families, about 880 genera, and about 12,000 species (Lepp, 2008). The

Hypnum moss (Hypnum cupressiforme) belongs to the Bryopsida class.

Effects of Pollution on Mosses

A study conducted by Hallingbäck (1992) to find out the effects of pollution on mosses

mostly found on deciduous woodlands and edges of forests and are fairly distributed along the

area. Hallingbäck considered the following criteria: (a) only localities where the species were

known to occur before 1950 but after 1850; (b) only localities in rural districts which avoid sites

near towns or industrial areas emitting air pollution; and (c) only geographically well-delimited

localities, not larger than requiring a thorough investigation lasting no longer than one day. He

had found out that there are species that tolerate air pollution quite well. These are Hypnum

cupressiforme, Leucodon sciuroides, and Orthotrichum affine. Species that had declined during

that time period are Antitrichia curtipendula, Hylocomium splendens, Neckera pumila,

Orthotrichum lyellii, O. speciosum, O. striatum, and Ulota crispa.

Sources of Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) and its impact on the Environment

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Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) is a pungent, colorless gas with a scent similar to a just-struck

matchstick. It is formed when fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, are burned (“Sulfur Dioxide,”

2017). This gas comes from the burning of sulfur fuel which is emitted from industrial plants and

diesel engines from ships, trains, and motor vehicles. It can also come off naturally from

volcanic eruptions. The gases that are released during a volcanic eruption are sulfur dioxide,

water vapor, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrogen halides. Although water vapor is

harmless to any people, animals, agriculture, and property, the rest of the gases are known risks

of causing death and destruction (“Volcanic gases can be harmful,” 2017). Sulfur Dioxide (SO2),

especially, can also directly cause acid rain which is a threat to humans, plants, and animals

alike. Since rain covers everything on land and sea, all living and non-living things area affected.

To the environment, it causes deforestation because of the chemical content of the rain which

consists mostly of Sulfur Dioxide (SO2). This is absorbed by the leaves, the soil, and in turn, the

roots which slowly kills the tree (Evans, n.d.). To humans, Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) degrades the

integrity of buildings and infrastructures. This could compromise the safety when disasters such

as earthquakes, floods, tornadoes, and hurricanes strike.

Air Pollution and its Effects on Humans

Air pollution is a serious problem and it has caused millions of deaths over the past few

years. A report by Carrington (2017) stated that over 9 million people have perished over the

effects of global pollution. This includes land, air, and water pollution. It is responsible for the

destruction of habitats of plants and animals. It is not only caused by humans, but by volcanic

activity beneath the surface of the Earth. Whenever a volcano erupts, it releases harmful gases

that contribute to the destruction of the ozone layer which protects the planet from the harmful

UV rays of the sun (George, 2014). These gases are water vapor (H₂0), carbon dioxide (CO₂),
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sulfur dioxide (SO₂), hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen chloride (HCl),

and hydrogen fluoride (HF). A mixture of all these gases can cause a catastrophe and eventually,

death.

Long exposure to gases that contribute to pollution in the atmosphere can lead to

respiratory and cardiovascular complications. For pregnant women, inhaling even just a minute

amount could lead to premature birth (University of York, 2017). This can negatively affect the

mental health of expecting mothers. It could even trigger asthma attacks among vulnerable

children (Guarnieri & Balmes, 2014). It only takes a Particulate Matter (PM) greater than 2.5 to

trigger one. Symptoms of asthma include wheezing, shortness of breath, rapid breathing,

coughing, and chest tightness. In some cases where the asthma attack gets worse, one may

experience extreme difficulty in breathing, cyanosis, anxiety and panic attacks, uncontrollable

coughing, sweating, and rapid nostril movement. A more serious disease one can pick up when

inhaling the toxic gases is lung cancer (Almendrala, 2018). Coughing up blood, hoarseness,

weight loss and loss of appetite, and bronchitis are a few of the many deadly symptoms of lung

cancer (Alteri et al. 2016). Aside from these, air pollution is known to increase the odds of

having a child with autism based on a study conducted by Raz et al. (2014). They have

discovered that the higher the particulate matter is, the more likely it is to give birth to a child

within the spectrum.

Government Intervention to Deter the Effects of Air Pollution

Drastic measures have been implemented by governments all over the world to deter air

pollution. Ever since the Industrial Revolution of Britain during the 18th century, air pollution

has been a problem the human race has been facing the past centuries. It threatened the lives of
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many people during that period. The symptoms of respiratory infections have been apparent due

to the coal consumption and smoke pollution. Because of this, British lawmakers have passed on

laws to control this damaging effect on humans. One of which is the Public Health Act of 1875

which basically talks about how the citizens of Britain must maintain proper hygiene and

cleanliness in their surroundings. Another one is the Alkali Act of 1863 which gives power to the

authorities to control the chemicals used in a certain factory. These, among many other laws, are

what limits air pollution produced during that time to a bare minimum.

Other countries have also contributed in reducing the production of air pollution. The

Philippines has done their share of committing to the cause of clean air. According to R.A. 8749

or the Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999, it states that, “The State shall protect and advance the

right of the people to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of

nature.” It shall also “promote and protect the global environment to attain sustainable

development while recognizing the primary responsibility of local government units to deal with

environmental problems.” This means that the government is responsible for protecting and

conserving wildlife. It is also stated that LGUs must deal with environmental problems.

These two countries are not the only ones concerned about air pollution. Actually, the

whole world has agreed to create a law to tackle this issue. This law is called the International

Environmental Law (IEL). It is concerned with the attempt to control pollution and the depletion

of natural resources within a framework of sustainable development. It is a branch of public

international law - a body of law created by states for states to govern problems that arise

between states.

Based on these studies, the researchers have proposed a general hypothesis:

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Hypnum moss (Hypnum cupressiforme) can be used as a bioindicator for Sulfur Dioxide (SO2).
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CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Method

The study on Hypnum Moss (Hypnum cupressiforme) adheres purely on quantitative data

thus making it a quantitative research. The researchers used the small n research design because

of the following reasons: 1.) This design is used to evaluate the effect of interventions, in the

researchers’ case Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), on the subject, which is the moss. 2.) The design is

highly flexible and it highlights individual differences in response to the effects of Sulfur

Dioxide (SO2). And finally, 3.) This method provides consistent results. They will be dealing

with the moss and its ability to be used as a biomonitor for sulfur dioxide (SO2). Quantitative

research consists of an independent and dependent variable. In this case, the Sulfur Dioxide

(SO2) would be the independent variable because it cannot be manipulated by the researchers.

On the other hand, the dependent variable would be the Hypnum moss (Hypnum cupressiforme).

The experiment consisted of an experimental group and a controlled group. The Hypnum

moss (Hypnum cupressiforme) was first sampled from mossy cobblestone in a secluded location

along T. Alonzo St. This would be the controlled group. The experimental group was also

sampled from the same location, but it was placed in the intersection between Bonifacio St. and

Rimando Rd, specifically at a tree hanging inconspicuously off a branch. This was done to

prevent tampering from vandals and suspicion from local enforcement. All of this was conducted

on the 7th of November of the year 2018. This area was chosen because this intersection is

usually congested with motor vehicles.

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Research Instrument

The researchers chose to sample from Barangay T. Alonzo. This place was chosen for

sampling because Hypnum moss (Hypnum cupressiforme) was abundant in the area and it is in

the desired proximity from the Central Business District of Baguio City.

The moss bag method was utilized by the researchers for this experiment. The first step in

this method was transplantation, the researchers must carefully select the appropriate part of

moss for the preparation. Each sample must weigh from 100mg to 200mg. It is recommended to

choose the young shoot of the moss because these parts contain less amounts of trace elements

compared to the older shoot thus yielding more accurate results during the analysis. The

exposure to the elements was taken into consideration, too. Soil deposition and dust may affect

the results significantly thus invalidating the research, although some moss contain tiny rocks

embedded into them, this must be kept at a minimum in preparation for the next step for the

moss.

Cleaning the moss was an important step in the moss bag method. The researchers

washed the moss in running water for three minutes to ensure that it is free from debris. This also

partially activates the tissues through the removal of some elements bound to cation exchange

sites of the moss cell wall and membrane. This would also keep the moss moist and alive.

The next step in the moss bag technique is drying. This was done by air-drying the

samples in a temperature not exceeding 40°C. It was air-dried for forty-eight hours in a non-

polluted environment. These samples were then placed in mesh bags. To prevent the loss of

materials during the exposure, the mesh bags must have holes not less than 1mm wide. It must be
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made of plastic and it will be handled with extreme care which means that latex gloves were

worn throughout the process. The reason for this is to prevent contamination on the samples. A

contaminated sample would be detrimental to the results when processed in the laboratory.

The step after would be the biomonitoring itself. This was done in a polluted

environment. The researchers hung them on the crossroads between Rimando Rd. and Bonifacio

St. because this is a polluted environment. It was secured inconspicuously using cable zip ties on

a tree to avoid detection from people responsible for taking it down. They mounted this 2m off

the ground. The time for exposure to this area was dependent on the given time. Ideally, it would

take four to six weeks for the moss to be fully exposed to pollutants. To prevent the moss from

dying, the researchers sprayed the moss bags with distilled water once or twice a week for three

weeks. This kept its habitat moist thus keeping it alive. Apparently, the moss sample from the

experiment group died due to the pollution in the area. Although the moss did not seem like it

died, the researchers have compared it to dead moss found locally and it has been confirmed

dead on the third week of the experimentation.

After the given time duration, the researchers collected the samples with disposable latex

gloves and placed them in plastic zip lock bags. They were then oven-dried for 6 hours at a

temperature of 320 ℃, but the sample that died burned in the duration of one hour. It had gone to

ash and further testing was not possible. It was too dry to submit to a laboratory for analysis. The

controlled group was the only sample left to analyze and the researchers had to resort to using

visual observation because there was no other viable option at the time of the experiment.
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Research Design

The research objective will be addressed by the following method:

Objective: Determine the feasibility of Hypnum moss (Hypnum cupressiforme) as a bioindicator

of Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

The researchers did not make use of laboratory tests to determine whether there was any

significant difference because the sample burned in the oven and turned into ash. They instead

conducted a series of visual observations on the samples to derive the results.

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CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

The locations of where the samples were placed are given on Table 1. The concentrations

of the Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) in the tissues of the Hypnum moss (Hypnum cupressiforme) after the

exposure period of three calendar weeks from November 7, 2018 to November 28, 2018.

Table 1. Sampling sites and their locations.

Samples Location

Control T. Alonzo Street, Baguio City

Experiment Intersection of Rimando Rd. and Bonifacio St.

Figure 1. Experimental Sample Hanging from a Tree

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Figure 2. Experimental Sample after oven-drying

Figure 3. Controlled Sample after 3 weeks

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Figure 4. Controlled sample hanging in a non-polluted location

Interpretation of Data

Table 1 shows the location of the control group at T. Alonzo Street. Baguio City, and the

experimental group located in the intersection of Rimando Road and Bonifacio Street. As shown

in Figure 1, the experimental sample of the moss was hung on a tree in the intersection between

Bonifacio St. and Rimando Rd. It stayed there for over three weeks and was exposed to exhaust

fumes coming from motor vehicles going up the incline. It has shown signs of decay when it was

brought down from the location. Figure 2 shows the sample burned when it was oven-dried.

From here, the moss is already dead because of how easy it was to catch on fire. It shows the

effects of Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) on the moss. It caught on fire thirty minutes in when it was

placed inside the oven. Figure 3 shows a healthy moss because it did not burn inside the oven. It

has a moist and intact structure which the experiment sample lacked. Figure 4 shows the

controlled sample hanging in a non-polluted area.

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THE USE OF HYPNUM MOSS (Hypnum cupressiforme) IN BAGUIO CITY TO MONITOR SULFUR
DIOXIDE POLLUTION IN THE ATMOSPHERE

CHAPTER V

Conclusions and Recommendations

The aim of this research was to detect Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) in the atmosphere of Baguio

City using moss, specifically the Hypnum moss (Hypnum cupressiforme). A quantitative

approach was used for this study utilizing the single-n research design. An experimental group

and a controlled group were derived from this experiment with the experimental group being

exposed to pollution and the controlled group being placed in where it was originally located.

The researchers found out that Sulfur Dioxide definitely killed the moss which means

that Hypnum moss (Hypnum cupressiforme) is not a recommended biomonitor for Sulfur

Dioxide. The researchers recommend to look into another species of moss because this one did

not survive the experiment. Although they were successful in the visual observation portion of

the experiment, this does not reliably prove the use of the said moss as a boimonitor. Other

factors could have contributed to its physical and chemical properties.

The researchers recommend the use of an actual oven-drier to process the moss for

analysis in a lab because using a regular oven would result to the moss samples turning into ash.

If the processing of the moss resulted to be successful, the researchers would recommend

exposing the moss for a longer duration by at least six months. A shorter duration meant that the

moss was not very much affected by the pollution. Exposing it for a longer duration would lead

to more accurate data and conclusions. Using the right tools would also be a suggestion because

the researchers resorted to using cheap household materials in the experiment and this brought

about unprofessional and academic results. Another suggestion would be the use of an actual

science laboratory. Since the researchers started their experiment on the last few months of the
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THE USE OF HYPNUM MOSS (Hypnum cupressiforme) IN BAGUIO CITY TO MONITOR SULFUR
DIOXIDE POLLUTION IN THE ATMOSPHERE

year, they had no available laboratory to conduct the analysis of their samples due to the so-

called “cut-off” period. The researchers resorted to the use of visual observations which is highly

discouraged because this method of conducting analysis is biased and yields skewed data. The

researchers also suggest to mount more experiments in more locations. This would add more

variety to the results thus making it more comprehensive.

Indications of plants with sulfur dioxide

Potential as a bioindicator
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DIOXIDE POLLUTION IN THE ATMOSPHERE

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