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Handout Jirka PDF
Handout Jirka PDF
When a tracer cloud is introduced into a fluid flow (e.g. river) two processes are visible:
• The cloud is carried away from the point of discharge by the mean current.
• The cloud spreads in all directions due to irregular motions and grows in size.
mean t1 t2
flow
MOLECULAR DIFFUSION
∂c
<0
∂x
mass ⎡ M ⎤
J x = diffusive mass flux = =⎢ 2 ⎥
area , time ⎣ L , T ⎦
∂c
Jx = − D AB Fick´s law (1-D)
∂x
⎡ L2 ⎤
D AB = coefficient of molecular diffusivity = ⎢ ⎥ = f (solvent, solute, temperature...)
⎣T⎦
Typical values for molecular diffusion:
Generalization:
r ⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂⎞
(
J = J x , J y , Jz ) ∇=⎜ , , ⎟ divergence vector
⎝ ∂ x ∂ y ∂z ⎠
r
J = −D∇C Fick´s law (3-D)
r
q = (u, v, w ) = hydrodynamic velocity
r ⎡ M L⎤ ⎡ M ⎤
c q = ⎢ 3 ⎥ = ⎢ 2 ⎥ = advective mass flux
⎣ L T ⎦ ⎣L , T ⎦
Example:
t1 t2
no change of shape
“plug flow”
⎡Rate of production / ⎤
⎢decay of mass ⎥ ⎡Rate of mass ⎤
⎡net flux of mass⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢accumulation ⎥
⎢ (In − Out ) ⎥ + = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢(chemical, physical, ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢⎣ within element ⎥⎦
⎣bio log ical ... ) ⎦
∂ Nx ∂ Ny ∂ Nz ∂c
− ∆ x∆ y ∆ z − ∆ x∆ y ∆ z − ∆ x∆ y ∆ z + R ∆ x∆ y ∆ z = ∆ x∆ y ∆ z
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂ c ∂ N x ∂ N y ∂ Nz ∂ c r ∂c r
+ + + = + ∇⋅N = + ∇ ⋅ c q − ∇ ⋅ (D ∇ c) = R
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t ∂t
∂c r
+ q ⋅ ∇ c = D ∇2 c + R Convective Diffusion Equation
∂t
∂c ∂c ∂c ∂c ⎛ ∂2 c ∂2 c ∂2 c ⎞
+ u + v + w = D⎜ 2 + + ⎟ + R
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎝∂x ∂ y2 ∂ z2 ⎠
↑ 1444442444443 14444244443 ↑
Temporal Advective transport Diffusive transport Reaction
change
Environmental Fluid Mechanics Ι 5 Institute for Hydromechanics
1. Basic solution: Instantaneous point source (IPtS) in uniform current and infinite
space
z
r
q = (U, 0,0) , (uniform velocity field)
U y
R = − k c (first order decay)
t=0 t 1
t 2
x
∂c ∂c ⎛ ∂2 c ∂2 c ∂2 c ⎞
+U =D⎜ 2 + + ⎟ − kc
∂t ∂x ⎝∂x ∂ y2 ∂ z2 ⎠
Solution:
2. Other solutions
on ⎡: c = specified
∂c
Ex: =0 Diffusion barrier (Reflection condition)
∂n
(Neumann B.C.)
z
k
c = ∑ ci i=1
i =1
x
i=2
Time dependence
Initial condition:
− Instantaneous sources
− Continuous sources
Environmental Fluid Mechanics Ι 7 Institute for Hydromechanics
Possibility 1:
- damping of disturbance
(viscosity)
LAMINAR FLOW
Possibility 2:
- insufficient damping
- large eddies
- secondary eddies
SPECTRUM OF EDDIES
Smallest eddies: at some scale (Kolmogorov length scale) the eddy size will be small
enough so that viscous damping will prevent further breakdown
⎡ L2 ⎤ ⎡ L2 ⎤
Dimensionality: viscosity ν = ⎢ ⎥ , energy dissipation rate ε = ⎢ 3 ⎥
⎣T⎦ ⎣T ⎦
ν3 / 4
Kolmogorov length scale η = 1/ 4
ε
ε
Turbulence spectrum: lΙ η
" equilibrium subrange"
UL
Overall criterion: Reynolds number Re = > 100 to 1000
ν
U ∼ base velocity, L ∼ base flow length
Environmental Fluid Mechanics Ι 8 Institute for Hydromechanics
TURBULENT DIFFUSION
Random motion due to turbulent velocity fluctuations cause additional transport ("small
scale advection").
u ′ ( t) = fluctuating velocity
1 t −T 1 t −T
u (t) = ∫ u ( t ′) d t ′ = mean velocity u′ = ∫ u′ ( t ′ ) d t ′ = 0
T t T t
u = u + u′ w = w + w′ Averaging process:
Reynolds decomposition
v = v + v′ c = c + c′ uc = u c + uc ′ + u′ c + u′ c ′
1 t + T ⎡ ∂c ∂uc ∂ vc ∂ wc ⎛ ∂2 c ∂2 c ∂2 c ⎞ ⎤
∫ ⎢ + + + = D ⎜ 2 + 2 + 2 ⎟ + R⎥ d t
T t ⎢⎣ ∂ t ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎥⎦
∂c ∂c ∂c ∂c ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎛ ∂2 c ∂2 c ∂2 c ⎞
+u +v +w =− u′ c′ − v ′c ′ − w ′ c′ + D ⎜ 2 + 2 + 2 ⎟ + R ↓
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂c ⎠
144424443 14444244443 14442443 ↓
time advective transport "small scale advection" molecular reac-
change by ⇓ diffusion tion
of mean mean velocity turbulent mass transport ≈0
conc.
r ⎡ M ⎤
( )
Jt = u′c ′, v ′c ′, w ′c ′ = turbulent diffusive mass flux = ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣L , T ⎦
r
Jt needs parameterization : analogy to molecular diffusion (Fick's law) ?
Environmental Fluid Mechanics Ι 9 Institute for Hydromechanics
0,5
σ ∼ t
σ ~t
b) Long time after release t>t Ι : eddies are independent of each other
Large eddies control spreading => random process
( )
σ x = 2 uΙ t Ι t ~t1 / 2
2
"Fickian" behavior: corresponds to spreading with
gradient-type diffusion and a constant coefficient
⎡ L2 ⎤
∴ uΙ t Ι =uΙ l Ι =E x = turbulentdiffusivity = ⎢ ⎥
2
Analogy:
⎣T⎦
∂c ∂c ∂c
J tx = u′ c ′ = − E x , Jty = v ′ c ′ = − E y , J tz = w ′ c ′ = − E z
∂x ∂y ∂z
Environmental Fluid Mechanics Ι 10 Institute for Hydromechanics
∂c ∂c ∂c ∂c ∂ ⎛ ∂ c⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂ c⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂ c⎞
+u +v +w = ⎜ Ex ⎟+ ⎜ Ey ⎟+ ⎜E ⎟ + R + D ∇2 c
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂ z ∂ x ⎝ ∂ x⎠ ∂ y ⎝ ∂ y ⎠ ∂ z ⎝ z ∂ z⎠
14444444244444443
turbulent diffusive transport
- E x , E y , E z = f ( x , y , z) non-homogeneous
∂2c ∂2c ∂2c
if E x , E y , E z = const. homogeneous → Ex + E + E
∂ x2 y
∂y 2 x
∂z2
- Ex ≠ Ey ≠ Ez anisotropic
⎛ ∂2c ∂2c ∂2c ⎞
if Ex = Ey = Ez = E isotropic → E⎜ 2 + + ⎟
⎝ ∂x ∂y 2 ∂z2 ⎠
Estimation of turbulent diffusivities:
Order of magnitude:
E ~uΙ l Ι single scale only!
τ0
= u∗ = friction (shear ) velocity
ρ
u* = g hS
Dominating scales:
uΙ ~u∗,l Ι ~h
f f
Also: τ 0 =ρ U 2 f = Darcy-Weisbach coefficient, 0.02 .. 0.1 u∗ = U²
8 8
1 gn 2
Or: U = h 2 / 3 S1/ 2 n = Mannings's n, 0.02 ... 0.05 u∗ = U²
n h 1/ 3
MIXING IN RIVERS
Eddy diffusivity Ez
We expect: E z ~ u ∗ h
Velocity profile
= f (u ∗ , z)
du
dz
Dimensional analysis:
du u ∗ du u ∗
~ or =
dz z dz κ z
Upon integration:
u 1
= lnz + C 1 log-law κ = von Karman constant = 0.4
u∗ κ
C1 = f (Re, roughness)
⎛ z⎞ du
τ = τ 0 ⎜ 1− ⎟ = ρ ε z model for momentum exchange
⎝ h⎠ dz
(Boussinesq)
⎛ z⎞
τ0 ⎜ 1− ⎟
⎝ h⎠ ⎛ z⎞ ⎡ L2 ⎤
εz = = κ u∗ ⎜ 1 − ⎟ εz = eddy viscosity = ⎢ ⎥
du ⎝ h⎠ ⎣T⎦
ρ
dz
εz z⎛ z ⎞ Ez
= κ ⎜ 1− ⎟ ≡ Reynolds analogy for turbulent flows
u∗ h h ⎝ h ⎠ u∗ h
Mass exchange ≈ momentum exchange
Depth averaged:
Ez κ
= = 0.067 ≈ 0.1
u∗ h 6
Rules of thumb:
River U, h u ∗ ≈ 0.1U
E 2 ≈ 0.1u ∗ h ≈ 0.01Uh
Ex:
U = 2 m/s, h = 2m
Ez = 0.04 m²/s = 400 cm2/s >> D = 2 × 10-5 cm/s !!
Environmental Fluid Mechanics Ι 12 Institute for Hydromechanics
VERTICAL MIXING
e.g. source at surface
x
σ z = 2E z t = 2E z
U
2
h xm ⎛ h ⎞ U
= 2 Ez ⇒ xm = ⎜ ⎟
2.15 U ⎝ 2.15 ⎠ 2E z
2
⎛ 2 ⎞ 2
Ex: xm = ⎜ ⎟ = 25 m Very fast
⎝ 2.15 ⎠ 2 × 0.04
Conditions:
x > xm
σy > h
Ey
Data: ≅ 0.15 to 0.20 straight, uniform channels
u∗ h
Evaluation of field / laboratory tests:
1 d σy 1 σ y ( t 2 ) − σ y ( t1 )
2 2 2
= Ey ≅
2 dt 2 t 2 − t1
1 σ y ( x 2 ) − σ y ( x1 )
2 2
or
2 ( x 2 − x1 ) / U
Ey
Data: = 0.5 to 10
. =α α = 0.6 ± 50% (Fischer (1972)
u∗h
2
⎛ UB ⎞
α = 0.4 ⎜ ⎟ Yotsukura and Sayre (1976)
⎝ u∗ Rc ⎠
∂c ∂ ⎛ ∂c ⎞ ∂c ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂c⎞
uh = uh ⎜ h 2 E y u ⎟ ⇒ = ⎜ h Ey u ⎟
∂x ∂q ⎝ ∂q ⎠ ∂x ∂q ⎝ ∂ q⎠
14243
⎡ L5 ⎤
"Diffusitivity" = ⎢ 2 ⎥ ≈ constant
⎣T ⎦
y/B q/Q
Transverse distributions of dye observed in the Missouri River near Blair, Nebraska, by
Yotsukura et al. /1970), plotted (a) versus actual distance across the stream and (b)
versus relative cumulative discharge [Yotsukura and Sayre (1976)].
Environmental Fluid Mechanics Ι 15 Institute for Hydromechanics
Analysis:
∂c ∂c ∂ ⎛ ∂c ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂c ⎞
+ u ( z, t) = ⎜E x ⎟ + ⎜Ez ⎟ 2-D
∂t ∂x ∂x ⎝ ∂z⎠ ∂z ⎝ ∂z⎠
1h
Substitute and average
h ∫0
( ) dz U, C = spatial averages
h
∂C ∂C ∂u ′′ c ′′ ∂ ⎛ ∂C ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂ c ⎞
+U + = ⎜E ⎟ + ⎜E ⎟
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂ x ⎝ x ∂ x ⎠ h ⎝ z ∂z ⎠
0
14243
h
1
h ∫0
u ′′ c ′′ = u ′′ c ′′ dz = 0 no flux
⎡ M ⎤
JL = u ′′ c ′′ = dispersive mass flux = ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣L , T ⎦
Environmental Fluid Mechanics Ι 16 Institute for Hydromechanics
⎡ M ⎤
JL = u ′′ c ′′ = dispersive mass flux = ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣L , T ⎦
∂C ⎡L2 ⎤
Analogy: JL = − EL EL = coeff. of longitudinal dispersion = ⎢ ⎥
∂x ⎣T⎦
− neglect: long. diffusion, Ex << EL
∂C ∂C ∂2 C
+ U = EL 1-D
∂t ∂x ∂ x2
↓ ↓ ↓
change of advection spreading by
mean conc. mean velocity deviations
velocity + transverse diffusion
∂C ∂ ⎛ ∂ c ′′ ⎞
u ′′ = ⎜E z ⎟ Taylor (1953, 1954)
∂x ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠
↓ ↓
transport in x ⇔ diffusion in
direction by vertical direction
differential by turbulence
velocities
"Stretching" ⇔ "Homogenization"
∂C
With given properties: u ′′ ( z), E z ( z) one can compute c ′′ ~ ,
∂x
and evaluate u ′′ c ′′
h z z
1 1
EL = − ∫ u ′′ ∫
h 0 0 E z ∫o
u ′′ dz dz dz
Environmental Fluid Mechanics Ι 17 Institute for Hydromechanics
1. Channel flows:
u ′′ ~ log− profile
EL = 5.9 u∗ h Elder (1959)
EZ ∼ parabolic
Compare: E y ≈ E x = 0.2 u∗ h
EL >> Ex
Plan view of a drop of dye diffusing in the turbulent flow in an open channel.
Distribution of concentration C, normalized to have a maximum of 10. The flow is
to the left; h = 1.43 cm, x/h = 90 ( Elder, 1959)
r 2 o U2
EL mol
= Taylor (1953)
48 D
h2
= 0.4 Et = transverse diffusivity
Et
Environmental Fluid Mechanics Ι 18 Institute for Hydromechanics
EL
Natural Rivers Data: = 100 to 1000 3-D non-uniformities
u∗ h
Lateral velocity
deviations dominate
→ Stretching
+
Lateral (transverse) diffusion
B y y
EL = − ∫ ( u − U) h ∫ ∫ ( u − U) h dydydy
1 1
u(y): measurements
A0 0
Ey h 0
↓ ↓ or numerical model
U2 B 2
EL = 0.011 good within factor 4 (σL ∼ within 2)
u∗ h
Overall effects:
- stretching of "cloud"
- increased longitudinal
dispersion EL ↑
Environmental Fluid Mechanics Ι 19 Institute for Hydromechanics
∂C ∂C ∂2 C
+U = EL − kC t > tM
∂t ∂x ∂x2
(often neglected; but careful!)
m ′′ ⎡ ( x − Ut) 2 ⎤
Instantaneous Area Source: C= exp − ⎢ ⎥ exp [ − kt]
4 π EL t ⎢⎣ 4 EL t ⎥⎦
q′′ ⎡ xU ⎛ 4 kEL ⎞⎤
Continuous Area source: C= exp ⎢ ⎜1 m 1 + ⎟⎥
4kEL ⎢⎣ 2 EL ⎝ U2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
u 1+ 2
u
4kEL
In continuous problems Plug flow: →0
U2
Æ long. Dispersion usually negligible
q′′ ⎛ kx ⎞
C= exp ⎜ − ⎟
U ⎝ U⎠
Environmental Fluid Mechanics Ι 20 Institute for Hydromechanics
- eddy structure
RELATIVE DIFFUSION"
- mass will follow larger eddies, but will be diffused by action of smaller eddies (of
increasing size)
d σ 2r
= 4 Er cylindrical coordinate r, standard deviation σr
dt
⇒ σ 2r ~ ε t 3 rapid growth
Data: σ 2 r ~ t 2.3
Er ~ σ 11. r
Okubo (1971) → Oceanic Diffusion Diagrams
mid-size
small lake
A. Okubo, "Oceanic Diffusion Diagrams", Deep Sea Research, Vol. 18, 1971
1 hr ∼ σr = 50 m
1 day ∼ 1 km
1 week ∼ 10 km
1 month ∼ 100 km
Applications:
1 σr
cmax ~ 2-D growth σr
σ 2r
c max
(vertically mixed)
c max
⎛ r2 ⎞
− ⎜⎜ ⎟
2⎟
M ⎝ 2σ r ⎠
c= e
h 2 π σr 2
Environmental Fluid Mechanics Ι 22 Institute for Hydromechanics
∂c ∂ ⎛ ∂ c⎞
U = ⎜E ⎟ − kc Brooks (1960)
∂x ∂y ⎝ y ∂y ⎠
4/3
⎛L⎞
E y = E y0 ⎜ ⎟ 4/3 Law L = 2 3 σy
⎝ b0 ⎠
22% width
3/2
L ⎡ 8 E y0 x ⎤
= ⎢1 + ⎥ ∼ x3/2 !
b ⎣ Ub 2 0 ⎦
c max 3/2
= erf 3
c0 ⎛ 8 E y0 x ⎞
⎜1 + ⎟ −1
⎝ Ub 2 0 ⎠
Environmental Fluid Mechanics Ι 23 Institute for Hydromechanics
Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E., and Lightfoot, E.N., 1960, "Transport Phenomena", John Wiley
& Sons, New York
Carslaw, H.S. and Jaeger, J.C., 1959, "Conduction of Heat in Solids", Oxford Press, 2nd
ed.
Elder, J.W., 1959, "The Dispersion of Marked Fluid in Turbulent Shear Flow", Fluid
Mechanics, Vol. 5, Part 4, pp 544-560
Fischer, H.B., et al., 1979, "Mixing in Inland and Coastal Waters", Academic Press, New
York
Holly, E.R. and Jirka, G.H., 1986, "Mixing and Solute Transport in Rivers", Field Manual,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, Tech. Report E-86-11
(NTIS No. 1229110, AD-A174931/6/XAB)
Jirka, G.H. and Lee, J.H.-W., 1994, "Waste Disposal in the Ocean", in "Water Quality and
its Control", Vol. 5 of Hydraulic Structures Design Manual, M. Hino (Ed.), Balkema,
Rotterdam
Rutherford, J.C., 1994, "River Mixing", John Wiley & Sons, Chichester
Taylor, G.I., 1921, "Diffusion by Continuous Movements", Proc., London Math. Soc., Ser.
A, Vol. 20, pp 196-211
Taylor, G.I., 1953, "Dispersion of Soluble Matter in Solvent Flowing Slowly Through a
Tube", Proc. Royal Soc. of London, Ser. A, No. 219, pp 186-203
Taylor, G.I., 1954, "The Dispersion of Matter in Turbulent Flow Through a Pipe", Proc.
Royal Soc. of London, Ser. A, Vol. 223, pp 446-468
Yotsukura, N. and Sayre, W.W., 1976, "Transverse Mixing in Natural Channels", Water
Resources Research, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp 695-704