Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Burgess - Fixing Frege
Burgess - Fixing Frege
(+:+0)(4')'
,QJP2$WTIGUU
24+0%'610 70+8'45+6; 24'55
%QR[TKIJV l
KKK
(QT#NGZKCPF(QMKQP
KX
%QPVGPVU
#EMPQYNGFIOGPVUVKZ
%*#26'4 (TGIG4WUUGNNCPF#HVGT
%*#26'4 2TGFKECVKXG6JGQTKGU
%*#26'4 +ORTGFKECVKXG6JGQTKGU
6CDNGUV
0QVGUV
4GHGTGPEGUV
+PFGZV
X
#EMPQYNGFIOGPVU
( 14 51 UJQTV C YQTM CU VJG RTGUGPV QPG VJG NKUV QH RGTUQPU VQ YJQO VJG CWVJQT JCU VJG
RNGCUCPV FWV[ QH CEMPQYNGFIKPI FGDVU KU C NQPI QPG 2CWN $GPCEGTTCH 5QNQOQP (GHGTOCP
-KV (KPG *CTXG[ (TKGFOCP # 2 *C\GP 4KEJCTF *GEM #MKJKTQ -CPCOQTK 5CWN -TKRMG
2CTUQPU 0GKN 6GPPCPV -CK 9GJOGKGT CPF %TKURKP 9TKIJV &QWDVNGUU VJGTG JCXG DGGP
QVJGTU YJQUG PCOGU JCXG GUECRGF O[ JKIJN[ HCNNKDNG OGOQT[ VQ YJQO + OWUV QHHGT
CRQNQIKGU CU YGNN CU VJCPMU 5QOG QH VJQUG PCOGF QHHGTGF KPHQTOCVKQP CPF CUUKUVCPEG QP
URGEKHKE RQKPVU QH YJKEJ RCTVKEWNCTU YKNN DG PQVGF KP VJG DQF[ QH VJG OQPQITCRJ 1VJGTU
JCXG GZGTVGF C INQDCN KPVGNNGEVWCN KPHNWGPEG YJQUG EQPVTKDWVKQP VQ VJG YQTM KU PQV VJG NGUU
KORQTVCPV HQT DGKPI JCTFGT VQ NQECNK\G ;GV QVJGTU RTQXKFGF QPG QT CPQVJGT HQTWO KP YJKEJ
+ EQWNF RTGUGPV XGTUKQPU QH UQOG QH VJG OCVGTKCN HQT ETKVKECN EQOOGPV CPF VQ VJKU NCUV
ECVGIQT[ + OWUV PQY CFF *CTT[ (TCPMHWTV YJQO + OGPVKQP KP ITCVKVWFG HQT VJG KPXKVCVKQP
6*' )4'#6 NQIKEKCP )QVVNQD (TGIG YTQVG VJTGG DQQMU GCEJ TGRTGUGPVKPI C UVCIG KP C
ITCPF RTQITCO HQT RTQXKFKPI C NQIKECN HQWPFCVKQP HQT CTKVJOGVKE CPF JKIJGT OCVJGOCVKEU
*KU $GITKHHUUEJTKHV
KPVTQFWEGF C EQORTGJGPUKXG U[UVGO QH U[ODQNKE NQIKE 6JG HKTUV
HQWPFCVKQPU QH CTKVJOGVKE YJKNG VJG UGEQPF JCNH QHHGTGF CP QWVNKPG QH JKU QYP KPIGPKQWU
VGEJPKECN FGVCKNU QH JKU QWVNKPG WUKPI JKU NQIKECN U[ODQNKUO CPF GZVGPFGF VJG RTQLGEV HTQO
CTKVJOGVKE VJG VJGQT[ QH VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU VQ OCVJGOCVKECN CPCN[UKU VJG VJGQT[ QH VJG
TGCN PWODGTU 7PHQTVWPCVGN[ LWUV CU VJG UGEQPF XQNWOG QH VJG )TWPFIGUGV\G YCU IQKPI VQ
O
RTGUU $GTVTCPF 4WUUGNN FKUEQXGTGF C EQPVTCFKEVKQP KP (TGIG U U[UVGO
)TWPFIGUGV\G WPVKN C EQWRNG QH FGECFGU CIQ YJGP RJKNQUQRJGTU CPF NQIKEKCPU VQQM C PGY
O
NQQM CV (TGIG U KPEQPUKUVGPV U[UVGO CPF TGEQIPK\GF VJCV OQTG ECP DG UCNXCIGF HTQO KV
VJCP JCF RTGXKQWUN[ DGGP VJQWIJV +P VJGUG NCUV [GCTU COGPFGF CPF RCTCFQZHTGG XGTUKQPU
O
QH (TGIG U U[UVGO JCXG DGGP RTQFWEGF UWDUVCPVKCN RQTVKQPU QH ENCUUKECN OCVJGOCVKEU JCXG
DGGP FGXGNQRGF YKVJKP UWEJ U[UVGOU CPF C UEJQQN QH PGQ(TGIGCPU JCU CTKUGP ENCKOKPI
6JG VJQWIJV WPFGTN[KPI VJG RTGUGPV OQPQITCRJ KU VJCV JQYGXGT YQPFGTHWN VJG
VJG WNVKOCVG UKIPKHKECPEG QH CP[ PGQ(TGIGCP CRRTQCEJ OWUV CYCKV C FGVGTOKPCVKQP QH LWUV
XCTKQWU PGQ(TGIGCP UVTCVGIKGU CVVGORVKPI VQ FGVGTOKPG VJG UEQRG CPF NKOKVU QH GCEJ 6JG
UGPUG C EQORCPKQP VQ VJG UWTXG[ QH XCTKQWU PQOKPCNKUV UVTCVGIKGU KP VJG OKFFNG RQTVKQPU QH
VJCV YQTM #U KP VJCV GCTNKGT UWTXG[ UQ KP VJG RTGUGPV QPG HCOKNKCTKV[ YKVJ KPVGTOGFKCVG
DCEMITQWPF OCVGTKCN DWV PGKVJGT VJCV PQT CP[ QVJGT URGEKHKE VGZVDQQM KU RTGUWRRQUGF
FGRCTVWTG HTQO (TGIG DWV UQOG QH VJG CRRTQCEJGU VQ DG UWTXG[GF JGTG UVC[ OWEJ ENQUGT VQ
O
(TGIG U QYP UVTCVGI[ VJCP FQ QVJGTU 0GQ(TGIGCPU UQOGVKOGU UWIIGUV VJCV VJG ENQUGT QPG
UVC[U VQ (TGIG VJG ITGCVGT VJG RJKNQUQRJKECN DGPGHKVU +V KU PQV O[ CKO KP VJG RTGUGPV YQTM
VQ CTIWG HQT QT CICKPUV UWEJ ENCKOU 9JCV + FQ KPUKUV KU VJCV CP[ RJKNQUQRJKECN ICKPU OWUV
DG YGKIJGF CICKPUV OCVJGOCVKECN NQUUGU (QT VJG UWTXG[ VQ HQNNQY UJQYU VJCV UQOG
PGQ(TGIGCP CRRTQCEJGU [KGNF OWEJ OQTG QH OCVJGOCVKEU VJCP QVJGTU CPF KV QHVGP UGGOU
VJCV VJG NGUU QPG MGGRU QH (TGIG VJG OQTG QPG IGVU QH OCVJGOCVKEU 0QPGVJGNGUU GXGP KP
VJG NCUV U[UVGO VQ DG EQPUKFGTGF JGTG YJKEJ [KGNFU CNN QH QTVJQFQZ OCVJGOCVKEU CPF OQTG
CNUQ VJGTG TGOCKPU QPG UOCNN DWV UKIPKHKECPV KPITGFKGPV QH (TGIGCP CPEGUVT[
O
#U C PGEGUUCT[ RTGNKOKPCT[ VQ VJG UWTXG[ QH CVVGORVU VQ TGRCKT (TGIG U U[UVGO VJCV
U[UVGO OWUV KVUGNH DG TGXKGYGF 6JG WPFGTN[KPI NQIKE QH VJG $GITKHHUUEJTKHV VJG
VJCV FGXGNQROGPV KVUGNH VJG RCTCFQZ 4WUUGNN HQWPF KP VJG U[UVGO CPF 4WUUGNN U QYP O
CVVGORVU VQ TGRCKT KV OWUV GCEJ DG DTKGHN[ GZCOKPGF CPF VJG OCVJGOCVKECN CPF
RJKNQUQRJKECN IQCNU C PGQ(TGIGCP RTQLGEV QT HQT VJCV OCVVGT CP[ RTGUGPVFC[ HQWPFCVKQPCN
(TGIGOU.QIKE
9JKNG (TGIG KU JQPQTGF CU C HQWPFGT QH OQFGTP NQIKE JKU U[UVGO YKNN PQV NQQM CV
CNN HCOKNKCT VQ RTGUGPVFC[ UVWFGPVU QH VJG UWDLGEV 6Q DGIKP YKVJ (TGIG WUGU C PQPNKPGCT
PQVCVKQP VJCV PQ UWDUGSWGPV YTKVGT JCU HQWPF KV EQPXGPKGPV VQ CFQRV CPF VJCV YKNN PQV DG
GPEQWPVGTGF KP CP[ OQFGTP VGZVDQQM 5KPEG VJG RTGUGPV YQTM KU CP[VJKPI DWV CP JKUVQTKECN
O
VTGCVKUG VJG PQVCVKQP YKNN DG TWVJNGUUN[ OQFGTPK\GF YJGP (TGIG U U[UVGO KU GZRQWPFGF
JGTG
$WV GXGP YJGP VJG PQVCVKQP KU OQFGTPK\GF (TGIG U O JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE JCU C
ITCOOCT VJCV VJQWIJ UVKNN UKORNGT D[ HCT VJCP VJG ITCOOCT QH )GTOCP QT 'PINKUJ QT CP[
PCVWTCN NCPIWCIG KU CRRTGEKCDN[ OQTG EQORNGZ VJCP VJG ITCOOCT QH VJG HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE
O
QH RTGUGPVFC[ VGZVDQQMU 0QPGVJGNGUU CHVGT (TGIG U WPHCOKNKCT WPFGTN[KPI ITCOOCVKECN
CPF QPVQNQIKECN CUUWORVKQPU JCXG DGGP GZRQWPFGF QPN[ C HGY HWTVJGT GZRNCPCVKQPU
UJQWNF DG TGSWKTGF VQ GPCDNG VJG TGCFGT HCOKNKCT YKVJ HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE VQ WPFGTUVCPF
JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE
O
.GV WU DGIKP VJGP YKVJ (TGIG U ITCOOCT (QT (TGIG VJGTG CTG VYQ ITCOOCVKECN
ECVGIQTKGU QT ITCOOCVKECN V[RGU QH YJCV JG ECNNU UCVWTCVGF GZRTGUUKQPU 6JG HKTUV JGTG VQ
UKPIWNCT FGHKPKVG FGUETKRVKQPU UWEJ CU Q VJG OQUV HCOQWU UVWFGPV QH 5QETCVGU R VJCV CTG HTGG
QT VJG ECVGIQT[ QH UGPVGPEGU KPENWFGU FGENCTCVKXG UGPVGPEGU UWEJ CU Q2NCVQ YCU VJG OQUV
HCOQWU UVWFGPV QH 5QETCVGU R VJCV CTG HTGG HTQO KPFGZKECNU CPF JCXG C VTWVJXCNWG VTWG QT
+P CFFKVKQP VJGTG CTG OCP[ V[RGU QH WPUCVWTCVGF GZRTGUUKQPU YKVJ QPG QT OQTG
RTQFWEG CP GZRTGUUKQP QH V[RG 0 QT 5 6JQUG VJCV VJWU HKNNGF KP YQWNF RTQFWEG
GZRTGUUKQPU QH V[RG 5 TCVJGT VJCP V[RG 0 YKNN DG QH OQUV KPVGTGUV JGTG CPF VJGUG OC[ DG
ECNNGF RTGFKECVGU KP C DTQCF UGPUG +P C PQVCVKQP FGTKXGF HTQO VJG OWEJ NCVGT YTKVGTU
-CUKOKGT\ #LFWMKGYKE\ CPF ;GJQUJWC $CT*KNNGN CP GZRTGUUKQP YKVJ DNCPMU KP KV VJCV KH
W
M
HKNNGF KP YKVJ GZRTGUUKQPU QH V[RGU 6 6M YKNN RTQFWEG CP GZRTGUUKQP QH V[RG 5 OC[
DG UCKF VQ DG C RTGFKECVG QH V[RG 56 W 6M 6JG UKORNGUV ECUG KU VJCV QH RTGFKECVGU KP VJG
PCTTQY UGPUG QH GZRTGUUKQPU QH V[RG 50 5QOG QVJGT ECUGU CTG UJQYP KP 6#$.' #
6JG NCDGN TGNCVKQPCN RTGFKECVG YKNN DG WUGF HQT VJG VYQRNCEG VJTGGRNCEG CPF
OCP[RNCEG V[RGU 500 5000 CPF UQ QP YKVJ VJG PWODGT QH RNCEGU DGKPI OGPVKQPGF
GZRNKEKVN[ YJGP KV KU ITGCVGT VJCP VYQ 6JG NCDGN JKIJGT RTGFKECVG YKNN DG WUGF HQT VJG
PWODGT QH VJG NGXGN DGKPI OGPVKQPGF GZRNKEKVN[ KH KV KU JKIJGT VJCP VJG UGEQPF 5KOKNCTN[
YKVJ VJG NCDGN JKIJGT TGNCVKQPCN RTGFKECVG YJKEJ GXGP YKVJ LWUV VYQ RNCEGU CPF GXGP CV
LWUV VJG UGEQPF NGXGN EQXGTU C XCTKGV[ QH V[RGU KPENWFKPI PQV QPN[ 5
50
50 CU UJQYP
5
50
500 CPF GXGP 50
50 +V KU CP KPUVTWEVKXG GZGTEKUG VQ NQQM HQT PCVWTCN
O
+P (TGIG
YJKEJ CHVGT JKU VJTGG DQQMU KU KVU CWVJQT U OQUV HCOQWU YQTM
(TGIG KPVTQFWEGF C FKUVKPEVKQP DGVYGGP VJG UGPUG GZRTGUUGF CPF VJG TGHGTGPV FGPQVGF D[
CP GZRTGUUKQP 6JG TGCFGT YKNN PQV IQ HCT YTQPI YJQ VJKPMU QH YJCV (TGIG ECNNU VJG
+P VJG ECUG QH C RTQRGT PCOG QT UKPIWNCT FGHKPKVG FGUETKRVKQP QH V[RG 0 VJG TGHGTGPV
KU VJG QDLGEV FGUKIPCVGF VJG VJKPI DGCTKPI VJG PCOG QT CPUYGTKPI VQ VJG FGUETKRVKQP
%NGCTN[ VYQ GZRTGUUKQPU QH V[RG 0 HQT KPUVCPEG Q VJG OQUV HCOQWU UVWFGPV QH 5QETCVGU R
CPF Q
VJG OQUV HCOQWU VGCEJGT QH #TKUVQVNG R ECP JCXG FKHHGTGPV UGPUGU GXGP VJQWIJ VJG[
JCXG VJG UCOG TGHGTGPV M KP VJKU KPUVCPEG 2NCVQ 'ZRTGUUKQPU YKVJ FKHHGTGPV UGPUGU DWV VJG
6JG UGPUG QH C UGPVGPEG QH V[RG 5 (TGIG ECNNU C VJQWIJV CPF VJG TGCFGT YKNN PQV IQ
HCT YTQPI YJQ VJKPMU QH YJCV (TGIG ECNNU C QVJQWIJV R CU TQWIJN[ GSWKXCNGPV VQ YJCV QVJGT
RJKNQUQRJGTU ECNN C Q R
RTQRQUKVKQP 6JG TGHGTGPV QH C UGPVGPEG QH V[RG 5 (TGIG VCMGU VQ DG
UKORN[ KVU VTWVJXCNWG 1DXKQWUN[ VYQ UGPVGPEGU QH V[RG 5 HQT KPUVCPEG Q 2NCVQ KU VJG OQUV
HCOQWU UVWFGPV QH 5QETCVGU R Q CPF 2NCVQ KU VJG OQUV HCOQWU VGCEJGT QH #TKUVQVNG QT R Q 2NCVQ
KU C HGCVJGTNGUU DKRGF R Q
CPF R
2NCVQ KU C TCVKQPCN CPKOCN ECP JCXG FKHHGTGPV UGPUGU VJQWIJ
VJG[ JCXG VJG UCOG TGHGTGPV M KP VJGUG KPUVCPEGU VJG VTWVJXCNWG VTWG
UWRRQUGF VQ DG KPEQORNGVG NKMG VJG GZRTGUUKQPU VJGOUGNXGU EQPVCKPKPI ICRU VJCV YJGP
GZRTGUUKQPU QH V[RG 0 W (TGIG ECNNU HWPEVKQPU CPF VJG TGHGTGPVU QH GZRTGUUKQPU QH V[RG
5 W
VJCV KU VJG TGHGTGPVU QH RTGFKECVGU JG ECNNU EQPEGRVU %QTTGURQPFKPI VQ VJG FKHHGTGPV
EQPEGRVU QH VJG PCTTQYGUV HKTUVNGXGN QPGRNCEG MKPF DWV CNUQ TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU CPF
JKIJGT EQPEGRVU
(QT C EQPEGRV QH V[RG 50 KH HKNNKPI KV KP YKVJ C EGTVCKP QDLGEV RTQFWEGU VJG
VTWVJXCNWG VTWG VJGP VJG QDLGEV KU UCKF VQ HCNN WPFGT VJG EQPEGRV (QT KPUVCPEG CUUWOKPI
HQT VJG UCMG QH GZCORNG VJCV 2NCVQ OC[ VTWN[ DG ECNNGF YKUG UKPEG VJG EQPEGRV FGPQVGF D[
QW R
KU YKUG YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ VJG EQPEGRV QH DGKPI YKUG YJGP HKNNGF KP D[ VJG QDLGEV
FGPQVGF D[ Q R
2NCVQ YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ VJG QDLGEV 2NCVQ RTQFWEGU VJG VTWVJXCNWG FGPQVGF D[
Q R
2NCVQ KU YKUG YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ VJG VTWVJXCNWG VTWG KV HQNNQYU VJCV VJG QDLGEV 2NCVQ HCNNU
WPFGT VJG EQPEGRV QH DGKPI YKUG 6JG UCOG VGTOKPQNQI[ KU WUGF KP EQPPGEVKQP YKVJ QVJGT
V[RGU QH RTGFKECVGU UKPEG 5QETCVGU VCWIJV 2NCVQ VJG RCKT 5QETCVGU CPF 2NCVQ KP VJCV QTFGT
HCNN WPFGT VJG TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRV QH JCXKPI VCWIJV UKPEG 2NCVQ KU CP GZCORNG QH UQOGQPG
YJQ KU YKUG VJG EQPEGRV QH DGKPI YKUG HCNNU WPFGT VJG JKIJGT EQPEGRV QH DGKPI
GZGORNKHKGF D[ 2NCVQ
6YQ EQPEGRVU CTG ECNNGF EQGZVGPUKXG KH VJG[ CRRN[ VQ VJG UCOG KVGOU QT KP QVJGT
YQTFU KH YJCVGXGT HCNNU WPFGT GKVJGT HCNNU WPFGT VJG QVJGT 0QY VJG ETWEKCN FKHHGTGPEG
DGVYGGP VJG TGHGTGPVU QH RTGFKECVGU YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ EQPEGRVU CPF VJG UGPUGU QH RTGFKECVGU
KU VJCV CEEQTFKPI VQ (TGIG EQGZVGPUKXG EQPEGRVU CTG VJG UCOG 6JWU KH GXGT[ HGCVJGTNGUU
DKRGF KU C TCVKQPCN CPKOCN CPF XKEG XGTUC VJGP VJQWIJ VJG UGPUGU QH QW KU C HGCVJGTNGUU
DKRGF R QW
CPF KU C TCVKQPCN CPKOCN R CTG FKHHGTGPV VJG EQPEGRV QH DGKPI C HGCVJGTNGUU
DKRGF CPF VJG EQPEGRV QH DGKPI C TCVKQPCN CPKOCN CTG VJG UCOG
+V UQWPFU QFF VQ UC[ UQ CPF VJG FGITGG QH QFFKV[ KU C OGCUWTG QH VJG FGITGG QH
O
FGRCTVWTG QH (TGIG U VGEJPKECN WUCIG QH QEQPEGRV R HTQO VJG QTFKPCT[ WUCIG QH QEQPEGRV R
YJKEJ VGPFU VQ UWIIGUV VJG UGPUG TCVJGT VJCP VJG TGHGTGPV QH C RTGFKECVG 6JG NCDGN
QEQPEGRV R YCU KP HCEV EJQUGP D[ (TGIG YGNN DGHQTG JG TGEQIPK\GF VJG KORQTVCPEG QH
GZRQUKVKQP DWV JCXG UVWEM YKVJ QEQPEGRV R DGECWUG KV KU UVKNN WUGF D[ OQUV QH VJG
CPF RTGFKECVGU VJGTG EQTTGURQPF VJG QPVQNQIKECN ECVGIQTKGU QH QDLGEVU VTWVJXCNWGU CPF
Q R O
EQPEGRVU 6JG HQTOCN NCPIWCIG QH (TGIG U JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE KU OQTG EQORNGZ VJCP VJG
OCMGU RTQXKUKQP HQT RTGFKECVGU QH CNN V[RGU FGPQVKPI EQPEGRVU QH CNN V[RGU
5Q OWEJ HQT VJG ITCOOCT DGJKPF VJG NQIKE 6WTPKPI VQ NQIKE KVUGNH OQFGTP
VGZVDQQMU KPVTQFWEG VJG UVWFGPV VQ VJG PQVKQPU QH C HKTUVQTFGT NCPIWCIG YKVJ VJG U[ODQN
RNCEG QPGU QT UGPVGPEG U[ODQNU CPF PRNCEG HWPEVKQP U[ODQNU KPENWFKPI RNCEG QPGU
QT EQPUVCPVU #NUQ KPVTQFWEGF CTG TWNGU QH HQTOCVKQP CPF VJG PQVKQP QH C VGTO
DWKNV WR
#NUQ KPVTQFWEGF EGTVCKP TWNGU QH FGFWEVKQP YJKEJ OC[ VCMG YKFGN[ FKHHGTGPV HQTOU
KP FKHHGTGPV DQQMU M VJG FKHHGTGPV HQTOCVU HQT FGFWEVKQPU WUGF KP FKHHGTGPV DQQMU IQKPI D[
DQQMU VQ GSWKXCNGPV PQVKQPU QH YJCV KV KU HQT QPG HQTOWNC VQ DG FGFWEKDNG HTQO QVJGTU CPF
JGPEG VQ GSWKXCNGPV PQVKQPU QH C VJGQT[ EQPUKUVKPI QH CNN VJG HQTOWNCU ECNNGF VJGQTGOU QH
VJG VJGQT[ VJCV CTG FGFWEKDNG HTQO EGTVCKP URGEKHKGF HQTOWNCU ECNNGF VJG PQPNQIKECN
(COKNKCTKV[ YKVJ CNN VJGUG PQVKQPU OWUV DG RTGUWRRQUGF JGTG DWV EGTVCKP
EQPXGPVKQPU VJCV CTG PQV EQXGTGF KP CNN VGZVDQQMU OC[ DG DTKGHN[ TGXKGYGF 6Q DGIKP YKVJ
KV RTQXGU EQPXGPKGPV KP RTCEVKEG YJGP YTKVKPI QWV HQTOWNCU VQ OCMG EGTVCKP FGRCTVWTGU
HTQO YJCV KP RTKPEKRNG QWIJV VQ DG YTKVVGP +P RCTVKEWNCT HQT VJG UCMG QH EQPEKUGPGUU CPF
ENCTKV[ EGTVCKP FGHKPGF U[ODQNU CTG CFFGF VQ VJG RTKOKVKXG QT QHHKEKCN U[ODQNU 6JG
UKORNGUV ECUG KU VJG KPVTQFWEVKQP QH l HQT FKUVKPEVPGUU D[ VJG WUWCN FGHKPKVKQP CU HQNNQYU
Z l [ ↔`Z[
9JCV KV OGCPU VQ UC[ VJCV l Q
KU FGHKPGFR D[
KU VJCV QHHKEKCNN[ l OKUP V RCTV QH VJG
DWV OGTGN[ CP CDDTGXKCVKQP HQT C VCWVQNQI[ QH VJG HQTO R ↔ R 6JG UNCUJ PQVCVKQP HQT
PGICVKQP OC[ CNUQ DG WUGF YKVJ EGTVCKP PQPNQIKECN TGNCVKQP U[ODQNU YJGP VJGKT UJCRG
RGTOKVU
#PQVJGT UNKIJVN[ NGUU UKORNG ECUG QHVGP PQV EQXGTGF KP VGZVDQQMU KU VJCV QH ∃ HQT
WPKSWG GZKUVGPEG YKVJ VYQ QH VJG UGXGTCN GSWKXCNGPV WUWCN FGHKPKVKQPU DGKPI CU HQNNQYU
C ∃Zφ
Z ↔ ∃Zφ
Z ∀Z∀Z
φ
Z φ
Z → Z Z
D ∃Zφ
Z ↔ ∃Z∀[
φ
[ ↔ [ Z
*GTG VJG HKTUV CPF UGEQPF EQPLWPEVU QH VJG EQPLWPEVKQP QP VJG TKIJV KP
C CTG ECNNGF VJG
;GV CPQVJGT CPF NGUU UKORNG ECUG OC[ CTKUG YJGP QPG JCU CUUWOGF CU CP CZKQO QT
C ∀Z
∀[
φ
[ ↔ [ Z → ψ
Z
D ∃Z
∀[
φ
[ ↔ [ Z ψ
Z
+ UC[ Q
KPFKHHGTGPVN[ R DGECWUG
C ECP DG FGFWEGF HTQO
D CPF XKEG XGTUC WUKPI VJG
RTGUWRRQUKVKQP ∃φ
Z 0QVG VJCV φ
E GZRCPFU KPVQ C NQIKECN EQPUGSWGPEG QH VJCV
RTGUWRRQUKVKQP 0QVG CNUQ VJCV KH ψ
E KU QH VJG HQTO `θ
E KV KU TGCNN[ C OCVVGT QH
C `∀Z
∀[
φ
[ ↔ [ Z → θ
Z
D ∀Z
∀[
φ
[ ↔ [ Z → `θ
Z
5VKNN [GV CPQVJGT CPF GXGP NGUU UKORNG ECUG KU VJG OCP[RNCEG CPCNQIWG QH VJG
CDDTGXKCVQT[ EQPXGPVKQP LWUV FKUEWUUGF 9JGP QPG JCU CUUWOGF QT FGFWEGF ∀[∃Zψ
[ Z
QPG OC[ Q
IKXG C PCOG VQ R VJKU Z D[ KPVTQFWEKPI C HWPEVKQP U[ODQN H CPF CUUWOKPI
∀[ψ
[ H
[ 6JG WPRCEMKPI VQ GNKOKPCVG H RTQEGGFU CPCNQIQWUN[ VQ VJG WPRCEMKPI VQ
GNKOKPCVG E KP VJG QPGRNCEG ECUG #PF YJCV JCU LWUV DGGP UCKF CDQWV C QPGRNCEG
O
$GTVTCPF 4WUUGNN U HCOQWU VJGQT[ QH FGUETKRVKQPU RTQXKFGU C IGPGTCN PQVCVKQP
YJKEJ + YKNN YTKVG CU KQVC ι VJCV CVVCEJGU VQ C XCTKCDNG Z CPF C HQTOWNC JCXKPI Z CU C HTGG
XCTKCDNG VQ HQTO C VGTO VJCV DGJCXGU NKMG CP PRNCEG HWPEVKQP U[ODQN YJGTG P KU VJG
PWODGT QH HTGG XCTKCDNGU QVJGT VJCP Z +P VJKU PQVCVKQP QWT EQPUVCPV QT RNCEG HWPEVKQP
CZKQOU CPF VJGQTGOU QH C VJGQT[ 6JGUG CICKP OC[ DG KNNWUVTCVGF D[ VJG ECUG QH KFGPVKV[
YJGTG YG JCXG VJG NQIKECN NCY QH KPFKUEGTPKDKNKV[ QH KFGPVKECNU YJKEJ KP OCP[ VGZVDQQM
Z [ →
φ(Z ↔ φ
[
1PG QH VJG EQPXGPVKQPU KNNWUVTCVGF D[ VJKU YC[ QH UVCVKPI VJG NCY KU VJCV VJQWIJ YG CNNQY
QWTUGNXGU VQ URGCM KP VJG UKPIWNCT QH Q R VJG CZKQO QT VJGQTGO QH KPFKUEGTPKDKNKV[ YJCV QPG
TGCNN[ JCU JGTG KU CP CZKQO UEJGOG OGCPKPI C TWNG VQ VJG GHHGEV VJCV CNN HQTOWNCU QH C
EGTVCKP HQTO CTG VQ DG EQWPVGF CU CZKQOU QT C VJGQTGO UEJGOG OGCPKPI C TGUWNV VQ VJG
GHHGEV VJCV CNN HQTOWNCU QH C EGTVCKP HQTO CTG VJGQTGOU 9JCV KU FKURNC[GF KP
KU PQV
Q R
VJG NCY DWV VJG IGPGTCN HQTO QH CP KPUVCPEG QH VJG UEJGOG YJGTGKP φ OC[ DG CP[
HQTOWNC
#EVWCNN[
FQGU PQV [GV HWNN[ FKURNC[ VJG IGPGTCN HQTO QH CP KPUVCPEG QH VJG NCY
UKPEG KV KU EQPXGPVKQPCN KP FKURNC[KPI NCYU VQ QOKV KPKVKCN WPKXGTUCN SWCPVKHKGTU 6JWU YJCV
C ∀Z∀[(Z [ →
φ(Z ↔ φ
[
VJG NCY UKPEG KV KU EQPXGPVKQPCN KP FKURNC[KPI NCYU VQ QOKV RCTCOGVGTU QT CFFKVKQPCN HTGG
XCTKCDNGU VJCV OC[ DG RTGUGPV 6JWU YJCV CP KPUVCPEG TGCNN[ NQQMU NKMG KU VJKU
D ∀W W∀ WM ∀Z∀[(Z [ →
φ(Z W W WM ↔ φ
[ W W WM
.KMG CNN VJG QVJGT EQPXGPVKQPU VJCV JCXG DGGP FGUETKDGF UQ HCT VJGUG EQPXGPVKQPU CDQWV
FKURNC[KPI CZKQOU CPF VJGQTGOU QH HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE YKNN CRRN[ CNUQ VQ JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE
6JGUG EQPXGPVKQPU JCXG DGGP DTKGHN[ FGUETKDGF JGTG + UC[ DGECWUG PQV CNN
VGZVDQQMU EQXGT VJGO 6JGTG KU QPG HWTVJGT KORQTVCPV VQRKE VJCV XGT[ HGY VGZVDQQMU EQXGT
NKMG CP QTFKPCT[ QPG GZEGRV VJCV VJGTG KU OQTG VJCP QPG UV[NG QH XCTKCDNGU (QT KPUVCPEG KP
C IGQOGVTKECN VJGQT[ CDQWV RQKPVU CPF NKPGU KV OC[ DG EQPXGPKGPV VQ JCXG QPG UV[NG QH
XCTKCDNG : ; < W HQT RQKPVU CPF CPQVJGT UV[NG QH XCTKCDNG ξ υ ζ W HQT NKPGU %GTVCKP
QDXKQWU EJCPIGU KP VJG TWNGU QH HQTOCVKQP CPF FGFWEVKQP VJGP JCXG VQ DG OCFG
#U VQ HQTOCVKQP TWNGU CPF HQTOWNCU VJG WUWCN TWNGU UC[ VJCV W X KU CP CVQOKE
HQTOWNC HQT CP[ XCTKCDNGU W CPF X +P OCP[UQTVGF NQIKE QPG JCU C FKHHGTGPV KFGPVKV[
U[ODQN HQT GCEJ UQTV QH XCTKCDNG 5Q KP QWT IGQOGVTKECN GZCORNG YG YQWNF JCXG CVQOKE
HQTOWNCU QH VJG MKPFU : RQKPV ; CPF ξ NKPG υ CPF PQV CVQOKE HQTOWNCU KFGPVKH[KPI C RQKPV
CPF C NKPG 5KOKNCTN[ HQT PQPNQIKECN U[ODQNU VJGTG OC[ DG TGUVTKEVKQPU CU VQ YJKEJ UQTVU
QH XCTKCDNGU ECP IQ KPVQ YJKEJ RNCEGU 6JGUG EJCPIGU CHHGEV QPN[ VJG TWNGU HQT HQTOKPI
VGTOU CPF CVQOKE HQTOWNCU 6JG TWNGU HQT HQTOKPI OQTG EQORNGZ HQTOWNCU HTQO UKORNGT
#U VQ FGFWEVKQP TWNGU CPF FGFWEKDKNKV[ VJG WUWCN TWNGU HQT SWCPVKHKGTU CNNQY M KP
∀Z
2Z → W CPF ∀Z
`2Z → W CPF ∃:
W
CPF ∃ξ
W D[ ∃Z
2Z W CPF
∃Z
`2Z W (QT KPUVCPEG C IGQOGVTKE VJGQT[ CDQWV RQKPVU : CPF NKPGU ξ ECP DG TGFWEGF
TGRNCEKPI SWCPVKHKECVKQPU QHQT GXGT[ RQKPV : R Q CPF HQT GXGT[ NKPG ξR Q D[ HQT GXGT[ Z KH Z KU
C RQKPV VJGP R Q
CPF HQT GXGT[ Z KH Z R
KU PQV C RQKPV VJGP +H VJGTG KU UC[ C EQPUVCPV % QH
UQTV : KP VJG QTKIKPCN NCPIWCIG YG PGGF VQ CFF GZRNKEKVN[ CU CP CZKQO UKPEG KV KU PQ NQPIGT
KORNKEKV KP VJG PQVCVKQP VJCV % KU C RQKPV 2% +H VJGTG KU UC[ C HWPEVKQP U[ODQN T KP VJG
QTKIKPCN VYQUQTVGF NCPIWCIG VJCV VCMGU CTIWOGPVU QH UQTV ξ CPF IKXGU XCNWGU QH UQTV : YG
PGGF VQ CFF GZRNKEKVN[ CU CP CZKQO UKPEG KV KU PQ NQPIGT KORNKEKV KP VJG ITCOOCT VJCV T
CRRNKGF VQ C NKPG IKXGU C RQKPV `2Z →2 T
Z #PF UKOKNCTN[ HQT HWPEVKQPU[ODQNU QH OQTG
RNCEGU # UKOKNCT TGFWEVKQP ECP DG ECTTKGF QWV HQT VJTGGUQTVGF VJGQTKGU WUKPI VYQ UQTVCN
RTGFKECVGU 2 CPF 3
CPF URGCMKPI QH VJG KVGOU QH VJG VJKTF UQTV CU VJG Z UWEJ VJCV
`2Z `3Z $WV TGVCKPKPI VJG OCP[UQTVGF HQTOWNCVKQP KU QHVGP KP RTCEVKEG OQTG
(QT VJG TGCFGT EQOHQTVCDNG YKVJ HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE KPENWFKPI KVU OCP[UQTVGF XCTKCPV
XGTUKQP LWUV FGUETKDGF JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE OC[ DG KPVTQFWEGF CU UKORN[ QPG URGEKCN
OCP[UQTVGF HKTUVQTFGT VJGQT[ YKVJ EGTVCKP FKUVKPEVKXG HQTOWNCU CU CZKQOU KP QPG URGEKCN
(TQO VJG RGTURGEVKXG QH HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE VJGUG FKUVKPEVKXG RTKOKVKXGU CPF CZKQOU CTG
EQPUKFGTGF PQPNQIKECN HTQO VJG RGTURGEVKXG QH JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE VJG[ CTG EQPUKFGTGF
OCVJGOCVKEU YKVJKP C U[UVGO DCUGF QP JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE $WV VJKU RJKNQUQRJKECN KUUWG KU
FGFWEKDKNKV[ YJKEJ CU CNTGCF[ KPFKECVGF CTG VJG UCOG CU HQT OCP[UQTVGF HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE
YJKEJ KP VWTP CTG CRCTV HTQO UQOG QDXKQWU TGUVTKEVKQPU QP YJKEJ UQTVU QH XCTKCDNGU ECP
VWTP WR KP YJKEJ RQUKVKQPU VJG UCOG CU HQT QTFKPCT[ VGZVDQQM HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE YKVJ
9JCV VJG FKUVKPEVKXG RTKOKVKXGU CPF CZKQOU QH JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE CTG ECP CNOQUV DG
IWGUUGF HTQO VJG GCTNKGT FKUEWUUKQP QH (TGIGCP QPVQNQI[ #U VQ RTKOKVKXGU VJGTG CTG
XCTKCDNGU QH XCTKQWU V[RGU 6 YKVJ VJG EQTTGURQPFKPI KFGPVKV[ U[ODQNU 6 IKXKPI TKUG VQ
Z 0 [ : 50 ; 4 500 5 : 5
50 ;
∇6 VQ GZRTGUU VJCV C IKXGP EQPEGRV QH V[RG 6 JCU IKXGP KVGOU QH V[RGU 6 W 6M HCNNKPI
WPFGT KV 6JGUG U[ODQNU YKNN IKXG TKUG VQ UWEJ CVQOKE HQTOWNCU CU VJG HQNNQYKPI
UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE +H YG FTQR CNN TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU QH OQTG VJCP VYQ RNCEGU VJG TGUWNV
6JKU KU CNN VJCV PGGFU VQ DG UCKF CDQWV VJG QHHKEKCN PQVKQP QH HQTOWNC HQT JKIJGT
QTFGT NQIKE 7PQHHKEKCNN[ 0 KU EQPXGPVKQPCNN[ LWUV YTKVVGP CU YJKNG CNN QVJGT 6 CTG
YTKVVGP CU ≡. #U HQT ∇ PQV QPN[ CTG UWDUETKRVU FTQRRGF DWV VJG XGT[ U[ODQN KVUGNH KU PQV
YTKVVGP UQ VJCV KP RTCEVKEG QZ HCNNU WPFGT : RQ Z CPF [ KP VJCV QTFGT HCNN WPFGT 4 RQ
: HCNNU
WPFGT :R CTG YTKVVGP LWUV :Z CPF 4Z[ CPF : : QT UQOGVKOGU HQT GZVTC GORJCUKU :
Z CPF
4
Z [ CPF :
:
6WTPKPI HTQO RTKOKVKXGU VQ CZKQOU VJGTG CTG LWUV VYQ QH VJGUG ECNNGF
∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ φ
Z
: ≡ ; ↔ ∀\
:\ ↔ ;\
HQTOWNCU FKURNC[GF CTG VQ DG RTGHKZGF YKVJ WPKXGTUCN SWCPVKHKGTU CPF VJGTG OC[ DG
OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE WPNGUU GZRNKEKVN[ KPFKECVGF QVJGTYKUG VJG CPCNQIQWU RQN[CFKE
C ∃4∀Z∀[
4Z[ ↔ ψ
Z [
D ∃:∀:
:: ↔ θ
:
C 4 ≡ 5 ↔ ∀Z∀[
4Z[ ↔ 5Z[
D : ≡ ; ↔ ∀
: < < ↔ ;<
VJCV VJG : KP
KU WPKSWG CPF YG OC[ IKXG C PCOG VQ KV ECNNKPI KV nZ φ
Z TGCF Q
VJG
∀\
:\ ↔ ;\ →
φ
: ↔ φ
;
+P OQUV PGQ(TGIGCP U[UVGOU ≡ KU PQV GXGP KPENWFGF COQPI VJG QHHKEKCN RTKOKVKXGU DWV
TCVJGT KU TGICTFGF CU CP WPQHHKEKCN CDDTGXKCVKQP KP YJKEJ ECUG
KU PQV KPENWFGF COQPI
VJG QHHKEKCN CZKQOU DWV TCVJGT KU TGICTFGF CU VJG FGHKPKVKQP QH ≡ + YKNN JGPEGHQTVJ HCNN KP
YKVJ VJKU RTCEVKEG 9JGP ≡ KU VJWU VCMGP CU FGHKPGF TCVJGT VJCP RTKOKVKXG KV KU GKVJGT
VJCV KU ECNNGF VJG CZKQO QH GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ QT GNUG VJG HQNNQYKPI KPUVCPEG QH
YJKEJ
VQIGVJGT YKVJ
D CEVWCNN[ [KGNFU VJG IGPGTCN UEJGOG
∀\
:\ ↔ ;\ →
:: ↔ :;
(QT TGCUQPU VJCV YKNN DG GZRNCKPGF NCVGT KP VJKU EJCRVGT (TGIG FKF PQV PGGF GZVGPUKQPCNKV[
KP CP[ HQTOWNCVKQP CU CP CZKQO HQT VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH OCVJGOCVKEU YKVJKP JKU U[UVGO
'ZVGPUKQPCNKV[ KU PGGFGF JQYGXGT VQ GZRTGUU HWNN[ JKU PQVKQP QH YJCV C EQPEGRV KU
$GHQTG ENQUKPI VJKU UGEVKQP KV YKNN DG YGNN VQ KNNWUVTCVG YKVJ CP GZCORNG VJCV RNC[U
O
CP KORQTVCPV TQNG KP (TGIG U CVVGORV VQ FGXGNQR OCVJGOCVKEU QP C RWTGN[ NQIKECN
HQWPFCVKQP 6Q DGIKP YKVJ EQPUKFGT VJTGG EQPFKVKQPU GCEJ QH YJKEJ OC[ QT OC[ PQV JQNF
4GHNGZKXKV[ ∀Z4ZZ
5[OOGVT[ ∀Z∀[
4Z[ → 4[Z
6TCPUKVKXKV[ ∀Z∀[∀\
4Z[ 4[\ → 4Z\
%QORTGJGPUKQP VJGP IKXGU VJG GZKUVGPEG CPF GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ VJG WPKSWGPGUU EQPFKVKQPU KP
∃5∀Z∀[
5Z[ ↔
Z[ ∨ 4Z[
∃5∀Z∀[
5Z[ ↔
4Z[ ∨ 4[Z
∃5∀Z∀[
5Z[ ↔ ∀<
∀W
4ZW → <W ∧ ∀W∀X
<W 4WX → <X → <[
9G OC[ IKXG 5 C PCOG KP GCEJ ECUG YTKVKPI ρ4 QT σ4 QT τ4 HQT VJG 5 KP VJG VJTGG ECUGU +V
KU GCUKN[ UGGP VJCV ρ4 KU TGHNGZKXG CPF VJCV σ4 KU U[OOGVTKE +V KU NGUU GCUKN[ UGGP DWV CNUQ
VTWG M VJKU TGUWNV JCXKPI DGGP CDQWV VJG HKTUV PQPVTKXKCN VJGQTGO QH FKUVKPEVKXGN[
VJG KPVTCPUKVKXG Q
Z KU C RCTGPV QH [R VJGP τ4 COQWPVU VQ VJG VTCPUKVKXG QZ KU CP CPEGUVQT QH
[R 1P CEEQWPV QH VJKU GZCORNG VJG VTCPUKVKXG ENQUWTG KU CNUQ ECNNGF VJG CPEGUVTCN 6JG
O
QVJGTU D[ WUKPI -CPV U VJTGGHQNF FKXKUKQP QH MPQYNGFIG KPVQ VJG CPCN[VKE VJG U[PVJGVKE C
RTKQTK CPF VJG C RQUVGTKQTK +P VJGUG VGTOU (TGIG CITGGF YKVJ VJG EQPENWUKQP QH .GKDPK\
VJCV CTKVJOGVKE KU CPCN[VKE YJKNG GZRQUKPI VJG HCNNCE[ KP VJG CTIWOGPV .GKDPK\ QHHGTGF KP
CP CVVGORV VQ GUVCDNKUJ VJCV EQPENWUKQP (TGIG TGURGEVHWNN[ FKUCITGGF YKVJ -CPV U ENCKO O
VJCV CTKVJOGVKE KU U[PVJGVKE C RTKQTK YJKNG CITGGKPI YKVJ VJG EQTTGURQPFKPI ENCKO HQT
O
(TGIG TKFKEWNGF /KNN U ENCKO VJCV CTKVJOGVKE KU C RQUVGTKQTK
O
9JCV YCU CV KUUWG KP (TGIG U FKUCITGGOGPVU YKVJ JKU RTGFGEGUUQTU CPF
EQPVGORQTCTKGU YCU PQV VJG ENCUUKHKECVKQP QH CEVWCN MPQYNGFIG (TGIG YCU PQV KPVGTGUVGF
KP JQY [QWPI EJKNFTGP NGCTP VJG DCUKE NCYU QH CTKVJOGVKE QT JQY QWT TGOQVG CPEGUVQTU
NGCTPGF VJGO *G FKF PQV ENCKO CP[QPG DGHQTG JKOUGNH GXGT JCF RTQXGF VJG DCUKE NCYU QH
CTKVJOGVKE HTQO RTKPEKRNGU QH RWTG NQIKE RNWU CRRTQRTKCVG FGHKPKVKQPU QH CTKVJOGVKECN VGTOU
# UQWTEG QH FQWDV KU VJG RTKPEKRNG QH OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP YJKEJ OKIJV DG CPF
D[ UQOG YCU EKVGF CU CP CTKVJOGVKECN NCY VJCV EQWNF QPN[ DG GUVCDNKUJGF D[ Q KPVWKVKQP R
#EEQTFKPI VQ VJKU RTKPEKRNG KH C EQPFKVKQP KU HWNHKNNGF D[ \GTQ CPF KU HWNHKNNGF D[ VJG
UWEEGUUQT QH CP[ PCVWTCN PWODGT HWNHKNNKPI KV VJGP KV KU HWNHKNNGF D[ CNN PCVWTCN PWODGTU
(TGIG CNTGCF[ CV VJG VKOG QH VJG $GITKHHUUEJTKHV JCF CP KFGC QH JQY VJG ENCKO VJCV
6JG (TGIGCP UVTCVGI[ YQWNF DG VQ FGHKPG HKTUV VJG PQVKQPU QH \GTQ CPF UWEEGUUQT
CPF VJGP VQ FGHKPG VJG ITGCVGTVJCP TGNCVKQP CU VJG CPEGUVTCN QH VJG UWEEGUUQT TGNCVKQP 9G
ECP VJGP FGHKPG VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU CU \GTQ VQIGVJGT YKVJ VJQUG QDLGEVU VJCV CTG ITGCVGT
VJCP \GTQ +H YG ECNN C EQPEGRV KPFWEVKXG KH \GTQ HCNNU WPFGT KV CPF VJG UWEEGUUQT QH GXGT[
PWODGT HCNNKPI WPFGT KV HCNNU WPFGT KV VJGP VJG (TGIGCP FGHKPKVKQP KU OQTG QT NGUU
GSWKXCNGPV VQ FGHKPKPI PCVWTCN PWODGTU CU VJQUG QDLGEVU VJCV HCNN WPFGT CNN KPFWEVKXG
EQPEGRVU 'ZEGRV HQT VJG UWDUVKVWVKQP QH VCNM QH C PWODGT HCNNKPI WPFGT C EQPEGRV HQT VCNM
QH C EQPFKVKQP DGKPI HWNHKNNGF D[ C PWODGT M CPF VJG VYQ YC[U QH URGCMKPI CTG GSWKXCNGPV
9JGP KV ECOG VQ YQTMKPI QWV VJG FGTKXCVKQP QH CTKVJOGVKE HTQO NQIKE KP FGVCKN KP
JKU )TWPFIGUGV\G (TGIG HQWPF JG PGGFGF QPG HWTVJGT CZKQO DG[QPF CP[VJKPI KP JKU
$GITKHHUUEJTKHV 9JCV PGGF VQ DG GZRNCKPGF PGZV CTG HKTUV YJCV VJKU CFFKVKQPCN CUUWORVKQP
M YJKEJ (TGIG PWODGTGF CU CZKQO QT DCUKE NCY 8 M COQWPVGF VQ UGEQPF JQY (TGIG
RTQRQUGF VQ QDVCKP VJG OQUV DCUKE NCYU QH CTKVJOGVKE M VJG UQECNNGF 2GCPQ RQUVWNCVGU M
HTQO KV CPF VJKTF JQY QPG OKIJV RTQEGGF VJGTGCHVGT VQ DWKNF WR JKIJGT OCVJGOCVKEU
6JG PGY CUUWORVKQP KP (TGIG U O )TWPFIGUGV\G KU VJCV VQ GXGT[ EQPEGRV VJGTG OC[
DG CUUQEKCVGF CP QDLGEV ECNNGF KVU GZVGPUKQP KP UWEJ C YC[ VJCV VJG GZVGPUKQPU QH VYQ
EQPEGRVU YKNN DG KFGPVKECN QDLGEVU KH CPF QPN[ KH VJG VYQ EQPEGRVU CTG EQGZVGPUKXG 6JG
OQUV UVTCKIJVHQTYCTF YC[ VQ TGRTGUGPV VJKU CUUWORVKQP YQWNF DG CU HQNNQYU .GV WU YTKVG
] Z: HQT Q
Z KU VJG GZVGPUKQP QH :R O
6JGP (TGIG U CUUWORVKQPU ECP DG GZRTGUUGF CU HQNNQYU
∃Z ] Z:
] Z: ] [; →
Z [ ↔ : ≡ ;
IKXG VJKU Z YJKEJ KP 4WUUGNNKCP PQVCVKQP YQWNF DG ιZ ] Z: VJG PCOG U: 6JGP VJG
U U : ; ↔:≡;
KP RNCEG QH
CPF
CU CZKQOCVKE 6JGP ] Z: EQWNF DG FGHKPGF CU Z : CPF
CPF
FGFWEGF HTQO
6JKU RTQEGFWTG JQYGXGT JCU VJG UGTKQWU FKUCFXCPVCIG VJCV KV JKFGU
VJG ETWEKCN GZKUVGPEG CUUWORVKQP KP VJG PQVCVKQP VJWU OCMKPI KV CNOQUV KPCEEGUUKDNG VQ
ETKVKECN GZCOKPCVKQP CPF RQUUKDNG TGXKUKQP UKPEG VCMKPI C HWPEVKQP U[ODQN CU RTKOKVKXG
OCVJGOCVKEKCPU JCXG ECNNGF QENCUUGU R Q RCPF UGVU CTG UWEJ GZVGPUKQPU #PF JG FKF
UQOGVKOGU HQT DTGXKV[ ECNN JKU GZVGPUKQPU Q R ENCUUGU *GTG VJG[ YKNN KPUVGCF DG ECNNGF
Q R
UGVU VJG TGCUQP DGKPI VJCV WPHQTVWPCVGN[ C PWODGT QH NCVGT YTKVGTU JCXG WUGF Q
ENCUUGU R
KP C UGPUG OWEJ ENQUGT VQ VJCV QH (TGIG U OQ R
EQPEGRVU VJCP VQ JKU Q GZVGPUKQPU QH EQPEGRVU R
#U VJG YQTF QOGODGT R WUWCNN[ IQGU YKVJ Q RENCUU UQ VJG YQTF Q GNGOGPV R WUWCNN[ IQGU
YKVJ Q R
UGV CPF YKNN CNUQ DG WUGF JGTG # UGTKGU QH CDDTGXKCVKQPU YKNN PQY GPCDNG WU VQ
C ²[ ↔ ∃;
[ ; U
D ²[ ↔ ∃; [; ]
C Z ∈ [ ↔ ∃ ;
[ ; ;Z U
D Z ∈ [ ↔ ∃;
] [; ;Z
6JGP VJG HQNNQYKPI CTG CNOQUV KOOGFKCVG COQWPVKPI CU VJG[ FQ VQ NKVVNG OQTG VJCP C
TGUVCVGOGPV QH
CPF
KP VJKU PGY PQVCVKQP
∃[
²[ ∀Z
Z ∈ [ ↔ φ
Z
∀[∀\
²[ ²\ ∀Z
Z ∈ [ ↔ Z ∈ \ → [ \
*GTG
CPF
CTG ECNNGF EQORTGJGPUKQP CPF GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ HQT UGVU
PQV VQ DG EQPHWUGF
#NVGTPCVKXGN[ QPG EQWNF HCNN KP YKVJ VJG RTCEVKEG QH OQUV EQPXGPVKQPCN CZKQOCVKE
UGV VJGQTKGU VQFC[ YJKEJ UVCTV YKVJ CP GNGOGPVJQQF RTKOKVKXG ∈ CPF KH NKMG (TGIG VJG[
CNNQY QDLGEVU VJCV CTG PQV UGVU JCXG C UGVJQQF RTKOKVKXG ² CNUQ 5VCTVKPI YKVJ UWEJ
RTKOKVKXGU CPF
CPF
CU CZKQOU QPG ECP FGHKPG ] [: VQ CDDTGXKCVG VJG EQPLWPEVKQP QH
²[ CPF ∀Z
Z ∈ [ ↔ :Z CPF FGHKPG U KP VGTOU QH ] CPF VJGP FGFWEG ²
U : CPF ∀Z
Z
∈ U : ↔ :Z CPF
6JKU RTQEGFWTG JQYGXGT FGRCTVU HTQO (TGIG O U RTKPEKRNG QH
TGNCVKQPUJKRU QH CP GNGOGPV VQ C EQPEGRV WPFGT YJKEJ KV HCNNU CPF QH C EQPEGRV VQ VJG UGV
VJCV KU KVU GZVGPUKQP 6JG XKQNCVKQP KU GURGEKCNN[ UGTKQWU KH QPG GXGT EQPVGORNCVGU
∃[
²[ ∀Z
Z ∈ [ ↔ φ
Z
\ ∈ ]Z φ
Z_ ↔ φ
\
]Z φ
Z_ ]Z ψ
Z_ ↔ ∀Z
φ
Z ↔ ψ
Z
²[ CU ∃;
[ ]Z ;Z_ CPF Y ∈ [ CU ∃;
[ ]Z ;Z_ ;Y HTQO YJKEJ
CPF
HQNNQY
QP CRRN[KPI EQORTGJGPUKQP VQ φ CPF HTQO VJKU RQKPV QPG EQWNF YQTM DCEMYCTFU VQ
CPF
CPF KH FGUKTGF HTQO VJGTG CNN VJG YC[ DCEM VQ
CPF
6JKU RTQEGFWTG JQYGXGT
JCU VJG VTKRNG FKUCFXCPVCIG VJCV KV JKFGU VJG ETWEKCN GZKUVGPEG CUUWORVKQP KP VJG PQVCVKQP
VJWU OCMKPI KV CNOQUV KPCEEGUUKDNG VQ ETKVKECN GZCOKPCVKQP CPF RQUUKDNG TGXKUKQP VJCV KV
YJKEJ VJG RTKPEKRNGU VQQNU CPF TGUWNVU QH NQIKECN VJGQT[ FGXGNQRGF QXGT VJG EGPVWT[ CPF
OQTG UKPEG (TGIG CTG PQV FKTGEVN[ CRRNKECDNG UKPEG VJG MKPF QH VJGQTKGU HQT YJKEJ VJGUG
VQQNU CPF TGUWNVU YGTG FGXGNQRGF OCMG PQ RTQXKUKQP HQT CP QRGTCVQT VJCV CVVCEJGU YKVJ CP
QDLGEV XCTKCDNG VQ C HQTOWNC DKPFKPI VJG XCTKCDNG CPF HQTOKPI C VGTO HQT CP QDLGEV
5GG 6#$.' $ HQT C UWOOCT[ QH VJG HQWT QRVKQPU HQT HQTOCNK\KPI (TGIGCP UGV VJGQT[
YJKEJ CTG UGV FQYP HQT HWVWTG TGHGTGPEG KP 6#$.' % )KXGP VJGUG FGHKPKVKQPU XCTKQWU NCYU
QH UGV VJGQT[ YKNN HQNNQY KOOGFKCVGN[ HTQO YGNNMPQYP NCYU QH NQIKE (QT KPUVCPEG VJG
CUUQEKCVKXG CPF EQOOWVCVKXG NCYU HQT KPVGTUGEVKQP CPF WPKQP HQNNQY KOOGFKCVGN[ HTQO VJG
O
MKPFU QH GPVKVKGU 1PG UWEJ QRRQTVWPKV[ YCU PQV PQVKEGF WPVKN FGECFGU CHVGT (TGIG U YQTM
CPF UQ YCU PQV WUGF D[ JKO VJQWIJ KV JCU DGGP WUGF D[ UQOG PGQ(TGIGCPU 0COGN[ QPG
9GKPGT-WTCVQYUMK FGHKPKVKQP QH QTFGTGF RCKT CPF FGFWEG VJG DCUKE NCY HQT UWEJ RCKTU
6JGP CP[ RWTRQUG VJCV OKIJV DG UGTXGF D[ C TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRV 4 ECP DG UGTXGF D[ VJKU
QPGRNCEG EQPEGRV
n\ ∃Z∃[
\ 〈Z [〉 4Z[
+P HCEV VJG YJQNG OCP[RNCEG CRRCTCVWU ECP DG UKOKNCTN[ FKURGPUGF YKVJ NGCXKPI WU YKVJ
#PQVJGT UWEJ QRRQTVWPKV[ YCU RCTVKCNN[ VJQWIJ PQV YJQNN[ GZRNQKVGF D[ (TGIG
JKOUGNH 0COGN[ CP[ RWTRQUG VJCV OKIJV DG UGTXGF D[ C JKIJGT EQPEGRV : WPFGT YJKEJ
n[ ∃ ;
[ U ; :;
FKURGPUGF YKVJ NGCXKPI WU YKVJ LWUV UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE (QT VJKU QT QVJGT TGCUQPU OQUV
6JGTG KU [GV CPQVJGT QRVKQP OCFG CXCKNCDNG D[ VJG CUUWORVKQP QH GZVGPUKQPU PQV
HQT FKURGPUKPI YKVJ CP[VJKPI KP VJG U[UVGO CU FGUETKDGF UQ HCT DWV HQT CXQKFKPI VJG PGGF
VQ KPVTQFWEG UQOGVJKPI HWTVJGT VJCV KV OKIJV QVJGTYKUG UGGO YQWNF DG YCPVGF CPF VJKU
VJKTF QRVKQP (TGIG FQGU GZRNQKV ETWEKCNN[ KP JKU VTGCVOGPV QH PWODGT 6JG DCEMITQWPF KU CU
O
4 GSWKXCNGPEG
GSWKXCNGPEG QP NKPGU KP VJG RNCPG 9G OC[ VJGP YCPV VQ KPVTQFWEG CDUVTCEVU YKVJ TGURGEV
VQ VJG GSWKXCNGPEG VJGUG DGKPI KPVWKVKXGN[ URGCMKPI QDLGEVU CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ VJG QTKIKPCN
QDLGEVU KP UWEJ C YC[ VJCV VJG CDUVTCEVU CUUQEKCVGF VQ VYQ QDLGEVU YKNN DG VJG UCOG KH CPF
O
QPN[ KH VJG VYQ QDLGEVU CTG GSWKXCNGPV +P (TGIG U HCXQTKVG GZCORNG VJG CDUVTCEVU YQWNF DG
/QTG HQTOCNN[ YJCV QPG KU FQKPI JGTG KU KPVTQFWEKPI C PGY RTGFKECVG "' Z[ HQT
QVJG 'CDUVTCEV QH Z KU R
[ YKVJ VJG HQNNQYKPI CUUWORVKQPU
∃\ "' Z\
*GTG
CPF
IKXG ∃!\ "' Z\ CPF VJGKT EQPUGSWGPEG
WUGU VJG PCOG h' Z HQT
VJKU \ #U CP KPUVCPEG QH
VJG FKTGEVKQP QH QPG NKPG KU VJG UCOG CU VJCV QH CPQVJGT KH CPF
QPN[ KH VJG NKPGU CTG RCTCNNGN 'ZCEVN[ VJG UCOG VJKPI EQWNF DG FQPG QPG NGXGN WR UVCTVKPI
YKVJ C JKIJGT EQPEGRV ' VJCV KU CP GSWKXCNGPEG CPF KPVTQFWEKPI CDUVTCEVU QH HKTUVNGXGN
C ∃[ "':[
%QORCTKPI
C
C YKVJ
KV KU CRRCTGPV VJCV GZVGPUKQPU CTG C URGEKCN ECUG U KU
h≡
$WV VJKU URGEKCN ECUG UWDUWOGU VJG IGPGTCN ECUG 'ZVGPUKQPU QH HKTUVNGXGN EQPEGRVU
ECP DG WUGF VQ UGTXG CP[ RWTRQUG VJCV YQWNF DG UGTXGF D[ CDUVTCEVU YKVJ TGURGEV VQ
GSWKXCNGPEGU QP QDLGEVU (QT IKXGP CP GSWKXCNGPEG ' YG OC[ CUUQEKCVG YKVJ CP[ Z KVU UGV
KH 'Z[ 6JG CDUVTCEV YKVJ TGURGEV VQ CP GSWKXCNGPEG OC[ DG KFGPVKHKGF YKVJ VJG UGV QH
GSWKXCNGPVU 6JG FKTGEVKQP QH C NKPG OC[ DG VCMGP VQ DG VJG UGV QH NKPGU RCTCNNGN VQ KV
5KOKNCTN[ GZVGPUKQPU QH UGEQPFNGXGN EQPEGRVU ECP DG WUGF VQ UGTXG CP[ RWTRQUG VJCV
=:? '] ; ':;_ #PF KP HCEV D[ GZRNQKVKPI NGXGNNQYGTKPI OQTG HWNN[ VJCP (TGIG FQGU
GZVGPUKQPU QH HKTUVNGXGN EQPEGRVU ECP DG WUGF VQ UGTXG CP[ RWTRQUG VJCV YQWNF DG UGTXGF
FGHKPKVKQP =:? '] U; ':;_ #ICKP YG YKNN VJGP JCXG CU RGT
VJCV =:? ' = ?' KH CPF
;
QPN[ KH ':; 6JWU VQ CUUWOG GZVGPUKQPU KU VCPVCOQWPV VQ CUUWOKPI CDUVTCEVU HQT CNN
GSWKXCNGPEGU
O
(TGIG U UVTCVGI[ HQT FGXGNQRKPI CTKVJOGVKE JCU DGGP GZJCWUVKXGN[ GZCOKPGF KP VJG
TGEGPV UEJQNCTN[ NKVGTCVWTG CPF YG YKNN DG TGVWTPKPI VQ UQOG QH KVU FGVCKNU KP C NCVGT
EJCRVGT (QT VJG OQOGPV C DTKGH QWVNKPG YKNN UWHHKEG FGTKXGF HTQO VJG UEJQNCTN[ NKVGTCVWTG
VQ DG OGPVKQPGF KP VJCV NCVGT FKUEWUUKQP DWV UKORNKHKGF KP C YC[ VJCV KPXQNXGU UQOG
FGRCTVWTG HTQO JKUVQTKECN CEEWTCE[ DGIKPPKPI YKVJ VJG YJQNGUCNG TGRNCEGOGPV QH (TGIG U O
PQVCVKQP
9KVJQWV HWTVJGT RTGCODNG VJG PQVKQPU VQ DG FGHKPGF CTG VJG HQNNQYKPI QPGVQQPG
: ≈4 ; ↔ ∀Z
:Z → ∃[
;[ 4Z[ ∀[
;[ → ∃Z
:Z 4Z[
9G VJGP FGHKPG YJCV KV KU HQT : CPF ; VQ DG GSWKPWOGTQWU YTKVVGP : ≈ ; CU HQNNQYU
: ≈ ; ↔ ∃4
: ≈4 ;
+V KU PQV JCTF VQ FGFWEG VJCV GSWKPWOGTQUKV[ KU CP GSWKXCNGPEG CPF YG JCXG UGGP JQY
CDUVTCEVU HQT GSWKXCNGPEGU ECP CNYC[U DG KPVTQFWEGF 6JG CDUVTCEV HQT VJKU RCTVKEWNCT
GSWKXCNGPEG h≈: YKNN DG ECNNGF VJG PWODGT QH : YTKVVGP : 9G VJWU JCXG VJG HQNNQYKPI
CU CP KPUVCPEG QH
D CDQXG
*2 : ; ↔:≈;
+P EQPPGEVKQP YKVJ VJKU YC[ QH KPVTQFWEKPI PWODGT (TGIG EKVGU C XCIWGN[ CPVKEKRCVQT[
TGOCTM D[ *WOG M VJG UGTKQWU CPVGEGFGPV KU %CPVQT M YKVJ VJG TGUWNV VJCV VJG NCUV KVGO
WUGF JKU VJGQT[ QH GZVGPUKQPU VQ IGV PWODGTU HQT VJG TGOCKPFGT QH JKU FGFWEVKQP QH VJG
NCYU QH CTKVJOGVKE (TGIG OQTG QT NGUU QHQTIGVU CDQWV R GZVGPUKQPU CPF YQTMU QPN[ HTQO
*2
9TKVKPI ^^Z φ
Z^^ HQT nZ φ
Z VJG PWODGT QH Z UWEJ VJCV φ
Z VJGP GUUGPVKCNN[
HQNNQYKPI (TGIG YG OC[ FGHKPG YJCV KV KU HQT Z VQ DG C PWODGT YTKVVGP 0Z YJCV VJG
PWODGT \GTQ KU YTKVVGP QH EQWTUG CPF YJCV KV KU HQT QPG PWODGT [ VQ DG VJG
KOOGFKCVG
UWEEGUUQT QH CPQVJGT PWODGT Z YJKEJ + YKNN YTKVG Z[ 6JG FGHKPKVKQPU TGCF CU HQNNQYU
0Z ↔ ∃:
Z ^^[ :[^^
^^Z Z l Z^^
Z[ ↔ ∃:∃Y
Z : `:Y [ ^^\ :\ ∨ \ Y^^
'SWKXCNGPVN[ [ KOOGFKCVGN[ UWEEGGFU Z KH CPF QPN[ KH VJGTG KU CTG EQPEGRVU : CPF ; YKVJ
PWODGTU Z CPF [ UWEJ VJCV VJG QDLGEVU HCNNKPI WPFGT ; CTG RTGEKUGN[ VJQUG HCNNKPI WPFGT :
RNWU QPG CFFKVKQPCN QDLGEV Y 9G ECP VJGP FGHKPG YJCV KV KU HQT Z VQ DG C PCVWTCN PWODGT
YTKVVGP 00Z KP VJG OCPPGT KPFKECVGF GCTNKGT YJKEJ OCMGU OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP VTWG
CNOQUV D[ FGHKPKVKQP
6JG UQECNNGF 2GCPQ RQUVWNCVGU YJQUG EGPVTCN TQNG KP CTKVJOGVKE YCU HKTUV
C HGY HWTVJGT CUUWORVKQPU CDQWV \GTQ CPF UWEEGUUQT +P VJG RTGUGPV EQPVGZV VJG HWTVJGT
22 00
*GTG
22 UC[U GXGT[ PCVWTCN PWODGT JCU C UWEEGUUQT CPF
22 VJCV VJG UWEEGUUQT KU
UC[U VJCV \GTQ KU PQV KP VJG TCPIG QH VJKU UWEEGUUQT HWPEVKQP YJKNG
22 UC[U VJCV VJG
UWEEGUUQT VJGQTGO O
(TGIG U KFGC KU VQ RTQXG VJKU D[ Q R
DQQVUVTCRRKPI 9G JCXG \GTQ 9G
^^Z Z ^^
^^Z Z ∨ Z ^^
^^Z Z ∨ Z ∨ Z ^^
$WV QH EQWTUG YJCV TGCNN[ PGGFU VQ DG RTQXGF KU PQV VJG UGTKGU QH UVCVGOGPVU VJCV \GTQ JCU
C UWEEGUUQT QPG VJCV QPG JCU C UWEEGUUQT VYQ VJCV VYQ JCU C UWEEGUUQT VJTGG CPF UQ QP
YJCV PGGFU VQ DG RTQXGF KU TCVJGT VJG UKPING UVCVGOGPV VJCV GXGT[ PCVWTCN PWODGT JCU C
UWEEGUUQT 9JCV VJG GZCORNGU UWIIGUV QH EQWTUG KU VJCV KH 00Z VJGP [ ^^\ \ Z ∨ \ Z^^
YKNN HWNHKNN VJG EQPFKVKQP Z[ YJGTG CU KPFKECVGF GCTNKGT QTFGT QP PCVWTCN PWODGTU ECP
DG FGHKPGF KP VGTOU QH CPF VJG CPEGUVTCN 6WTPKPI VJKU JGWTKUVKE KFGC KPVQ C TKIQTQWU RTQQH
QH VJG UWEEGUUQT VJGQTGO VWTPU QWV VQ DG TCVJGT C EJCNNGPIG +P VJG GPF (TGIG OGV VJG
(TGIGOU 6JGQTGO 6JG 2GCPQ RQUVWNCVGU ECP DG FGFWEGF KP F[CFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE
O
HTQO *WOG U RTKPEKRNG CPF UWKVCDNG FGHKPKVKQPU QH \GTQ UWEEGUUQT CPF PCVWTCN PWODGT
OWNVKRNKECVKQP CPF GZRQPGPVKCVKQP CPF UQ HQTVJ QP PCVWTCN PWODGTU CPF RTQXG VJG
CUUQEKCVKXG EQOOWVCVKXG FKUVTKDWVKXG CPF QVJGT DCUKE CTKVJOGVKECN NCYU HQT VJGUG
QRGTCVKQPU *GTG VJGTG CTG UGXGTCN SWKVG FKHHGTGPV YC[U VQ RTQEGGF DWV VYQ UVCPF QWV CU
GURGEKCNN[ UKIPKHKECPV
1PG CRRTQCEJ OCMGU EQPUVCPV WUG QH *2 FGHKPKPI QRGTCVKQPU QP PWODGTU KP VGTOU
QH QRGTCVKQPU QP EQPEGRVU QH YJKEJ VJG[ CTG VJG PWODGTU 6JWU VQ QDVCKP VJG UWO QH Z CPF
[ VCMG : CPF ; UWEJ VJCV Z : CPF [ ; CPF : CPF ; CTG FKULQKPV KP VJG UGPUG VJCV PQ
QDLGEV Y HCNNU WPFGT DQVJ : CPF ; CPF VCMG VJG PWODGT \ ^^Y :Y ∨ ;Y^^ CU VJG UWO
Z
[ 6JG FGHKPKVKQP KU C HQTOCN EQWPVGTRCTV QH VJG KFGC VJCV VJG UWO QH Z CPF [ KU VJG
PWODGT VJKPIU [QW JCXG KH [QW VCMG Z VJKPIU CPF [ QVJGT VJKPIU 6JG FGHKPKVKQP JCU VYQ
RTGUWRRQUKVKQPU PCOGN[ VJCV HQT IKXGP Z CPF [ VJGTG YKNN CNYC[U GZKUV UWEJ FKULQKPV : CPF
; CPF VJCV VJG PWODGT \ QDVCKPGF KP VJG YC[ FGUETKDGF KU WPKSWG KP VJG UGPUG VJCV QPG IGVU
VJG UCOG \ YJKEJGXGT UWEJ FKULQKPV : CPF ; QPG VCMGU 1PEG VJG FGHKPKVKQP JCU DGGP
EQOOWVCVKXG NCYU HQT CFFKVKQP YKNN DG KOOGFKCVG HTQO VJQUG HQT FKULWPEVKQP
VJG KFGC VJG RTQFWEV QH Z CPF [ KU VJG PWODGT QH QTFGTGF RCKTU VJCV ECP DG HQTOGF KH GCEJ KU
VQ EQPUKUV QH C HKTUV EQORQPGPV EJQUGP HTQO COQPI Z VJKPIU CPF C UGEQPF EQORQPGPV
EJQUGP HTQO COQPI [ VJKPIU YJKNG VJG FGHKPKVKQP QH GZRQPGPVKCVKQP YKNN DG C HQTOCN
EQWPVGTRCTV QH VJG KFGC VJCV Z VQ VJG RQYGT [ KU VJG PWODGT QH YC[U QH CUUKIPKPI GCEJ QH [
VJKPIU QPG QH Z VJKPIU 'ZKUVGPEG CPF WPKSWGPGUU NGOOCU YKNN JCXG VQ DG RTQXGF DWV QPEG
VJG[ CTG RTQXGF CTKVJOGVKE NCYU YKNN DG KOOGFKCVG HTQO EQTTGURQPFKPI NQIKECN NCYU
)GPGTCNK\GF DG[QPF VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU VQ VJG KPHKPKVG VJKU CRRTQCEJ NGCFU VQ %CPVQT U O
VJGQT[ QH VTCPUHKPKVG ECTFKPCNU
#PQVJGT CRRTQCEJ Q HQTIGVU CDQWV R *2 CPF YQTMU UQNGN[ HTQO VJG 2GCPQ
Z
Z
Z
[
Z
[
6JKU CRRTQCEJ KU VJWU C HQTOCN EQWPVGTRCTV QH VJG KFGC VJCV VJG UWO Z [ KU QDVCKPGF D[
UVCTVKPI YKVJ Z CPF CFFKPI QPG [ VKOGU 6Q NGIKVKOCVG VJG FGHKPKVKQP QPG PGGFU VQ RTQXG C
NGOOC VQ VJG GHHGEV VJCV VJGTG GZKUVU C WPKSWG HWPEVKQP HQT YJKEJ VJG TGEWTUKQP GSWCVKQPU
JQNF QT GSWKXCNGPVN[ VJCV VJGTG GZKUVU C WPKSWG 4 HQT YJKEJ YG JCXG VJG HQNNQYKPI
OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP VJG DCUG QT \GTQ ECUG CPF VJG KPFWEVKQP QT UWEEGUUQT ECUG DGKPI
XGTKHKGF CU HQNNQYU
Z
[
Z
[ Z
[
Z
[
\
Z
[
\
Z
[
\ Z
[
\ Z
[
\
+P
YJKEJ UJQYU VJG CUUQEKCVKXG NCY JQNFU HQT \
KU WUGF +P
YJKEJ
GSWCVKQPU YJKEJ IKXG VJG XCNWG QH VJG QRGTCVKQP HQT QWVTKIJV CPF IKXG VJG XCNWG QH VJG
⋅ Z ⋅
⋅ Z ⋅ [ Z
Z ⋅ [
↑ Z ↑
↑ Z ↑ [ Z ⋅
Z ↑ [
⇑ Z ⇑
⇑ Z ⇑ [ Z ↑
Z ⇑ [
*GTG QPG JCU C HQTOCN EQWPVGTRCTV QH VJG KFGC QH OWNVKRNKECVKQP CU TGRGCVGF CFFKVKQP
VJG FGHKPKVKQP QH CFFKVKQP CPF QH VJQUG QH VJGUG HWTVJGT QRGTCVKQPU ECP CEVWCNN[ DG
OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP KU WUGF VQ FGFWEG VJG TGNGXCPV NCYU QH CTKVJOGVKE HTQO VJG
TGEWTUKQP GSWCVKQPU (QT VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU VJKU CRRTQCEJ KU GUUGPVKCNN[ &GFGMKPF U O
*GPEG VJG PCOG CVVCEJGF VQ VJG HQNNQYKPI TGUWNV
VJG TGEWTUKQP GSWCVKQPU HQT CFFKVKQP OWNVKRNKECVKQP GZRQPGPVKCVKQP CPF UQ QP ECP DG
)GPGTCNK\GF DG[QPF VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU VQ VJG KPHKPKVG VJKU CRRTQCEJ NGCFU VQ %CPVQT U O
VJGQT[ QH VTCPUHKPKVG QTFKPCNU
O
(TGIG YCU CYCTG QH %CPVQT U YQTM CPF XCNWGF JKU VJGQT[ QH VJG VTCPUHKPKVG
O
*QYGXGT (TGIG TKFKEWNGF %CPVQT U KFGC VJCV CDUVTCEVU ECP DG KPVTQFWEGF PQV D[
KFGPVKH[KPI VJGO YKVJ EGTVCKP GZVGPUKQPU CU (TGIG JKOUGNH FQGU DWV CU VJG RTQFWEVU QH
UQOG VJQWIJV RTQEGUU QH VJG JWOCP OKPF /QTG UGTKQWUN[ (TGIG CNUQ UVTQPIN[ FKUNKMGF
O
%CPVQT U VGPFGPE[ VQ IKXG VJG QTFKPCN CRRTQCEJ RTKQTKV[ QXGT VJG ECTFKPCN CRRTQCEJ 9JKNG
(TGIG ICXG HGY FGVCKNU CDQWV VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH CTKVJOGVKE CHVGT QDVCKPKPI VJG 2GCPQ
RQUVWNCVGU JG CNOQUV EGTVCKPN[ KPVGPFGF VJCV VJG ECTFKPCN TCVJGT VJCP VJG QTFKPCN CRRTQCEJ
UJQWNF DG HQNNQYGF
1H EQWTUG CP GNGOGPVCT[ GFWECVQT YQWNF KPUKUV VJCV C EJKNF JCU PQV HWNN[ OCUVGTGF
CTKVJOGVKE WPVKN VJG EJKNF WPFGTUVCPFU VJG KPHQTOCN EQWPVGTRCTVU QH DQVJ CRRTQCEJGU M
WPVKN VJG EJKNF WPFGTUVCPFU HQT KPUVCPEG VJCV VJG TGUWNV QH EQWPVKPI VJG KVGOU KP CP Z D[ [
CTTC[ CPF VJG TGUWNV QH CFFKPI Z VQ KVUGNH [ VKOGU YKNN DG VJG UCOG #PF KPFGGF C OCLQT VCUM
RTGEKUGN[ VJCV VJG VYQ CRRTQCEJGU CTG GSWKXCNGPV HQT PCVWTCN PWODGTU QPG QH VJG UVTKMKPI
O
HGCVWTGU QH %CPVQT U VJGQT[ QH VJG VTCPUHKPKVG DGKPI VJCV VJG ECTFKPCN CPF QTFKPCN PQVKQPU
FKXGTIG VJGTG 1P VJG ECTFKPCN CRRTQCEJ GSWKXCNGPEG YKVJ VJG QTFKPCN CRRTQCEJ KU PGGFGF
VQ GUVCDNKUJ CP[VJKPI NKMG CP GHHKEKGPV OGCPU D[ YJKEJ UWOU CPF RTQFWEVU ECP DG
ECNEWNCVGF 1P VJG QTFKPCN CRRTQCEJ GSWKXCNGPEG YKVJ VJG ECTFKPCN CRRTQCEJ KU PGGFGF VQ
1PEG QPG JCU VJG U[UVGO QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU N YKVJ VJG WUWCN CTKVJOGVKE
QRGTCVKQPU CPF VJG WUWCN NCYU HQT VJGO VJG PGZV VCUM KU VQ QDVCKP VJG U[UVGOU QH KPVGIGTU
QP VJGO CTG FGHKPGF KP VGTOU QH VJG PWODGTU QH VJG RTGXKQWU MKPF CPF VJG QRGTCVKQPU QP
VJGO CPF VJG CTKVJOGVKE QT CNIGDTCKE NCYU HQT VJG PGY MKPF CTG FGFWEGF HTQO VJQUG HQT VJG
RTGXKQWU MKPF VQIGVJGT YKVJ VJGUG FGHKPKVKQPU $WV KV KU PQV PGGFHWN VQ GPVGT KPVQ CP[
4WUUGNNOU2CTCFQZ
(TGIG JKOUGNH PGXGT IQV CU HCT CU RWDNKUJKPI VJG RTQLGEVGF VJKTF XQNWOG QH JKU
)TWPFIGUGV\G YJKEJ YQWNF JCXG EQORNGVGF JKU VTGCVOGPV QH R CPF RGTJCRU KPENWFGF C
VTGCVOGPV QH C (QT LWUV CU JKU UGEQPF XQNWOG YCU CDQWV VQ UGG RTKPV (TGIG TGEGKXGF C
NGVVGT HTQO 4WUUGNN
GZRQUKPI C EQPVTCFKEVKQP KP (TGIGOU VJGQT[ QH GZVGPUKQPU QH
EQPEGRVU 1WT PGZV QTFGT QH DWUKPGUU OWUV DG VQ TGXKGY 4WUUGNNOU HCOQWU RCTCFQZ CU KV
CRRNKGU VQ (TGIGOU U[UVGO CPF (TGIGOU QYP KOOGFKCVG TGCEVKQP VQ VJG FKUEQXGT[ QH VJG
EQPVTCFKEVKQP
(TGIGOU RWDNKECVKQPU FKF PQV CV QPEG CVVTCEV VJG FGITGG QH CVVGPVKQP VJG[ FGUGTXGF
$GTVTCPF 4WUUGNN HQT QPG NGCTPGF QH VJGO QPN[ TCVJGT NCVG CHVGT JG JCF CNTGCF[
KPFGRGPFGPVN[ TGFKUEQXGTGF UQOG QH VJG UCOG KFGCU *KU XGTUKQP ECP DG HQWPF KP 4WUUGNN
YJKEJ EQTTGURQPFU VQ (TGIGOU )TWPFNCIGP KP VJG UGPUG VJCV VJG KFGCU VJGTG CTG
RTGUGPVGF KP CP KPHQTOCN OCPPGT 6JGTG CTG CU QPG YQWNF GZRGEV KP C ECUG QH KPFGRGPFGPV
FKUEQXGT[ UQOG FKHHGTGPEGU DGVYGGP (TGIGOU CRRTQCEJ CPF 4WUUGNNOU (QT QPG VJKPI
(TGIG RCUUGU WR VJG QRRQTVWPKV[ VQ FKURGPUG YKVJ JKIJGTNGXGN EQPEGRVU CPF FGHKPGU VJG
PWODGT VYQ HQT KPUVCPEG UQ VJCV KV KU VJG GZVGPUKQP QH UWEJ C JKIJGTNGXGN EQPEGRV
PCOGN[ VJCV WPFGT YJKEJ HCNN CNN CPF QPN[ VJQUG HKTUVNGXGN EQPEGRVU WPFGT YJKEJ VJGTG HCNN
GZCEVN[ VYQ QDLGEVU $[ EQPVTCUV 4WUUGNN KFGPVKHKGU VJG PWODGT VYQ YKVJ VJG GZVGPUKQP QH
C HKTUVNGXGN EQPEGRV VJCV WPFGT YJKEJ VJGTG HCNN CNN CPF QPN[ VJQUG QDLGEVU VJCV CTG
GZVGPUKQPU KP HKTUVNGXGN EQPEGRVU WPFGT YJKEJ VJGTG HCNN GZCEVN[ VYQ QDLGEVU M QT KP NGUU
(TGIGCP CPF WPYKGNF[ VGTOU YKVJ VJG UGV QH CNN UGVU JCXKPI GZCEVN[ VYQ GNGOGPVU
1PG HGCVWTG 4WUUGNNOU CRRTQCEJ FKF UJCTG YKVJ (TGIGOU KU VJCV DQVJ TGEQIPK\GF C
WPKXGTUCN UGV #PF 4WUUGNN YJQ UGGOU VQ JCXG TGCF %CPVQTOU YQTM YKVJ ITGCVGT CVVGPVKQP
VJCP FKF (TGIG PQVKEGF VJCV VJG CUUWORVKQP QH UWEJ C UGV YCU KP CRRCTGPV EQPHNKEV YKVJ VJG
OQUV HCOQWU QH %CPVQTOU VJGQTGOU YJKEJ UC[U VJCV VJG PWODGT QH UWDUGVU QH C IKXGP UGV KU
CNYC[U ITGCVGT VJCP VJG PWODGT QH GNGOGPVU QH VJCV UGV %CPVQT JKOUGNH JCF PQVKEGF VJKU
EQPHNKEV YJKEJ KPFGGF KU UQOGVKOGU ECNNGF O
%CPVQT U RCTCFQZ GXGP GCTNKGT DWV JG MGRV
SWKGV CDQWV KV
)KXGP %CPVQTOU FGHKPKVKQP QH VJG ITGCVGTVJCP TGNCVKQP HQT PWODGTU
YJKEJ KU
GSWKXCNGPV VQ (TGIGOU HQT PCVWTCN PWODGTU DWV CNUQ CRRNKGU VQ VTCPUHKPKVG ECTFKPCNU YJCV
JCU VQ DG RTQXGF VQ GUVCDNKUJ VJCV VJG PWODGT QH GNGOGPVU KP C UGV KU ITGCVGT VJCP VJG
6
CP[ UWDUGV QH %CPVQTOU VJGQTGO YCU VJWU VJCV VJGTG ECP DG PQ QPGVQQPG
5 5
EQTTGURQPFGPEG DGVYGGP VJG UWDUGVU QH CPF VJG GNGOGPVU QH CP[ UWDUGV QH 9JCV
5 5 5
4WUUGNN PQVKEGF YCU VJCV KH 8 KU VJGWPKXGTUCN UGV QH CNN QDLGEVU VJGP GXGT[ UWDUGV QH 8
DGKPI C UGV CPF VJGTGHQTG CP QDLGEV CPF VJGTGHQTG CP GNGOGPV QH 8 VJGTG KU CP QDXKQWU
QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG DGVYGGP VJG UWDUGVU QH 8 CPF VJG GNGOGPVU QH VJG UWDUGV 8 QH
8 EQPUKUVKPI QH CNN UGVU M PCOGN[ VJG QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG KP YJKEJ GCEJ UGV
EQTTGURQPFU VQ KVUGNH
0QY %CPVQTOU IGPGTCN RTQQH RTQEGGFU D[ CUUWOKPI VJGTG C QPGVQQPG
KU
EQTTGURQPFGPEG DGVYGGP VJG UWDUGVU QH CPF VJG GNGOGPVU QH UQOG UWDUGV QH CPF
5 5 5
+P VJG URGEKCN ECUG QH VJG WPKXGTUCN UGV VJG URGEKCN UGV YQWNF DG VJG UGV QH CNN UGVU VJCV CTG
PQV GNGOGPVU QH VJGOUGNXGU #PF KP VJKU URGEKCN ECUG YG JCXG VJG EQPVTCFKEVKQP VJCV VJKU
UGV KU CP GNGOGPV QH KVUGNH KH CPF QPN[ KH KV KU PQV CP GNGOGPV QH KVUGNH
6JG UGV QH CNN QDLGEVU
VJCV CTG PQV GNGOGPVU QH VJGOUGNXGU QT KP QVJGT YQTFU VJCV CTG UGVU VJCV CTG PQV
GKVJGT
GNGOGPVU QH VJGOUGNXGU CTG PQV UGVU CV CNN IKXGU GUUGPVKCNN[ VJG UCOG EQPVTCFKEVKQP
QT
6JKU EQPVTCFKEVKQP KU O
*CXKPI JGCTF QH (TGIGOU YQTM 4WUUGNN JQRGF VJCV KV OKIJV EQPVCKP UQOG UQNWVKQP
4WUUGNN U RCTCFQZ
VQ VJG RCTCFQZ UJQYKPI VJG EQPVTCFKEVKQP VQ DG OGTGN[ CRRCTGPV *CXKPI QDVCKPGF CPF
GZCOKPGF (TGIGOU YTKVKPIU 4WUUGNN EQPENWFGF VJCV VJG EQPVTCFKEVKQP KU TGCN CPF CTKUGU KP
(TGIGOU HTCOGYQTM LWUV CU KV CTQUG KP JKU QYP #PF KPFGGF LWUV NQQM CV QPG QH VJG NCYU QH
(TGIGOU UGV VJGQT[
\ ∈ ]Z φ
Z_ ↔ φ
\
FKUEQXGT[ QH VJG 4WUUGNN RCTCFQZ YCU (TGIG JKOUGNH KP CP CRRGPFKZ VQ VJG UGEQPF
XQNWOG CFFGF CV VJG NCUV OKPWVG YJKNG VJG YQTM YCU CV RTGUU KP TGURQPUG VQ VJG NGVVGT JG
JCF LWUV TGEGKXGF HTQO 4WUUGNN CDQWV VJG RCTCFQZ +P GHHGEV (TGIGOU RTQRQUCN M O (TGIG U
YC[ QWV M KPXQNXGF C OKPKOCN OQFKHKECVKQP QH JKU CUUWORVKQPU CDQWV GZVGPUKQPU NGCFKPI
VQ OKPKOCNN[ OQFKHKGF PQVKQPU QH UGV CPF GNGOGPV VJCV OC[ DG ECNNGF UGV CPF GNGOGPV
+P RNCEG QH VJG NCY
YG JCXG QPN[ VJG HQNNQYKPI OKPKOCNN[ OQFKHKGF NCY YJKEJ CNNQYU
LWUV QPG GZEGRVKQP VQ
\ ∈]Z φ
Z_ ↔ \ l ] φ
_ φ
Z Z \
6Q UGG VJKU KU UQ HQT CP[ QDLGEV EQPUKFGT VJG UKPINGVQP FGHKPGF D[ ] _
C C
] _ 6JGP D[
VJGTG CTG LWUV VYQ RQUUKDKNKVKGU +P YJCV OC[ DG ECNNGF VJG
Z Z C PQTOCN
ECUG l ] _ CPF KU VJG QPG CPF QPN[ GNGOGPV QH ] _ KP VJG CDPQTOCN ECUG
C C C C
C ] _ JCU PQ GNGOGPVU CV CNN +V HQNNQYU VJCV KP CP[ ECUG FKUVKPEV QDLGEVU JCXG FKUVKPEV
C
UKPINGVQPU *CXKPI GUVCDNKUJGF VJG RTQRGTVKGU QH UKPINGVQPU EQPUKFGT PQY VJG UGV
T ] ∃
] _
[ \ [ \ [ ∉ \_
JCU CP[ GNGOGPV YG CTG KP VJG PQTOCN ECUG CPF l +V VJGP HQNNQYU D[
VJCV YG U T
+V TGOCKPU VQ UJQY VJCV FQGU KPFGGF JCXG CV NGCUV QPG GNGOGPV 6Q VJKU GPF
T
EQPUKFGT ∅ ] l _ CPF 8 ] _ $[
PQ QDLGEV KU CP GNGOGPV QH ∅
Z Z Z Z Z Z
CPF GXGT[ QDLGEV DWV 8 KVUGNH KU CP GNGOGPV QH 8 5KPEG YG CTG CUUWOKPI VJGTG CTG CV
NGCUV VYQ QDLGEVU 8 JCU CV NGCUV QPG GNGOGPV CPF UQ KU FKUVKPEV HTQO ∅ $[ VJG
RTQRGTVKGU QH UKPINGVQPU KV VJGP HQNNQYU VJCV 8 ∈ ]8_ l 8 ]8_ ∈
]]8__ l ]8_ CPF UQ QP /QTGQXGT UKPEG VJGTG CTG PQY CV NGCUV VJTGG QDLGEVU ∅
CPF 8 CPF ]8_ 8 JCU CV NGCUV VYQ GNGOGPVU CPF UQ KU FKUVKPEV HTQO CP[ UKPINGVQP
KPENWFKPI ]]8__ 6JGTGHQTG ]]8__ KU FKUVKPEV HTQO VJG QPN[ GNGOGPV 8 QH
]8_ CPF YG OC[ VCMG ]8_ CPF ]]8__ VQ IGV CP GZCORNG QH C CPF
\ [ [ \
\ ∈ UQ VJCV KP GKVJGT ECUG JCU CV NGCUV QPG GNGOGPV CU TGSWKTGF VQ EQORNGVG VJG RTQQH
T T
CPF YJCV KU IGPGTCNN[ ECNNGF VJG VJGQT[ QH V[RGU D[ NQIKEKCPU VQFC[ FGTKXGU OQTG
HTQO 4COUG[ VJCP FKTGEVN[ HTQO 4WUUGNN 6JWU QPG OWUV FKUVKPIWKUJ VJG QTKIKPCN
4WUUGNNKCP VJGQT[ ECNNGF VJG TCOKHKGF VJGQT[ QH V[RGU HTQO VJG TGXKUGF XGTUKQP ECNNGF VJG
UKORNG QTTCOUG[HKGF VJGQT[ QH V[RGU +V KU VJG QTKIKPCN VJGQT[ VJCV YKNN DG QH OQUV FKTGEV
KPVGTGUV JGTG
7PFGTN[KPI VJG VJGQT[ YCU C EGTVCKP CPCN[UKU QH YJCV YCU TGURQPUKDNG HQT VJG
4WUUGNN RCTCFQZ +V YKNN DG TGECNNGF VJCV 4WUUGNNOU TQWVG VQ JKU RCTCFQZ DGICP YKVJ C
EQPHNKEV DGVYGGP CP CUUWORVKQP JG UJCTGF YKVJ (TGIG VJCV QH VJG GZKUVGPEG QH C WPKXGTUCN
UGV CPF C TGUWNV QH %CPVQT 6JG EQPVTCFKEVKQP KU PQV CU FCOCIKPI VQ %CPVQTOU YQTM CU KV KU
VQ (TGIGOU (QT VJQWIJ VJG EQPVTCFKEVKQP FQGU FTCY WPHCXQTCDNG CVVGPVKQP VQ VJG HCEV VJCV
%CPVQTOU RWDNKECVKQPU QHHGTGF PQ GZRNKEKV CEEQWPV QH YJKEJ EQPFKVKQPU FGVGTOKPG UGVU
%CPVQT JCF EGTVCKPN[ PGXGT CUUWOGF VJCV GXGT[ EQPFKVKQP φ
FQGU UQ CPF KP RCTVKEWNCT
Z
JCF PGXGT CUUWOGF VJCV UWEJ C EQPFKVKQP CU ∉ FQGU ;GV VJQUG YJQ JCF PGXGT NKMGF
Z Z
%CPVQTOU VJGQT[ VJQUG YJQ JCF CNYC[U DGGP UWURKEKQWU QH UGVU KP IGPGTCN CPF KPHKPKVG
QPGU KP RCTVKEWNCT HGNV LWUVKHKGF KP VJGKT UWURKEKQPU CHVGT VJG FKUEQXGT[ QH 4WUUGNNOU
RCTCFQZ CPF YGTG SWKEM VQ EQPENWFG VJCV KV YCU VJG CUUWORVKQP QH VJG GZKUVGPEG QH C PGY
MKPF QH QDLGEV C CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ C HQTOWNC φ
VJCV YCU VQ DNCOG HQT VJG
UGV Z
EQPVTCFKEVKQP
$WV KU NCEM QH QQPVQNQIKECN RCTUKOQP[R CPF CEEGRVCPEG QH QCEVWCN KPHKPKV[R TGCNN[
VQ DNCOG! 0QV QDXKQWUN[ 6Q CUUWOG VJGTG KU C FKUVKPEVKXG QDLGEV CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ GCEJ
HQTOWNC φ
KU PQV KP KVUGNH CDUWTF UKPEG CHVGT CNN VJGTG UWEJ CP QDLGEV PCOGN[ VJG
Z KU
HQTOWNC φ
KVUGNH EQPUKFGTGF CU C NKPIWKUVKE GPVKV[ 5WRRQUG VJCV YG HQTIGV CDQWV UGVU CPF
Z
EQPEGRVU VQQ CPF EQPUKFGT QPN[ NKPIWKUVKE GZRTGUUKQPU CPF URGEKHKECNN[ HQTOWNCU φ
Z
YKVJ QPG HTGG XCTKCDNG +PUVGCF QH CUMKPI YJGVJGT CP QDLGEV DGNQPIU VQ VJG UGV ] φ
_
Z Z
YGTG VJG EQPEGRVU VJGOUGNXGU (QT KH 4WUUGNN FKF PQV OGCP D[ QENCUUR GZCEVN[ YJCV (TGIG
OGCPV D[ QEQPEGRVR JG CV CP[ TCVG CUETKDGF VQ YJCV JG WPFGTUVQQF D[ QENCUUGUR GZCEVN[
VJG UCOG HGCVWTGU VJCV (TGIG CUETKDGF VQ YJCV JG WPFGTUVQQF D[ QEQPEGRVUR VJG[ CTG
UWRRQUGF VQ EQOG KP NGXGNU CPF VQ DG IQXGTPGF D[ VJG NCYU QH EQORTGJGPUKQP CPF
GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ (QT EQPEGRVU 4WUUGNN UWDUVKVWVGF GPVKVKGU QH C FKHHGTGPV UQTV CU VJG TCPIG QH
JKU JKIJGTQTFGT XCTKCDNGU GPVKVKGU JG ECNNGF QRTQRQUKVKQPCN HWPEVKQPUR 6JGUG YGTG CNUQ
UWRRQUGF VQ EQOG KP NGXGNU CPF DG IQXGTPGF D[ CP CZKQO QH EQORTGJGPUKQP 6Q DG UWTG
4WUUGNN VJQWIJV KV PGEGUUCT[ VQ UWDFKXKFG VJG NGXGNU CPF VQ TGUVTKEV VJG CZKQO M KV KU KP
VJKU EQPPGEVKQP VJCV VJG KUUWG QH RTGFKECVKXKV[ KORTGFKECVKXKV[ EQOGU VQ VJG HQTG M DWV C
XU
(TGIGCP OKIJV JCXG VJQWIJV UQ VQQ CHVGT VJG RCTCFQZGU 6JG ETWEKCN FKHHGTGPEG DGVYGGP
QRTQRQUKVKQPCN HWPEVKQPUR CPF QEQPEGRVUR NKGU PQV KP VJG UWDFKXKUKQP CPF TGUVTKEVKQP DWV KP
VJG HCEV VJCV VJG HQTOGT CTG PQV CU VJG NCVVGT CTG IQXGTPGF D[ CP CZKQO QH GZVGPUKQPCNKV[
6JWU VJGTG CTG KP CNNVJTGG TGUVTKEVKQPU KORQUGF QP (TGIGOU U[UVGO (KTUV VJG
GZVGPUKQP QRGTCVQT U EQPXGTVKPI C JKIJGTNGXGN GPVKV[ KPVQ C \GTQVJNGXGN GPVKV[ U
: Z :
∀
↔ CU + JCXG DGGP FQKPI VJGP GCEJ KPUVCPEG QH GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ KP VJG HQNNQYKPI
Z :Z ;Z
QPN[ KP EQTTGURQPFKPI CVQOKE HQTOWNCU HQT VJG HQTO CPF YG JCXG ↔ HQT CNN
;X :X ;X X
: ≡ → # ↔ # +V KU HQT VJKU TGCUQP VJCV VJG CZKQO YCU PQV CEVWCNN[ TGSWKTGF CU CP
; : ;
CZKQO D[ (TGIG
9KVJ VJKTFQTFGT NQIKE CPF XCTKCDNGU HQT UGEQPFNGXGN EQPEGRVU JQYGXGT
GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ KU C VJGQTGO 6JCV KU QPG ECP FGFWEG VJG HQNNQYKPI
PQV PQV
∀<
: ≡ ; →
<: ↔ <;
#PF 4WUUGNN YCU QDNKIGF VQ OCMG OWEJ OQTG WUG QH VJKTF CPF GXGP HQWTVJQTFGT NQIKE
VJCP (TGIG GXGT FKF UQ HQT JKO VJG CDUGPEG QH CP GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ CZKQO YCU C IGPWKPG
KPEQPXGPKGPEG
$WV 4WUUGNN HQWPF C YC[ CTQWPF VJKU KPEQPXGPKGPEG *G UJQYGF VJCV JKU VJGQT[
YKVJ VJG CFFKVKQP QH GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ DGEQOGU VTWG KH VJG HQTOWNCU QH VJG NCPIWCIG CTG
UWKVCDN[ TGKPVGTRTGVGF 6JG TGKPVGTRTGVCVKQP KPXQNXGU YJCV KU MPQYP CU QH
TGNCVKXK\CVKQP
SWCPVKHKECVKQPU ∀
W CPF ∃
W D[ ∀
θ
→ W CPF ∃
θ
W +P VJG RTGUGPV
W W W W W W
∀<
∀:∀;
: ≡ ; →
<: ↔ <; → W
1DXKQWUN[ YKVJ VJG SWCPVKHKGT KP
VJWU TGKPVGTRTGVGF
DGEQOGU FGFWEKDNG
6JG VTGCVOGPV QH VJKTF CPF JKIJGTNGXGN ECUGU CPF QH OCP[RNCEG ECUGU KU OQTG
EQORNKECVGF DWV VJG FGVCKNU CTG WPKORQTVCPV JGTG 6JG HKPCN TGUWNV KU VJCV UQ NQPI CU QPG KU
QPN[ KPVGTGUVGF KP GZVGPUKQPCN RTQRQUKVKQPCN HWPEVKQPU M CPF 4WUUGNN JGNF VJCV VJQUG YGTG
VJG QPN[ QPGU QH TGNGXCPEG VQ OCVJGOCVKEU M QPG OC[ CU YGNN CUUWOG VJG CZKQO QH
GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ 9JCV QPG VJGP UC[U YQPOV DG NKVGTCNN[ VTWG D[ 4WUUGNNOU NKIJVU DWV YKNN
DGEQOG VTWG KH SWCPVKHKGTU CTG VCEKVN[ WPFGTUVQQF CU CRRTQRTKCVGN[ TGNCVKXK\GF 6JKU DGKPI
WPFGTUVQQF HQT VJG TGOCKPFGT QH VJKU GZRQUKVKQP + YKNN TGXGTV VQ VJG (TGIGCP NCPIWCIG QH
EQPEGRVU YJGP URGCMKPI QH VJG 4WUUGNNKCP VJGQT[ QH RTQRQUKVKQPCN HWPEVKQPU #PF CHVGT YG
CTG FQPG YKVJ 4WUUGNN YG CTG JCTFN[ GXGT IQKPI VQ IQ CDQXG VJG NGXGN QH UGEQPFQTFGT
NQIKE UQ CNOQUV CNYC[U Q
GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ YKNN DG CXCKNCDNG R HQT VJG TGCUQP
HQT HTGG
GZRNCKPGF CDQXG
6WTPKPI PGZV VQ TGUVTKEVKQPU QP EQORTGJGPUKQP VJG KPUVCPEG VJCV NGCFU VQ 4WUUGNNOU
RCTCFQZ TGCFU CU HQNNQYU
∃;∀Z
;Z ↔ ∃:
Z U: `
:Z
∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ φ
Z
4WUUGNN CUUWOGU
QPN[ HQT φ VJCV CTG RTGFKECVKXGKP VJG UGPUG QH EQPVCKPKPI PQ HKTUVNGXGN
EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU W QT TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU W VJCV CTG DQWPF D[
: ; < 4 5 6
RTQXG HQT U[OOGVT[ VJCV KH VJGTG GZKUVU CP UWEJ VJCV ≈4 VJGP VJGTG GZKUVU CP UWEJ
4 : ; 5
VJCV ≈5 CPF VJKTF RTQXG HQT VTCPUKVKXKV[ VJCV KH VJGTG GZKUVU CP UWEJ VJCV ≈4 CPF
; : 4 : ;
VJGTG GZKUVU CP UWEJ VJCV ≈5 VJGP VJGTG GZKUVU C UWEJ VJCV ≈6 1PG WUGU VJG
5 ; < 6 : <
VJG VYQ IKXGP EQTTGURQPFGPEGU VQ IGV VJG PGGFGF HQT VTCPUKVKXKV[ #NN VJTGG KVGOU JCXG
6
+PXGTUG
CMC %QPXGTUG 4 n
Z [ 4[Z
%QORQUKVKQP 4 $ 5 n ∃
Z \ [ 4Z[ 5[\
: ; <
QP .GV WU YTKVG φ HQT C HQTOWNC KPXQNXKPI PQ OQTG VJCP HTGG CPFQT DQWPF QDLGEV
XCTKCDNGU CPFQT HTGG HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU CPF φ HQT C HQTOWNC KPXQNXKPI QPN[
VJGUG CPFQT DQWPF HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU CPF HTGG UGEQPFTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU
CPF UQ QP 6JGP YJCV KU CUUWOGF KP VJG YC[ QH EQORTGJGPUKQP CZKQOU CTG VJG HQNNQYKPI
C ∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ φ
Z
D ∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ φ
Z
#PF UQ QP 9JGTG QPN[ HKTUVTQWPF RTGFKECVKXG EQPEGRVU CTG CFOKVVGF YG JCXG C UKORNG
RTGFKECVKXG VJGQT[ YJGTG HKTUV CPF UGEQPFTQWPF RTGFKECVKXG EQPEGRVU CTG CFOKVVGF C
FQWDNG RTGFKECVKXG VJGQT[ CPF YJGTG RTGFKECVKXG EQPEGRVU QH CNN TQWPFU CTG CFOKVVGF C
TCOKHKGF RTGFKECVKXG VJGQT[
9JGP KV EQOGU VQ FGXGNQRKPI OCVJGOCVKEU YKVJKP 4WUUGNNOU U[UVGO RTGFKECVKXKV[
TGUVTKEVKQPU ETGCVG FKHHKEWNVKGU QXGT OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP (QT UWRRQUG VJCV YG JCXG M
PGXGT OKPF JQY M FGHKPGF \GTQ CPF UWEEGUUQT (TGIGOU CRRTQCEJ OQTG QT NGUU COQWPVU VQ
FGHKPKPI CP QDLGEV VQ DG C PCVWTCN PWODGT KH CPF QPN[ KH KV HCNNU WPFGT CNN KPFWEVKXG
EQPEGRVU YJGTG C EQPEGRV KU KPFWEVKXG KH \GTQ HCNNU WPFGT KV CPF VJG UWEEGUUQT QH CP[
QDLGEV HCNNKPI WPFGT KV HCNNU WPFGT KV 6JWU VJG HQTO QH VJG FGHKPKVKQP KU VJKU
↔∀
∀
00 Z : : [ :[ → :[ → :Z
6JGP HQT CP[ HQTOWNC φ
YG IGV OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP QP φ
YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ VJG
Z Z
HQNNQYKPI
φ
∀[
φ
[ → φ
[ → ∀Z
00
Z → φ
Z
HQTOWNCU DWV QPN[ HQT HQTOWNCU φ PQV KPXQNXKPI DQWPF XCTKCDNGU W
: ; <
DGECWUG KV KU QPN[ HQT UWEJ HQTOWNCU VJCV VJG TGNGXCPV KPUVCPEGU QH EQORTGJGPUKQP NKMG
C CPF
D DWV DGIKPPKPI ∃ CTG CUUWOGF #PF WPHQTVWPCVGN[ CP[ HQTOWNC KPXQNXKPI
:
VJG PQVKQP QH PCVWTCN PWODGT YKNN KPXQNXG C HQTDKFFGP MKPF QH SWCPVKHKECVKQP CPF
OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP YKNN DG KPCRRNKECDNG VQ KV M C XGT[ UGTKQWU FGHKEKGPE[ KP VJG
VJGQT[
6Q TGOGF[ VJKU FGHKEKGPE[ 4WUUGNN OCMGU C PGY CUUWORVKQP VJG CZKQO QH
TGFWEKDKNKV[ M CEVWCNN[ KV KU C UEJGOG YKVJ QPG CZKQO HQT GCEJ UWRGTUETKRV M CEEQTFKPI
VQ YJKEJ CP[ EQPEGRV QH YJCVGXGT TQWPF KU EQGZVGPUKXG YKVJ QPG QH VJG HKTUV TQWPF 5KPEG
GXGT[ HQTOWNC FGVGTOKPGU C EQPEGRV QH UQOG TQWPF QT QVJGT GXGT[ HQTOWNC KP HCEV
FGVGTOKPGU C EQPEGRV QH VJG TQWPF CPF YG VJGTGHQTG JCXG VJG HQNNQYKPI
HKTUV
∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ φ
Z
∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ ∃;
Z U;
`
; Z
+H YG NGV DG UWEJ CP CU KP
VJGP YJCV YG ECP EQPENWFG HTQO
KU VJCV ECPPQV
# : #
DG EQGZVGPUKXG YKVJ CP[ HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV (QT NGVVKPI DG CP[ HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV CPF
#
C KVU GZVGPUKQP
VGNNU WU VJCV HCNNU WPFGT KH CPF QPN[ KH KV FQGU PQV HCNN WPFGT $WV
C # #
PWODGTU CPF YKNN DG KORQUUKDNG VQ RTQXG (QT YKVJQWV QNQIKECN QDLGEVUR KV YKNN DG
VJCV
KORQUUKDNG HQT NQIKE VQ RTQXG VJG GZKUVGPEG QH KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ M QT HQT VJCV OCVVGT QH CP[
M QDLGEVU CPF KH VJGTG CTG QPN[ QDLGEVU VJGTG YKNN DG CV OQUV P HKTUVNGXGN EQPEGRVU
P
CPF CV OQUV P UGEQPFNGXGN EQPEGRVU CPF UQ EGTVCKPN[ PQV KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ PWODGTU KH
PWODGTU CTG UGEQPFNGXGN EQPEGRVU
6Q IGV TQWPF VJKU RTQDNGO 4WUUGNN UKORN[ CUUWOGU CP VQ VJG
CZKQO QH KPHKPKV[
GHHGEV VJCV VJGTG KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ QDLGEVU # SWGUVKQP CTKUGU CU VQ LWUV JQY VJKU
CTG
VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU NGUU VJCP UQOG PCVWTCN PWODGT 6JKU OC[ DG ECNNGF VJG QPCVWTCNR
P
FGHKPKVKQP 9KVJQWV RTGUWRRQUKPI VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU VJGTG CTG QVJGT FGHKPKVKQPU VJCV ECP
DG IKXGP
&GFGMKPF WUGF VJG FGHKPKVKQP VJCV KU HKPKVG KH CPF QPN[ KH KU PQV GSWKPWOGTQWU
: :
KU OGV 0QVG VJCV KP C RTGFKECVKXG EQPVGZV VJGTG YQWNF DG PQ UWEJ VJKPI CU QVJGR EQPFKVKQP
QH &GFGMKPFHKPKVWFG 4CVJGT VJGTG KU HKTUVTQWPF &GFGMKPFHKPKVWFG
PQ HKTUVTQWPF
RTGFKECVKXG QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEGW UGEQPFTQWPF &GFGMKPFHKPKVWFG
PQ
UGEQPFTQWPF RTGFKECVKXG QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEGW CPF UQ QP
4WUUGNN JKOUGNH UQOGVKOGU
VJQWIJ PQV CU KV JCRRGPU KP EQPPGEVKQP YKVJ VJG
HQTOWNCVKQP QH VJG CZKQO QH KPHKPKV[ WUGF CPQVJGT FGHKPKVKQP 9G UC[ VJCV 4 NKPGCTN[
QTFGTU
VJG QDLGEVU HCNNKPI WPFGT KH HQT CNN QDLGEVU HCNNKPI WPFGT YG JCXG VJG
: Z [ \ :
HQNNQYKPI
+TTGHNGZKXKV[ ` 4ZZ
WPFGT YQWNF DG CP QDLGEV HCNNKPI WPFGT UWEJ VJCV HQT CP[ QVJGT QDLGEV HCNNKPI WPFGT
; Z ; [
; QPG JCU
TGURGEVKXGN[ KU C
4Z[ 4[Z 4
TGURGEVKXGN[
YGNNQTFGTKPI TGXGTUG
PQV FGVCKP WU CV VJKU UVCIG 6JGTG CTG KP HCEV OCP[ GSWKXCNGPV HQTOWNCVKQPU QPG DGKPI VJCV
HQT GXGT[ UGV VJGTG KU C YGNNQTFGTKPI QH KV 9JCV KU TGNGXCPV JGTG KU VJCV CUUWOKPI EJQKEG
CNN VJG XCTKQWU FGHKPKVKQPU QH HKPKVWFG ECP DG RTQXGF GSWKXCNGPV 9KVJQWV VJG CZKQO
JQYGXGT UQOG HQTOWNCVKQPU CTG UVTQPIGT VJCP QVJGTU KP VJCV KORNKECVKQPU HTQO VJG HQTOGT
VQ VJG NCVVGT ECP DG RTQXGF DWV PQV XKEG XGTUC 4WUUGNN KP HCEV UJQYGF VJCV C YGCM KPHKPKV[
CUUWORVKQP HQT QDLGEVU UWHHKEGF VQ QDVCKP VJG 2GCPQ RQUVWNCVGU VYQ NGXGNU WR HQT PCVWTCN
PWODGTU EQPUVTWGF CU UGEQPFNGXGN EQPEGRVU 6JG UKIPKHKECPEG QH VJKU TGUWNV YCU
UQOGYJCV FKOKPKUJGF D[ VJG EKTEWOUVCPEG VJCV 4WUUGNN FKF KP VJG GPF HGGN QDNKIGF VQ
KPVTQFWEG VJG CZKQO QH EJQKEG QP CEEQWPV QH KVU DGKPI PGGFGF HQT EGTVCKP FGXGNQROGPVU KP
JKIJGT OCVJGOCVKEU
6JKU YKNN FQ HQT RTGUGPV RWTRQUGU D[ YC[ QH UWOOCT[ QH 4WUUGNNOU CRRTQCEJ /[
UWOOCT[ JCU PQV FQPG LWUVKEG VQ 4WUUGNNOU OCP[ RQUKVKXG EQPVTKDWVKQPU DWV TCVJGT JCU
IKXGP RTGUGPV RWTRQUGU KPGXKVCDN[ GORJCUK\GF YGCMPGUU CPF FTCYDCEMU +H VJG UWOOCT[
CEEQORNKUJGU PQVJKPI GNUG KV UJQWNF OCMG KV WPUWTRTKUKPI VJCV OCVJGOCVKEKCPU WNVKOCVGN[
RTGHGTTGF VQ CFQRV CU C HTCOGYQTM HQT OQFGTP OCVJGOCVKEU PQV VJG VJGQT[ QH V[RGU DWV CP
CZKQOCVKE UGV VJGQT[ VJCV GOGTIGF HTQO CVVGORVU VQ OCMG GZRNKEKV VJG CUUWORVKQPU
WPFGTN[KPI %CPVQTOU UGV VJGQT[ CPF VQ TGFWEG VJCV VJGQT[ VQ TKIQTQWU HQTO
#U OCVJGOCVKEKCPU VQQM VJCV EQWTUG (TGIGOU U[UVGO YCU KPETGCUKPIN[ HQTIQVVGP
WPVKN VJG TGEGPV PGQ(TGIGCP TGXKXCN 'PQWIJ PQVKQPU JCXG DGGP KPVTQFWEGF KP VJG
UWOOCT[ QH (TGIGOU CPF 4WUUGNNOU CRRTQCEJGU VQ OCMG KV RQUUKDNG CV VJKU RQKPV VQ UMGVEJ
VJG FKTGEVKQPU KP YJKEJ PGQ(TGIGCPU JCXG RTQEGGFGF +H QPG NQQMU ENQUGN[ CV VJG
EQPVTCFKEVKQP KP (TGIGOU U[UVGO KV YKNN DG UGGP VQ JCXG HGCVWTGU
VYQ GCEJQH YJKEJ
EQPVTKDWVGU VQ VJG RCTCFQZ (KTUV (TGIG KU XGT[ HTGG KP CUUWOKPI VJG GZKUVGPEG QH EQPEGRVU
CPF KP RCTVKEWNCT JKU U[UVGO CNNQYU VJG KPVTQFWEVKQP QH VJG 4WUUGNN EQPEGRV n ∉
Z Z Z
5GEQPF (TGIG KU XGT[ HTGG KP CUUWOKPI VJG GZKUVGPEG QH GZVGPUKQPU HQT EQPEGRVU CPF KP
RCTVKEWNCT JKU U[UVGO CNNQYU VJG KPVTQFWEVKQP QH VJG 4WUUGNN UGV ] ∉ _ 0GQ(TGIGCP
Z Z Z
VJGQTKGU HCNN KPVQ VYQ ECVGIQTKGU CEEQTFKPI CU VQ YJGVJGT VJG[ VT[ VQ DNQEM VJG RCTCFQZ CV
VJG HKTUV QT CV VJG UGEQPF UVGR
2TGFKECVKXKV[ TGUVTKEVKQPU DNQEM VJG HKTUV UVGR QP VJG TQCF VQ RCTCFQZ TWNKPI QWV VJG
4WUUGNN EQPEGRV +H QPG UVQRU CV VJG UKORNG RTGFKECVKXG NGXGN KV NQQMU CU KH QPG JCU CNNQYGF
VJG4WUUGNN HQTOWNC Z ∉ KPVQ VJG NCPIWCIG DWV PQV CNNQYGF KV VQ FGVGTOKPG C EQPEGRV (QT
Z
RTGFKECVKXG NCPIWCIG VJQWIJ EQORTGJGPUKQP KU PQV CUUWOGF HQT KV 0QY VJGTG KU PQ
QDXKQWU TGCUQP YJ[ C RTGFKECVG QT QRGP HQTOWNC OC[ KP UQOG ECUGU NKMG C RTQRGT PCOG QT
UKPIWNCT FGHKPKVG FGUETKRVKQP HCKN VQ JCXG CTGHGTGPV DWV KV KU XGT[ JCTF VQ UGG JQY QPG
EQWNF TGCUQPCDN[ CNNQY HQTOWNCU KPVQ QPGOU NCPIWCIG VJCV QPG FQGU PQV CNNQY VQ JCXG
UGPUGU +H QPG VJKPMU NKMG (TGIG QH VJG XCTKCDNGU CU TCPIKPI QXGT TGHGTGPVU KV UGGOU
:
VJGTG KU PQ QDXKQWU TGCUQP YJ[ VJGTG DG CP HQT GXGT[ φ
DWV KH QPG VJKPMU NKMG
OWUV : Z
4WUUGNN QH VJG XCTKCDNGU TCPIKPI QXGT UGPUGU VJGTG FQGU UGGO VQ DG C TGCUQP VQ FGOCPF
:
CP HQT GXGT[ φ
6JKU VJG TCOKHKGF RTGFKECVKXG VJGQT[ UWRRNKGU +P VJCV VJGQT[ VJGTG KU
: Z
FGVGTOKPGU CP YKVJ UWRGTUETKRV CPF UQ QP 6JGTG KU PQ HQTOWNC VJCV FQGU PQV
:
FGVGTOKPG C EQPEGRV DWV VJGTG KU PQ 4WUUGNN HQTOWNC +P GKVJGT ECUG YJGVJGT QPG UVQRU CV
VJG UKORNG NGXGN QT IQGU QP VQ TCOKH[ VJGTG KU PQ 4WUUGNN EQPEGRV n ∉ Z Z Z
] Z: ] [; →
Z [ ↔ : ≡ ;
$[ KVUGNH
QPN[ KORNKGU VJCV GZVGPUKQPU CTG WPKSWG YJGP VJG[ GZKUV (TGIG IQV KPVQ
VTQWDNG D[ CUUWOKPI VJG CZKQO QH UGVEQORTGJGPUKQP ∃ ] CUUGTVKPI VJCV GZVGPUKQPU
Z Z:
CNYC[U FQ GZKUV 6JG QDXKQWU YC[ VQ TGUVTKEV VJKU WPCEEGRVCDNG CZKQO QH YQWNF DG VQ
TGRNCEG VJKU WPEQPFKVKQPCN GZKUVGPEG CZKQO D[ C EQPFKVKQPCN QT DKEQPFKVKQPCN XGTUKQP QH
QPG QH VJG HQNNQYKPI VYQ HQTOU
C σ(:) → ∃Z ] Z:
D ∃Z ] Z: ↔ σ(:)
*GTG σ
YQWNF GZRTGUU C RTQXKUQ PQV OGV D[ VJG 4WUUGNN EQPEGRV VCMGP VQ DG UWHHKEKGPV
:
6JGTG KU CNUQ C NGUU QDXKQWU YC[ VQ VJKPM CDQWV TGUVTKEVKPI VJG CUUWORVKQP QH VJG
GZKUVGPEG QH GZVGPUKQPU (QT YG JCXG UGGP VJCV VJG CUUWORVKQP QH VJG GZKUVGPEG QH
GZVGPUKQPU KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ VJG CUUWORVKQP QH VJG GZKUVGPEG QH CDUVTCEVU HQT CNN
GSWKXCNGPEGU VJG ECUG QH EQGZVGPUKXGPGUU ≡ UWDUWOKPI VJG ECUG QH CP[ QVJGT GSWKXCNGPEG
' #P CNVGTPCVKXG VQ CUUWOKPI UCHG GZVGPUKQPU YQWNF DG VQ CUUWOG PQ GZVGPUKQPU CV CNN
DWV QPN[ CDUVTCEVU HQT UQOG QVJGT GSWKXCNGPEG QT GSWKXCNGPEGU #EVWCNN[ VJKU
CDUVTCEVKQPKUV CRRTQCEJ OQTG QT NGUU UWDUWOGU VJG UCHGGZVGPUKQPU CRRTQCEJ CV NGCUV KP
VJG DKEQPFKVKQPCN XGTUKQP
D (QT EQTTGURQPFKPI VQ CP[ UCHGV[ EQPFKVKQP σ
YG JCXG
:
: ≡σ ; ↔ : ≡ ; ∨
`σ
: ` σ
;
6JKU ≡σ CITGGU YKVJ EQGZVGPUKXGPGUU HQT UCHG EQPEGRVU DWV NWORU CNN WPUCHG QPGU
VQIGVJGT #UUWOKPI CDUVTCEVU HQT ≡σ KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ CUUWOKPI
D RNWU VJG GZKUVGPEG QH
QPG CFFKVKQPCN PCOGCDNG QDLGEV ο FKUVKPEV HTQO CNN GZVGPUKQPU VJG CDUVTCEV QH YKVJ
:
$WV HKTUV + OWUV UC[ UQOGVJKPI CDQWV VJG UECNG D[ YJKEJ QPG OGCUWTGU VJG UEQRG
CPF NKOKVU QH C IKXGP CRRTQCEJ 6JG FKUEWUUKQP QH VJKU UECNG YKNN VCMG VJG HQTO QH C UWTXG[
QH UVTQPIGT CPF UVTQPIGT VJGQTKGU QH CTKVJOGVKE CPCN[UKU CPF UGV VJGQT[ VJCV JCXG DGGP
FGXGNQRGF D[ OCVJGOCVKECN NQIKEKCPU KP VJG RGTKQF HTQO 4WUUGNN VQ VJG RTGUGPV $GHQTG
NCWPEJKPI KPVQ VJG UWTXG[ C YQTF PGGFU VQ DG UCKF CDQWV YJCV JKUVQTKECNN[ YCU VJG
UKVWCVKQP KP HQWPFCVKQPU QH OCVJGOCVKEU KP VJG RGTKQF DGVYGGP VJG RWDNKECVKQP QH
9JKVGJGCF CPF 4WUUGNN
CPF VJG CRRGCTCPEG QH )ÑFGNOU KPEQORNGVGPGUU
VJGQTGOU
$TKGHN[ RWV VJG UKVWCVKQP YCU VJKU 6JGTG YGTG UGXGTCN RTQRQUCNU HQT EQFKH[KPI
ENCUUKECN OCVJGOCVKEU GKVJGT KP C U[UVGO QH CZKQOCVKE UGV VJGQT[ QT KP C U[UVGO NKMG
4WUUGNNOU $WV VJGTG YGTG CNUQ UGXGTCN RJKNQUQRJKECN RQKPVU QH XKGY HTQO YJKEJ VJGUG
U[UVGOU CPF YKVJ VJGO OWEJ QH ENCUUKECN OCVJGOCVKEU YGTG WPCEEGRVCDNG 5QOG QH VJGUG
TGUVTKEVKXG RJKNQUQRJKGU YGTG UVTKEVGT VJCP QVJGTU VJG UVTKEVGUV QH CNN DGKPI ECNNGF
HKPKVKUO
DGECWUG KV VQVCNN[ TGRWFKCVGF VJG QCEVWCN KPHKPKVGR &CXKF *KNDGTV VJG NGCFKPI
OCVJGOCVKEKCP QH VJG RGTKQF RWV HQTYCTF C RTQITCO QH VT[KPI VQ RTQXKFG KPFKTGEV
LWUVKHKECVKQP HQT ENCUUKECN OCVJGOCVKEU HTQO C HKPKVKUV UVCPFRQKPV +V YCU C ENGXGT RTQITCO
CPF VJQWIJ FQQOGF VQ HCKNWTG KV YKNN DG YQTVJ TGXKGYKPI
1PG YC[ KP YJKEJ C VJGQT[ PQV FKTGEVN[ LWUVKHKCDNG HTQO C IKXGP RQKPV QH XKGY OC[
DG KPFKTGEVN[ LWUVKHKGF KU D[ QH VJG IKXGP VJGQT[ KP CPQVJGT VJCV FKTGEVN[
KPVGTRTGVCVKQP KU
HQTOWNCU QH YKVJ VYQ RTQRGTVKGU HKTUV VJCV GXGT[ CZKQO QH KU OCRRGF VQ CP CZKQO QT
. 6
VJGQTGO QH UGEQPF VJCV VJG OCRRKPI RTGUGTXGU NQIKECN UVTWEVWTG 6QIGVJGT VJGUG
6
RTQRGTVKGU KORN[ YJCV YG TGCNN[ YCPV PCOGN[ VJCV GXGT[ FGFWEKDNG HTQO VJG
VJGQTGO
6JG QTQWIJ URGCMKPIR KP VJG HQTGIQKPI EJCTCEVGTK\CVKQP NKGU KP O[ JCXKPI PQV JCXKPI
IKXGP C RTGEKUG EJCTCEVGTK\CVKQP QH LWUV YJCV QRTGUGTXKPI UVTWEVWTGR TGSWKTGU
2JKNQUQRJKECNN[ KPVGTRTGVCVKQP KU C YC[ QH NGIKVKOK\KPI C VJGQT[ VJCV KU PQV
NGIKVKOCVG YJGP VCMGP NKVGTCNN[ +H KU NGIKVKOCVG HTQO C EGTVCKP RJKNQUQRJKECN RQKPV QH
6
XKGY CPF KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP VJGP FGFWEKPI C TGUWNV KP CPF VTCPUNCVKPI KV HTQO VJG
6 6 6
EQPUGSWGPEG QH RGTJCRU KP C OQTG GHHKEKGPV QT OQTG RGTURKEWQWU YC[ VJCP VJG[ EQWNF
6
KPFKTGEVN[ YJGP VCMGP CU C HCÁQP FG RCTNGT GXGP KH KV ECPPQV DG NGIKVKOK\GF FKTGEVN[ YJGP
VCMGP NKVGTCNN[
#P[ CDDTGXKCVGF PQVCVKQP RTQXKFGU C VTKXKCN GZCORNG QH KPVGTRTGVCVKQP + JCXG UCKF
VJCV XCTKQWU PQVCVKQPU DGIKPPKPI YKVJ l CTG QWPQHHKEKCN CDDTGXKCVKQPUR KPVTQFWEGF D[
EGTVCKP FGHKPKVKQPU KP VJKU ECUG VJG FGHKPKVKQP QH l CU `
+P VJKU ECUG VJG
Z [ Z [
NCPIWCIG CPF VJGQT[ + CO KP RTCEVKEG WUKPI JCU KP KV VJG PQVCVKQP l CPF VJG CUUWORVKQP QH
VJG GSWKXCNGPEG QH l YKVJ `
VJG NCPIWCIG + KP RTKPEKRNG TGICTF CU VJG QHHKEKCN
Z [ Z [
QPG FQGU PQV $WV VJG WPQHHKEKCN NCPIWCIG KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP VJG QHHKEKCN NCPIWCIG D[ IQKPI
VJTQWIJ CPF TGRNCEKPI GXGT[ QEEWTTGPEG QH l D[ `
*GTG WPRCEMKPI VJG
Z [ Z [
QT OQTG RGTURKEWQWU YC[ VJCP VJG[ EQWNF DG FGFWEGF YQTMKPI YKVJ FKTGEVN[ 6JWU 6
FGRGPF QP JQY DTQCF VJG ENCUU Γ KU CPF JQY OWEJ UJQTVGT QT GCUKGT KPFKTGEV FGFWEVKQPU
CTG VJCP FKTGEV QPGU
6Q IKXG CV NGCUV QPG GZCORNG VQ KNNWUVTCVG VJG PQVKQP UWRRQUG YG JCXG C VJGQT[ 6
VJG CZKQO φ
KU C EQPUGTXCVKXG GZVGPUKQP (QT CP[ EQPENWUKQP ψ PQV OGPVKQPKPI VJCV KU
E E
UJQWNF DG KPFKTGEVN[ CEEGRVCDNG HQT C EGTVCKP MKPF QH KPUVTWOGPVCN WUG VJCV JCU DGGP
TQWIJN[ FGUETKDGF HTQO VJCV UVCPFRQKPV 1T OQTG RTGEKUGN[ VJKU YKNN DG UQ RTQXKFGF VJG
OGCPU VJCV CTG CEEGRVCDNG HTQO VJG UVCPFRQKPV QH VJG RJKNQUQRJKECN XKGY KP SWGUVKQP
O
*KNDGTV U KFGC HQT FGHWUKPI HKPKVKUV ETKVKEKUO QH ENCUUKECN OCVJGOCVKEU YCU VQ NQQM HQT C
1YKPI VQ EGTVCKP URGEKCN HGCVWTGU QH VJG UKVWCVKQP VJG FGVCKNU QH YJKEJ PGGF PQV EQPEGTP WU
JGTG RTQXKPI CNN VJKU VWTPU QWV VQ TGSWKTG QPN[ RTQXKPI D[ HKPKVKUV OGCPU VJCV UQOG HQTOCN
U[UVGO EQFKH[KPI ENCUUKECN OCVJGOCVKEU KU EQPUKUVGPV
*KNDGTVOU RTQITCO YCU VQ NQQM HQT
)ÑFGN FGTCKNGF VJG RTQITCO D[ UJQYKPI VJCV IKXGP C VJGQT[ 6 RWV HQTYCTF CU C
ECUG CP[VJKPI ECP DG RTQXGF D[ OGCPU HQTOCNK\CDNG KP 6 6JKU KU PQV VQ FGP[ VJCV QPG
ECP KP OCP[ KPUVCPEGU UJQY D[ HKPKVKUV QT GXGP UVKNN OQTG TGUVTKEVGF OGCPU VJCV CP
QUVGPUKDN[ YGCMGT KP CP QUVGPUKDN[ RQQTGT NCPIWCIG HQT KP HCEV OCP[ UWEJ TGFWEKDKNKV[
TGUWNVU FQ JQNF $WV KV KU VQ FGP[ VJCV VJG ICR DGVYGGP VJG VJGQT[ VQ DG TGFWEGF CPF VJG
VJGQT[ VQ YJKEJ KV KU TGFWEGF ECP GXGT DG CU YKFG CU VJCV DGVYGGP HKPKVKUV CPF ENCUUKECN
OCVJGOCVKEU
*CTXG[ (TKGFOCP JCU UJQYP VJCV WPFGT OKNF J[RQVJGUGU VJG EQPXGTUG KU VTWG YJKEJ KU VQ
UC[ VJCV KH QPG JCU TGNCVKXG EQPUKUVGPE[ VJGP KP SWKVG IGPGTCN EKTEWOUVCPEGU KV HQNNQYU VJCV
4GNCVKXG VQ C IKXGP OGVCVJGQT[ M VJG YGCM VJGQT[ KP YJKEJ YG CTG RTQXKPI QWT
KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ CPF EQPUGTXCVKXGPGUU CPF TGNCVGF TGUWNVU CDQWV YJKEJ VJGTG KU PQ PGGF VQ
O
OCFG HQT TGFWEKDKNKV[ DWV D[ (TKGFOCP U TGUWNVU TGFWEKDKNKV[ UVTGPIVJ CPF EQPUKUVGPE[
0QY KV KU C XGT[ UVTKMKPI HCEV VJCV VJQWIJ KP RTKPEKRNG QPG EQWNF JCXG RCKTU QH
VJGQTKGU 6 CPF 6 VJCV CTG QH KPEQORCTCDNG EQPUKUVGPE[ UVTGPIVJ PGKVJGT DGKPI RTQXCDN[
EQPUKUVGPV TGNCVKXG VQ VJG QVJGT CPF VJQWIJ QPG ECP KPFGGF EQPVTKXG CTVKHKEKCN GZCORNGU QH
KPEQORCTCDKNKV[ KP RTCEVKEG XKTVWCNN[ CNN VJGQTKGU VJCV KV KU PCVWTCN VQ EQPUKFGT CPF VJCV
HWPFCOGPVCN UGTKGU QH VJGQTKGU QH ITGCVGT CPF ITGCVGT EQPUKUVGPE[ UVTGPIVJ CPF XKTVWCNN[
9JCV ECP DG FQPG KP VJG YC[ QH RCTVKCN TGCNK\CVKQP QH *KNDGTV U RTQITCO KU VQ UJQY O
KP OCP[ ECUGU VJCV VYQ VJGQTKGU QPG QUVGPUKDN[ OWEJ UVTQPIGT RGTJCRU KP C NCPIWCIG
QUVGPUKDNG OWEJ TKEJGT VJCP VJG QVJGT CTG PQPG VJG NGUU DQVJ QH GSWCN EQPUKUVGPE[
UVTGPIVJ YKVJ VJG UCOG VJGQT[ KP VJG HWPFCOGPVCN UGTKGU CPF UQ YKVJ GCEJ QVJGT 6JG
YJKEJ VJGQTKGU HCKTN[ JKIJ WR QP VJG HWPFCOGPVCN UGTKGU ECP DG TGFWEGF VJGP KV KU
# UWTXG[ QH VJKU HWPFCOGPVCN UGTKGU QT UECNG HQNNQYU 6JG HKTUV RCTV QH VJG UWTXG[
6JG UGEQPF RCTV EQPEGTPGF YKVJ U[UVGOU QH CPCN[UKU CPF UGV VJGQT[ KU TGNGXCPV VQ VJG
RTQLGEVU EQPUKFGTGF KP %JCRVGT CPF TGCFKPI QH KV VJGTGHQTG OC[ DG RQUVRQPGF WPVKN CHVGT
%JCRVGT +P CP[ ECUG VJG TGCFGT OC[ FQ YGNN VQ UMKO VJG OCVGTKCN QP HKTUV TGCFKPI CPF
C NGEVWTG UGTKGU D[ (TKGFOCP DWV WPHQTVWPCVGN[ JCU PQV [GV DGGP TGFWEGF VQ RWDNKUJGF
KU TGHGTTGF HQT OQTG FGVCKNGF GZRNCPCVKQPU CPF DKDNKQITCRJKECN EKVCVKQPU CPF GURGEKCNN[ QP
(TKGFOCP 6JG WUWCN FKUENCKOGT CRRNKGU PQPG QH VJG CWVJQTU OGPVKQPGF KU TGURQPUKDNG HQT
CP[ GTTQTU VJCV OC[ JCXG ETGRV KP + YKNN FKXKFG VJG VQWT QH VJG HWPFCOGPVCN UGTKGU KPVQ C
HKXG UVCIGU VJG DQVVQO QH VJG UECNG U[UVGOU QH CTKVJOGVKE U[UVGOU QH CPCN[UKU V[RG
EQPUVCPV HQT \GTQ C QPGRNCEG HWPEVKQP U[ODQN HQT UWEEGUUQT WUWCNN[ C VYQRNCEG
TGNCVKQP U[ODQN HQT QTFGT M VJQWIJ KP VJG NKVGTCVWTG VJKU U[ODQN KU QHVGP QOKVVGF HTQO
VJG QHHKEKCN NCPIWCIG CPF VCMGP VQ DG CP WPQHHKEKCN CDDTGXKCVKQP M VYQRNCEG HWPEVKQP
U[ODQNU
CPF ⋅ HQT CFFKVKQP CPF OWNVKRNKECVKQP CPF UQOGVKOGU DG CFFKVKQPCN UWEJ
U[ODQNU ↑ ⇑ W HQT GZRQPGPVKCVKQP UWRGTGZRQPGPVKCVKQP CPF UQ QP 6JGTG YKNN DG VJG
WUWCN NQIKECN QRGTCVQTU DWV YG CNUQ KPVTQFWEG CU CDDTGXKCVKQPU DQWPFGF SWCPVKHKGTU
YTKVKPI
∀[ Z
W HQT ∀[
[ Z → W
∃[ Z
W HQT ∃[
[ Z W
3 ` Z
3 Z →Z[
[
3 [ ∨ ∃Z
[ Z
3 Z Z
3 Z
[
Z
[
3 Z ⋅Z
3 Z ⋅ [
Z ⋅ [
Z
(QT EGTVCKP RWTRQUGU KV KU WUGHWN EQPUKFGT C XCTKCPV VJGQT[ QUVGPUKDN[ UVTQPIGT DWV TGCNN[
GSWKXCNGPV VJCV CFFU QPG OQTG RTKOKVKXG VJG QTFGT U[ODQN VQ VJG NCPIWCIG CFFU VYQ
3 ` Z
3 Z ↔Z [∨Z[
[
3 [ ∨ ∃Z
Z [ [ Z
0QPG QH VJG WUWCN CUUQEKCVKXG EQOOWVCVKXG QT FKUVTKDWVKXG NCYU HQT CFFKVKQP CPF
ECTFKPCN PWODGTU YKVJ Z FGHKPGF CU Z (QT KPHKPKVG ECTFKPCNU YG VJGP JCXG Z Z 9KVJ
GXGP VJG NCY Z l Z OKUUKPI XKTVWCNN[ PQ OCVJGOCVKEU ECP DG FQPG KP VJG U[UVGO 3 6JG
U[UVGO YCU KPFGGF KPVTQFWEGF D[ 4QDKPUQP PQV KP QTFGT VQ FQ OCVJGOCVKEU KP KV DWV
KU VJCV VJG VJGQTGO KP SWGUVKQP CRRNKGU VQ CP[ VJGQT[ KP YJKEJ 3 ECP DG KPVGTRTGVGF C HCEV
PQY QHVGP HQWPF KPEQTRQTCVGF KP VGZVDQQM RTGUGPVCVKQPU QH VJG )ÑFGN VJGQTGOU # NCTIG
RCTV QH VJG VCUM KP VJG DQQM YCU VQ IKXG C FGHKPKVKQP QH KPVGTRTGVCVKQP VJCV KU CV QPEG VQVCNN[
TKIQTQWU CPF OCZKOCNN[ IGPGTCN /CZKOCN IGPGTCNKV[ PGGF PQV EQPEGTP WU JGTG DWV YG
YKNN DG PGGFKPI C NGUU TQWIJ KFGC VJCP JCU DGGP IKXGP UQ HCT QH LWUV YJCV JCU VQ DG FQPG VQ
URGEKHKE HQTOWNC δ
Z JQNFU 5VCVGOGPVU QH 6 CDQWV QCNN ZR YKNN DG KPVGTRTGVGF KP 6 CU
UVCVGOGPVU CDQWV QCNN Z UWEJ VJCV δ
ZR
5GEQPF GCEJ TGNCVKQPU[ODQN 2 KP VJG NCPIWCIG QH 6 OWUV DG IKXGP C FGHKPKVKQP KP
6 (QT KPUVCPEG KH 2 JCU VYQ RNCEGU YG VCMG UQOG URGEKHKE HQTOWNC YKVJ VYQ HTGG
XCTKCDNGU K
Z [ CPF KPVTQFWEG 2Z[ CU CP CDDTGXKCVKQP HQT KV CPF UKOKNCTN[ HQT
TGNCVKQPU[ODQNU QH CP[ PWODGT QH RNCEGU #PF VJG FGHKPKVKQPU CTG UWRRQUGF VQ DG UWEJ CU
VQ OCMG VJG KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH CP[ CZKQO QH 6 EQOG QWV C VJGQTGO QH 6 (QT KPUVCPEG KH KV
∀Z
δ
Z → ∃[
δ
[ K
Z [
6JKTF KH VJGTG CTG HWPEVKQP U[ODQNU VJGUG CNUQ JCXG VQ DG FGHKPGF CPF KP UWEJ C
KP 6 E UJQWNF DG COQPI VJG QDLGEVU VJQUG QDLGEVU VJCV CTG TGRTGUGPVKPI QDLGEVU QH 6 QT
UGEQPF YG OWUV JCXG VJCV CNN VJG CZKQOU QH 3 JQNF HQT VJG QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ δ JQNFU
% δ
% δ
Z → δ
Z
% δ
Z [ Z → δ
[
%
δ
Z δ
[ → δ
Z
[
%⋅ δ
Z δ
[ → δ
Z ⋅ [
4 δ
Z → l Z
4 δ
Z δ
[ →
Z [ → Z [
4 δ
Z → ` Z
4 δ
Z δ
[ →
Z [ ↔ Z [ ∨ Z [
4 δ
Z →
Z ∨ ∃[
[ Z Z [
4 δ
Z → Z
Z
4 δ
Z δ
[ → Z
[
Z
[
4 δ
Z → Z ⋅ Z
4 δ
Z δ
[ → Z ⋅ [
Z ⋅ [
Z
PQVKQPU
⋅ CU CDDTGXKCVKQPU CPF VJGP HKPF C OWNVKRNKECVKXG HQTOWNC δ
Z UWEJ VJCV
GCEJ CZKQO QH 3 JQNFU HQT CNN QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ δ JQNFU 6JKU KU VJG TCVJGT EQORNKECVGF
UWHHKEKGPV EQPFKVKQP HQT KPVGTRGVCDKNKV[ QH 3 VJCV YKNN DG WUGF HQT VJG RTQQH QH XCTKQWU
VJGQT[ +V VWTPU QWV VJCV OCP[ QUVGPUKDN[ UVTQPIGT CTKVJOGVKE VJGQTKGU VJCP 3 CTG
KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 3 YKVJQWV CP[ PGGF VQ EJCPIG VJG FGHKPKVKQPU QH VJG CTKVJOGVKECN PQVKQPU
HQTOWNC δ
Z 4QDGTV 5QNQXC[ KP WPRWDNKUJGF YQTM UJQYGF JQY VJG GZVGPUKQP QH 3
QDVCKPGF D[ CFFKPI VJG WUWCN CUUQEKCVKXG EQOOWVCVKXG CPF FKUVTKDWVKXG NCYU ECP DG
KPVGTRTGVGF KP 3 0GNUQP
CRRNKGF VJG UCOG OGVJQF VQ OCP[ HWTVJGT NCYU
O
6Q FGUETKDG OQTG RTGEKUGN[ VJG UEQRG QH 0GNUQP U YQTM UQOG FGHKPKVKQPU YKNN DG
TGSWKTGF 6Q DGIKP YKVJ VJG TGCUQP XCTKQWU NCYU ECPPQV DG FKTGEVN[ RTQXGF KP 3 KU VJCV
+
φ
∀Z
φ
Z → φ
Z → ∀Zφ
Z
#P[ NCY VJCV EQWNF DG RTQXGF D[ OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP HTQO VJG CZKQOU QH 3 ECP DG
RTQXGF KP 2 0GNUQP UJQYGF VJCV HQT CP[ HKPKVG PWODGT QH NCYU QH C EGTVCKP MKPF VJCV
KPVGTRTGVCVKQP KP 3 QH 3 RNWU VJQUG NCYU 6JG MKPF QH NCYU KP SWGUVKQP CTG VJQUG HQT
6 \ [ [ Z →\Z
VTWG D[
3 #V VJG KPFWEVKQP QT UWEEGUUQT UVGR CUUWOKPI CU KPFWEVKQP J[RQVJGUKU
6
VYQ ECUGU 'KVJGT [ Z KP YJKEJ ECUG \ Z D[ VJG KPFWEVKQP J[RQVJGUKU QT GNUG [ Z CPF
*GTG VJG HQTOWNC QP YJKEJ QPG KU FQKPI KPFWEVKQP M VJG φ HQT YJKEJ QPG YQWNF PGGF VJG
KPFWEVKQP CZKQO
+ CDQXG M KU VJG SWCPVKHKGTHTGG HQTOWNC τ
Z [ \ FKURNC[GF KP
6 +V KU
KORQTVCPV VQ PQVG VJCV GXGP VJQWIJ KP VJG GPF QPG KU RTQXKPI C WPKXGTUCN IGPGTCNK\CVKQP
∀Z∀[∀\τ
Z [ \ QPG KU PQV FQKPI KPFWEVKQP QP ∀[∀\τ
Z [ \ 6JCV KU VQ UC[ KP UJQYKPI
HQT RCTVKEWNCT XCNWGU QH VJG RCTCOGVGTU [ CPF \ VJCV
6 JQNFU HQT Z KH KV JQNFU HQT Z QPG
VJCV CP[ NCYU α W αP VJCV EQWNF DG RTQXGF D[ SWCPVKHKGTHTGG KPFWEVKQP VJG RTQQH HQT
αK RGTJCRU WUKPI αL HQT L K 3 RNWU VJG αK ECP DG KPVGTRTGVGF KP 3 +P HCEV JG RWUJGF VJKU
HWTVJGT VQ CNNQY C OQTG IGPGTCN MKPF QH KPFWEVKQP PCOGN[ HQT DQWPFGF QT ∆ HQTOWNCU
6JG VJGQT[ EQPUKUVKPI QH 3 QT GSWKXCNGPVN[ 3 RNWU CNN ∆KPFWEVKQP CZKQOU KU
ECNNGF KP VJG NKVGTCVWTG +∆ QT +Σ QT +Π D[ UQOG CPF 2(# HQT RQN[PQOKCN HWPEVKQPCN
LWUV FGUETKDGF KU UQOGVKOGU ECNNGF VJG NQECN KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ QH VJKU VJGQT[ KP 3 #NGZ
9KNMKG RTQXGF VJG INQDCN KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ QH VJKU VJGQT[ KP 3 6JCV KU JG UJQYGF VJCV QPG
VJG UCOG NGXGN KP VJG UECNG QH VJGQTKGU CNNWFGF VQ GCTNKGT C NGXGN VJCV HQT QWT RWTRQUGU YKNN
DG VJG DQVVQO NGXGN #NTGCF[ CV VJKU NGXGN OWEJ OQTG ECP DG FQPG VJCP JCU DGGP FGUETKDGF
M 0GNUQP CPF 9KNMKG CNTGCF[ DQVJ IQV QVJGT NCYU DGUKFGU QPGU VJCV CTG VJGQTGOU QH 3
CPF OQTG JCU DGGP FQPG UKPEG M CPF C UKIPKHKECPV COQWPV PQV LWUV QH CTKVJOGVKE DWV QH
CNIGDTC CPF CPCN[UKU ECP DG FQPG 5Q GUVCDNKUJKPI VJCV 3 KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP C IKXGP VJGQT[
KV KU UVKNN C NQPI YC[ WR HTQO VJKU DQVVQO NGXGN GXGP VQ VJG NGXGN QH HKTUVQTFGT 2GCPQ
CTKVJOGVKE
YKNN ECNN 3 D[ CFFKPI ↑ YKVJ VJG TGEWTUKQP GSWCVKQPU HQT GZRQPGPVKCVKQP PCOGN[
3 Z ↑
3 Z ↑ [
Z ↑ [ ⋅ Z
3 KU C XGTUKQP QH YJCV JCU DGGP ECNNGF -CNOCT CTKVJOGVKE PQYCFC[U WUWCNN[ ECNNGF
+∆
GZR QT UQOGVKOGU '(# HQT GZRQPGPVKCN HWPEVKQPCN CTKVJOGVKE 0QVG VJCV QP CFFKPI
VJG U[ODQN ↑ VQ VJG NCPIWCIG YG IGV PGY HQTOWNCU KPENWFKPI PGY DQWPFGF HQTOWNCU
CPF JGPEG PGY KPUVCPEGU QH ∆KPFWEVKQP 7UKPI VJGUG KPUVCPEGU VJG WUWCN NCYU QH
∀[
θ↑
C D [ ↔ [ E
*GTG C CPF D CPF E CTG VJG HQTOCN PWOGTCNU HQT C CPF D CPF E
PCOGN[ KU KU KU
CPF UQ QP 9JCV 3 ECPPQV RTQXG KU VJG HQNNQYKPI GZKUVGPEG CPF WPKSWGPGUU NGOOC HQT
GZRQPGPVKCVKQP
GZR ∀Z∀[∃!\ θ↑
Z [ \
'ZKUVGPEG ECWUGU OQTG VTQWDNG VJCP WPKSWGPGUU +V KU PQV UVTKEVN[ PGEGUUCT[ VQ CFF VJG
KPVGTRTGVCDNG +PXGTUGN[ VJGTG KU VJG QRVKQP QH KPVTQFWEKPI OQTG U[ODQNU UWEJ CU HQT VJG
[ [ ⋅ [
6JG U[UVGO YKVJ VJG PGY U[ODQN CPF CZKQOU KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP VJG U[UVGO 3 YKVJQWV
#FFKPI UWRGTGZRQPGPVKCVKQP YKVJ VJG U[ODQN ⇑ CPF VJG TGEWTUKQP GSWCVKQPU HQT KV
RTQFWEGU 3 6JKU OKIJV DG ECNNGF )GPV\GP CTKVJOGVKE PQV DGECWUG VJG RTQQH VJGQTKUV
)GTJCTF )GPV\GP OCFG C URGEKCN UVWF[ QH KV DWV HQT CPQVJGT TGCUQP + UJQWNF RCWUG VQ
O
VJGQTGO KP C VJGQT[ QH CTKVJOGVKE 0GNUQP U URGEKCN KPVGTGUV YCU KP HQTOCNK\KPI TGUWNVU
VGFKQWU
.CU\NQ -CNOCT KPVTQFWEGF C U[UVGO NKMG 3 RTGEKUGN[ KP QTFGT VQ C JCXG YGCM
EQPVGZV KP YJKEJ VJG )ÑFGN RTQQH EQWNF DG HQTOCNK\GF /CP[ QVJGT RTQQHVJGQTGVKE
O
*QYGXGT )GPV\GP U MG[ TGUWNV VJG EWVGNKOKPCVKQP VJGQTGO YJKEJ KU VJG EQTPGTUVQPG QH
JKIJGT RTQQH VJGQT[ VWTPU QWV VQ TGSWKTG 3 1VJGT PCOGU HQT 3 CTG +∆
UWRGTGZR QT
5'(# HQT UWRGTGZRQPGPVKCN HWPEVKQPCN CTKVJOGVKE #ICKP QPG JCU VJG QRVKQP QH QOKVVKPI
VJG U[ODQN ⇑ CPF KPXGTUGN[ VJG QRVKQP QH CFFKPI EGTVCKP QVJGT U[ODQNU HQT EGTVCKP QVJGT
TGEWTUKXG HWPEVKQPU
%QPVKPWKPI QP KP VJKU YC[ YG IGV 3 3 3 CPF UQ QP CPF VJGKT WPKQP 3ω
YJKEJ HQT TGCUQPU VJCV YKNN DGEQOG CRRCTGPV KP C OQOGPV + YKNN ECNN )T\GIQTE\[M
CTKVJOGVKE #ICKP QPG JCU VJG QRVKQP QH QOKVVKPI VJG U[ODQNU ↑ ⇑ W QT KPXGTUGN[ QH
CFFKPI U[ODQNU HQT EGTVCKP QVJGT TGEWTUKXG HWPEVKQPU PCOGN[ VJQUG HQT YJKEJ VJG
CPCNQIWG QH
GZR ECP DG RTQXGF 6JGUG CTG D[ C TGUWNV GUUGPVKCNN[ FWG VQ #PFT\GL
DWV VQ CNNQY KPFWEVKQP HQT C NCTIGT ENCUU QH HQTOWNCU +V KU C NCY QH IGPGTCN NQIKE VJCV GXGT[
+PUVGCF QH CNNQYKPI KPFWEVKQP QPN[ HQT ∆ HQTOWNCU QPG OC[ EQPUKFGT CNNQYKPI
KPFWEVKQP HQT Σ HQTOWNCU VJWU RTQFWEKPI 2CTUQPU CTKVJOGVKE CU + ECNN KV QT +Σ 7UKPI
ΣKPFWEVKQP KV KU RQUUKDNG VQ RTQXG VJG GZKUVGPEG CPF WPKSWGPGUU CUUWORVKQP HQT
GZRQPGPVKCVKQP CPF KPFGGF VJG CPCNQIQWU CUUWORVKQP HQT UWRGTGZRQPGPVKCVKQP
UWRGTFWRGTGZRQPGPVKCVKQP CPF UQ QP CPF OQTG IGPGTCNN[ HQT CNN RTKOKVKXG TGEWTUKXG
RTQXGF D[ %JCTNGU 2CTUQPU +P RCTVKEWNCT QPG FQGU PQV IGV CP[ TGEWTUKXG HWPEVKQPU
VJCV KU PQV RTKOKVKXG TGEWTUKXG +V JCU XCTKCPV RTGUGPVCVKQPU QPG QH YJKEJ CU HQNNQYU 9TKVG
=[? HQT VJG [VJ QRGTCVKQP KP VJG UGTKGU
⋅ ↑ ⇑ W CPF EQPUKFGT VJG HWPEVKQP C
Z [ \
Z =[? \ 6JKU HWPEVKQP KU TGEWTUKXG DWV PQV RTKOKVKXG TGEWTUKXG +H QPG VTKGU VQ HQTOCNK\G VJG
RTQQH QH VJG GZKUVGPEG CPF WPKSWGPGUU CUUWORVKQP HQT VJKU #EMGTOCPP HWPEVKQP QPG HKPFU
GXGT[ HQTOWNC DGKPI NQIKECNN[ GSWKXCNGPV VQ C Σ PHQTOWNC HQT UQOG P M QPG IGVU VJG
VWTP CDQXG YJKEJ WUWCNN[ RNC[U C RTQOKPGPV TQNG KP VGZVDQQM RTGUGPVCVKQPU QH VJG )ÑFGN
+P RCTVKEWNCT VJQWIJ KV KU QUVGPUKDN[ CDQWV PCVWTCN PWODGTU QPN[ VJG VJGQT[ QH VJG
O
KPVGIGTU CPF TCVKQPCN PWODGTU ECP DG FGXGNQRGF KP 2 +P %CPVQT U VJGQT[ QH VTCPUHKPKVG
ECTFKPCNU VJG UOCNNGUV ℵ FGHKPGF CU VJG PWODGT QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU KU UJQYP VQ DG CNUQ
VJG PWODGT QH KPVGIGTU QH TCVKQPCN PWODGTU CPF QH HKPKVG UVTKPIU HTQO C HKPKVG CNRJCDGV QH
U[ODQNU COQPI QVJGT GZCORNGU +P GCEJ ECUG VJG RTQQH RTQEGGFU D[ GZRNKEKVN[ GZJKDKVKPI
KVGO $[ TGRNCEKPI VJG QTKIKPCN KVGOU YKVJ VJGKT EQFG PWODGTU VJGQTKGU QH KPVGIGTU QH
TCVKQPCN PWODGTU CPF QH HKPKVG UVTKPIU QH U[ODQNU ECP DG KPVGTRTGVGF KP HKTUVQTFGT 2GCPQ
CTKVJOGVKE 2 6Q QDVCKP UVTQPIGT VJGQTKGU KP YJKEJ VJG VJGQT[ QH VJG TGCN PWODGTU ECP DG
FGXGNQRGF YG YKNN JCXG VQ OQXG DG[QPF VJG NCPIWCIG QH CTKVJOGVKE KP YJKEJ CNN VJGQTKGU
O
#PQVJGT ETWEKCN VTCPUHKPKVG ECTFKPCN KP %CPVQT U VJGQT[ KU c ℵ FGHKPGF CU VJG
PWODGT QH UGVU QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU CPF UJQYP CNUQ VQ DG VJG PWODGT QH TGCN PWODGTU
QT
CU YGNN CU VJG PWODGT QH KPHKPKVG UGSWGPEGU 〈# # # W 〉 QH UGVU QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU QT
QH TGCN PWODGTU QT QH EQORNGZ PWODGTU 9JKNG VJGTG CTG OQTG UGVU QH TGCN PWODGTU CPF
HWPEVKQPU QP TGCN PWODGTU VJCP TGCN PWODGTU OCVJGOCVKECN CPCN[UKU VJG DTCPEJ QH
OCVJGOCVKEU VJCV DGIKPU YKVJ FKHHGTGPVKCN CPF KPVGITCN ECNEWNWU KU IGPGTCNN[ EQPEGTPGF
NGUU YKVJ CTDKVTCT[ UGVU QH CPF HWPEVKQPU QP TGCN PWODGTU VJCP YKVJ URGEKCN QPGU UWEJ CU
YJCV CTG ECNNGF QRGP UGVU CPF EQPVKPWQWU HWPEVKQPU CPF QH VJGUG VJGTG CTG PQ OQTG VJCP
VJGTG CTG TGCN PWODGTU #ICKP GCEJ RTQQH RTQEGGFU D[ GZRNKEKVN[ GZJKDKVKPI C QPGVQQPG
PWODGTU KPHKPKVG UGSWGPEGU QRGP UGVU EQPVKPWQWU HWPEVKQPU CPF OQTG CPF VQ KPVGTRTGV
VJGQTKGU QH UWEJ KVGOU KP UGEQPFQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE 2# QT 2 YJKEJ U[UVGO
%# ∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ φ
Z
+ : ∀Z
:Z → :Z → ∀Z:Z
VQ UVTQPIGT VJGQTKGU $WV DGHQTG FGUETKDKPI VJG U[UVGOU VJG XCTKQWU ENCUUGU QH HQTOWNCU
(QTOWNCU YKVJ QPN[ HKTUVQTFGT SWCPVKHKGTU CTG ECNNGF ∆ QT CTKVJOGVKECN (QTOWNCU
JKGTCTEJ[ 6JGUG CTG VJG HKTUV VYQ NGXGNU QH VJG -NGGPG JKGTCTEJ[ QH HQTOWNCU QH
JKIJGTQTFGT CTKVJOGVKE CPF VJG QPN[ VYQ NGXGNU VJCV YKNN EQPEGTP WU JGTG 7PFGT OKPKOCN
1H URGEKCN KPVGTGUV CTG HKXG VJGQTKGU UKPINGF QWV D[ (TKGFOCP CPF KPVGPUKXGN[
UVWFKGF D[ 5KORUQP CPF JKU UEJQQN + YKNN UKORN[ ECNN VJG U[UVGOU ( ( ( ( ( 6JG[
CTG MPQYP KP VJG NKVGTCVWTG CU 4%# 9-. #%# #64 Π %# 'CEJ TGRNCEGU
FKHHGTGPV DWV GSWKXCNGPV CZKQOCVK\CVKQPU YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ UGXGTCN FKHHGTGPV DWV GSWKXCNGPV
TGRNCEGOGPVU HQT
%# 6JG UKORNGUV VQ RTGUGPV CTG VJG HQNNQYKPI YJGTGKP φ UVCPFU HQT
CP[ DQWPFGF HQTOWNC CPF φ HQT CP[ CTKVJOGVKECN HQTOWNC CPF HQT P VYQ
( ∀Z
∃[φ
Z [ ↔ ∀[ψ
Z [ → ∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ ∃[φ
Z [
( `∃Z
∀[φ
Z [ ∀[ψ
Z [ →
∃:
∀Z
∀[φ
Z [ → :Z ∀Z
∀[ψ
Z [ → `:Z
(C ∃:∀Z
Z ↔ ∃[φ
Z [
(D ∃:∀Z
Z ↔ φ
Z
( `∃Z
∃;φ
Z ; ∃;ψ
Z ; →
∃:
∀Z
∃;φ
Z ; → :Z ∀Z
∃;ψ
Z ; → `:Z
( ∃:∀Z
Z ↔ ∀;φ
Z ;
6Q FGUETKDG VJGUG CZKQOU KP YQTFU ( CUUGTVU VJG GZKUVGPEG QH CP[ UGV VJCV ECP DG
FGHKPGF DQVJ D[ C Σ CPF D[ C Π HQTOWNC YJKEJ HQT HQTOWNCU YKVJQWV UGEQPFQTFGT
RCTCOGVGTU VWTP QWV VQ DG RTGEKUGN[ VJG TGEWTUKXG UGVU #P CNVGTPCVG PCOG KU ∆ %# +P
( CP[ Π HQTOWNCU VJCV CTG FKULQKPV KP VJG UGPUG VJCV VJGTG KU PQVJKPI HQT YJKEJ VJG[
DQVJ JQNF ECP DG UGRCTCVGF D[ UQOG UGV : KP VJKU ECUG VJG : CUUGTVGF VQ GZKUV KU PQV
FGUETKDGF D[ CP[ RCTVKEWNCT HQTOWNC #P CNVGTPCVG PCOG KU Π 52 YKVJ 52 UVCPFKPI HQT
QUGRCTCVKQP RTKPEKRNGR ( CUUGTVU VJG GZKUVGPEG QH CP[ UGV VJCV ECP DG FGHKPGF D[ C Σ
HQTOWNC YJKEJ HQT HQTOWNCU YKVJQWV UGEQPFQTFGT RCTCOGVGTU VWTP QWV VQ DG RTGEKUGN[ VJG
TGEWTUKXGN[ GPWOGTCDNG UGVU DWV CNNQYKPI VJG GZKUVGPEG QH UWEJ UGVU VWTPU QWV VQ DG
GSWKXCNGPV VQ CNNQYKPI VJG GZKUVGPEG QH CP[ UGV VJCV ECP DG FGHKPGF D[ CP CTKVJOGVKECN
HQTOWNC YJKEJ HQT HQTOWNCU YKVJQWV UGEQPFQTFGT RCTCOGVGTU CTG VJG CTKVJOGVKECN UGVU
VJWU IKXKPI RTGEKUGN[ VJG UKORNG RTGFKECVKXG OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT GZVGPUKQP QH HKTUVQTFGT
2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE #NVGTPCVG PCOGU CTG Σ %# CPF ∆ %# ( KU CPCNQIQWU VQ (
CPF CP CNVGTPCVG PCOG KU Σ 52 CPCNQIQWU VQ Π 52 ( QT Π %# CUUGTVU VJG
6JGTG CTG UGXGTCN TGCUQPU YJ[ VJGUG RCTVKEWNCT U[UVGOU QWV QH CNN VJG UWDU[UVGOU
VJGQTGO QH CPCN[UKU KU PQV RTQXCDNG KP ( DWV JCU C PCVWTCN RTQQH KP QPG QH VJG JKIJGT (K KV
XGT[ QHVGP VWTPU QWV VJCV CFFKPI VJG VJGQTGO VQ ( GPCDNGU QPG VQ RTQXG VJG EJCTCEVGTKUVKE
CZKQO QH (K 6JG RTCEVKEG QH RTQXKPI CZKQOU HTQO VJGQTKGU KP VJKU YC[ KU ECNNGF TGXGTUG
OCVJGOCVKEU 6JG HCEV VJCV UWEJ TGXGTUCNU CTG RQUUKDNG UJQYU VJCV VJG (K TGRTGUGPV TCVJGT
OCVJGOCVKEU KP VJG HQNNQYKPI UGPUG (QT GCEJ QH VJG UEJQQNU KP SWGUVKQP VJGTG KU C U[UVGO
VJCV KU IGPGTCNN[ CEEGRVGF CU HQTOCNK\KPI LWUV YJCV KU FKTGEVN[ LWUVKHKCDNG HTQO VJG RQKPV QH
XKGY QH VJCV UEJQQN 6JGUG U[UVGOU CTG PQV HKTUVQTFGT VJGQTKGU $WV KP GCEJ ECUG QPG QH
VJG (K KU TGFWEKDNG VQ VJG U[UVGO KP SWGUVKQP +P RCTVKEWNCT HQT Π HQTOWNCU ( KU
EQPUGTXCVKXG QXGT ( YJKEJ KP VWTP KU EQPUGTXCVKXG QXGT +Σ YJKEJ KP VWTP KU EQPUGTXCVKXG
O
QXGT 3ω CPF *KNDGTV U RTQITCO QH TGFWEVKQP VQ HKPKVKUV OCVJGOCVKEU ECP DG ECTTKGF QWV
O
5JQGPHKGNF U VJGQTGO 6JKU VJGQT[ KU UVTKEVN[ UVTQPIGT VJCP ( CU 2 KU UVTKEVN[ UVTQPIGT
VJCP +Σ +V KU CNUQ MPQYP VJCV ( KU UVTKEVN[ UVTQPIGT VJCP ( CPF ( UVTKEVN[ UVTQPIGT
VJCP (
$G[QPF ( Π %# VJGTG GZVGPFU C UGTKGU QH UVTQPIGT CPF UVTQPIGT VJGQTKGU
ΠP −%# NGCFKPI WR VQ HWNN ENCUUKECN CPCN[UKU 2 +V OC[ DG OGPVKQPGF VJCV VJQWIJ
QHHKEKCNN[ YG JCXG VCMGP 2 VQ DG C OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT VJGQT[ YKVJ
CPF ⋅ CU
RTKOKVKXGU UKPEG C EQFKPI QH RCKTU ECP DG FGHKPGF WUKPI
CPF ⋅ VJWU IKXKPI WU VJG GHHGEV
UGEQPFQTFGT VJGQT[ YKVJ LWUV CPF CPF YKVJ LWUV VJG 2GCPQ RQUVWNCVGU YJKEJ KU VQ UC[
KPFWEVKQP RNWU
3 CPF
3 UKPEG KP VJKU VJGQT[
CPF ⋅ ECP DG FGHKPGF D[ &GFGMKPFOU
VJGQTGO
NQIKE ECP CEVWCNN[ DG UKOWNCVGF D[ OQPCFKE VJKTFQTFGT NQIKE UQ VJCV YG ECP FKURGPUG
YKVJ
CPF ⋅ CU RTKOKVKXGU 6JG UGTKGU QH PVJ QTFGT CTKVJOGVKEU 2P NGCFU WR VQ 2ω YKVJ PVJ
QTFGT XCTKCDNGU HQT CNN P CPF VJKU KU GUUGPVKCN VJG UKORNG VJGQT[ QH V[RGU YKVJ VJG CZKQO QH
&GFGMKPF KPHKPKV[ 6JG PCOG 2/ KU UQOGVKOGU CVVCEJGF VQ VJKU VJGQT[ VJQWIJ VJG CEVWCN
O
4WUUGNN U UQNWVKQP VQ JKU RCTCFQZ TCVJGT FKHHGTGPV
6WTPKPI PQY HTQO CPCN[UKU VQ UGV VJGQT[ VJG OQUV YKFGN[ CEEGRVGF U[UVGO QH
CZKQOCVKE UGV VJGQT[ KU ECNNGF <(% +V KU C HKTUVQTFGT VJGQT[ YKVJ C UKPING PQPNQIKECN
U[ODQN VJG VYQRNCEG TGNCVKQP U[ODQN ∈ 6JGTG KU PQ U[ODQN HQT UGVJQQF DGECWUG KV KU
CUUWOGF KP VJG VJGQT[ VJCV GXGT[ QDLGEV KU C UGV #EEQTFKPIN[ VJG CZKQO QH GZVGPUKQPCNKV[
KU HQTOWNCVGF CU KP VJG VQR NKPG QH 6#$.' & 6JG UWDU[UVGO < QH <GTOGNQ UGV VJGQT[ JCU
D[ GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ 9G VJGP IKXG VJG WUWCN PCOGU VQ VJG Z KPXQNXGF ∅ HQT VJG PWNN UGV
CZKQOU KORN[ VJG GZKUVGPEG QH VJG UKPINGVQP ]W_ ]W W_ VJG QTFGTGF RCKT 〈W X〉
]]W_ ]W X__ VJG
UKORNG WPKQP W ∪ X ∪]W X_ VJG CFLWPEVKQP W @ [ W ∪ ][_ CPF UQ
5GRCTCVKQP KU UQ ECNNGF DGECWUG KV CNNQYU WU VQ UGRCTCVG QWV HTQO CP[ UGV W VJQUG
QWV HTQO CP[ UGV Z HQT YJKEJ VJG EQPFKVKQP QH VJG CZKQO QH KPHKPKV[ JQNFU VJG UGV QH CNN KVU
GNGOGPVU [ VJCV DGNQPI VQ GXGT[ UGV HQT YJKEJ VJCV EQPFKVKQP JQNFU VQ QDVCKP VJG WPKSWG
EQWPVGF COQPI VJG QHHKEKCN CZKQOU VJQWIJ WUWCNN[ KV KU KV PGGF PQV FGVCKP WU CV RTGUGPV
6JG UWDU[UVGO <( QH <GTOGNQ(TCPMGN UGV VJGQT[ CFFU C HWTVJGT CZKQO TGRNCEGOGPV
YJKEJ KP HCEV CFOKVU UGXGTCN FKHHGTGPV HQTOWNCVKQPU CNN GSWKXCNGPV KP VJG RTGUGPEG QH VJG
QVJGT CZKQOU CPF UQOG UWEJ CU VQ OCMG UGRCTCVKQP TGFWPFCPV (QT VJG RTGUGPV YG OC[
CFQRV VJG XGTUKQP UJQYP KP VJG VCDNG 4GRNCEGOGPV KU UQ ECNNGF DGECWUG KV CNNQYU WU
YJGPGXGT C EQPFKVKQP ψ
X Y CUUQEKCVGU VQ GXGT[ X UQOG WPKSWG Y Xψ VQ TGRNCEG CNN VJG
GNGOGPVU X KP C UGV W D[ VJG CUUQEKCVGF Xψ VQ HQTO C UGV ]Xψ X ∈ W_ 6JG HWNN U[UVGO <(%
CFFU VJG CZKQO QH EJQKEG #% YJKEJ PGGF PQV EQPEGTP WU CV RTGUGPV
℘
ω VQ KPFKECVG TGRNCEKPI VJG IGPGTCN
KPFKECVG FTQRRKPI VJG RQYGT UGV CZKQO CPF
RQYGT UGV CZKQO D[ C YGCMGT CZKQO IWCTCPVGGKPI VJG GZKUVGPEG QH VJG RQYGT UGV QH ω 9G
OC[ YTKVG ℘
W HQT ℘
℘
W CPF UKOKNCTN[ ℘P
W HQT P CPF OC[ WUG VJG PQVCVKQP
℘P
ω #NVGTPCVKXGN[ YG OC[ YTKVG i VQ KPFKECVGF FTQRRKPI VJG KPHKPKV[ CZKQO
9G OC[ CNUQ KPVTQFWEG CU CDDTGXKCVKQPU DQWPFGF SWCPVKHKGTU YTKVKPI
∀[ ∈ Z
W HQT ∀[
[ ∈ Z → W
∃[ ∈ Z
W HQT ∃[
[ ∈ Z W
#PCNQIQWU VQ VJG CTKVJOGVKECN CPF CPCN[VKECN JKGTCTEJKGU VJGTG KU VJG .GX[ JKGTCTEJ[ QH
HQTOWNCU QH UGV VJGQT[ 6JQUG YKVJ QPN[ DQWPFGF SWCPVKHKGTU CTG ECNNGF DQWPFGF QT ∆ QT
Σ QT Π 2TGHKZKPI GZKUVGPVKCN
TGURGEVKXGN[ WPKXGTUCN SWCPVKHKGTU IKXGU Σ
TGURGEVKXGN[
Π HQTOWNCU CPF VJG JKGTCTEJ[ EQPVKPWGU YKVJ ΣP
CPF ΠP HQT P KP VJG QDXKQWU YC[
# UWDUETKRV P QP < YKNN KPFKECVG TGUVTKEVKPI UGRCTCVKQP VQ ΣP HQTOWNCU φ CPF C UWDUETKRV P
QP <( YKNN KPFKECVG UKOKNCTN[ TGUVTKEVKPI TGRNCEGOGPV CU YGNN
PQV PGGF TGRNCEGOGPV VQ KPVGTRTGV 2P KP UGV VJGQT[ DWV FQ IGV TGRNCEGOGPV YJGP YG
KPVGTRTGV UGV VJGQT[ KP 2P < KU UNKIJVN[ UVTQPIGT VJCP VJG UKORNG VJGQT[ QH V[RGU 2ω <( KU
EQPUKFGTCDN[ UVTQPIGT VJCP < VJQWIJ QPG JCU VQ NQQM NQPI CPF JCTF VQ HKPF CP[ VJGQTGO QH
KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP <( KVUGNH 0QVCDN[ D[ TGUWNVU QH 2CWN %QJGP CUUWOKPI <( KU EQPUKUVGPV
#% KU PQV C VJGQTGO QH KV 0QT KU VJG EQPVKPWWO J[RQVJGUKU %* CUUGTVKPI VJCV VJG PWODGT
c QH TGCN PWODGTU KU VJG PGZV NCTIGT ECTFKPCN ℵ CHVGT VJG PWODGT ℵ QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU C
VJGQTGO QH <(% <(
#% 0QT KU KVU IGPGTCNK\CVKQP )%* C VJGQTGO QH <(%
%* 0QT
<( CPF OQTGQXGT KORNKGU )%* JGPEG %* CU YGNN CU #% 6JGUG TGUWNVU CNUQ CRRN[
OWVCVKU OWVCPFKU VQ VJG UWDVJGQTKGU QH < CPF <( EQPUKFGTGF KP VJG RTGEGFKPI RCTCITCRJ
VJGQT[ +P DQVJ VJG RTGFKECVKXG CPF HWNN UGEQPFQTFGT XGTUKQPU VJG UEJGOG QH UGRCTCVKQP KU
5GRCTCVKQP ∃Z∀[
[ ∈ Z ↔ [ ∈ W 7[
#PF UKOKNCTN[ HQT TGRNCEGOGPV /- KU UVTQPIGT VJCP <(% DWV QPN[ UNKIJVN[ UQ
/QTG UKIPKHKECPVN[ UVTQPIGT VJGQTKGU CTKUG YJGP QPG CFFU VQ <(% EGTVCKP JKIJGT
KPHKPKV[ QT NCTIG ECTFKPCN CZKQOU 6JGUG CUUGTV VJG GZKUVGPEG QH UQOG XGT[ NCTIG UGVU
VJGTGD[ KORN[KPI VJG GZKUVGPEG QH UQOG XGT[ NCTIG ECTFKPCN PWODGTU 6JG HQTOWNCVKQP QH
VJGUG ECPFKFCVG CZKQOU KU KP CNN ECUGU TCVJGT VGEJPKECN VJQWIJ KV KU NGCUV UQ KP VJG ECUG QH
FKUVKPEV VJGTG KU UQOG E VJCV KU CP GNGOGPV QH QPG DWV PQV VJG QVJGT QH VJGO CPF VJKU E YKNN
<(%
KH EQPUKUVGPV ECPPQV RTQXG VJCV CP[ PCVWTCN ECPFKFCVG OQFGN KU KPFGGF C
OQFGN QH <(% HQT VJCV YQWNF RTQXG VJCV <(% JCU C OQFGN CPF VJGTGHQTG YQWNF RTQXG
VJCV <(% EQPUKUVGPV CPF PQ EQPUKUVGPV VJGQT[ ECP RTQXG KVU QYP EQPUKUVGPE[ 5KOKNCTN[
YJKNG <(% ECP RTQXG VJCV VJGTG KU C PCVWTCN OQFGN QH <(% KV ECPPQV RTQXG VJCV CP[
PCVWTCN ECPFKFCVG OQFGN QH <(% KU KPFGGF C OQFGN QH <(% 6JG J[RQVJGUKU QH VJG
GZKUVGPEG QH CP KPCEEGUUKDNG ECTFKPCN KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ CPF HQT RTGUGPV RWTRQUGU OC[
UKORN[ DG VCMGP VQ DG VJG J[RQVJGUKU VJCV VJGTG GZKUVU C PCVWTCN OQFGN QH <(% 6JG
ECTFKPCN PWODGT QH UWEJ C UGV KU ECNNGF CP KPCEEGUUKDNG ECTFKPCN 6JG J[RQVJGUKU QH VJG
GZKUVGPEG QH EQHKPCNN[ OCP[ KPCEEGUUKDNG ECTFKPCNU OC[ DG VCMGP VQ DG VJG J[RQVJGUKU VJCV
GXGT[ UGV KU CP GNGOGPV QH UQOG PCVWTCN OQFGN QH <(% 6JG J[RQVJGUKU QH VJG GZKUVGPEG QH
C J[RGTKPCEEGUUKDNG ECTFKPCN OC[ DG VCMGP VQ DG VJG J[RQVJGUKU VJCV VJGTG GZKUVU C PCVWTCN
OQFGN QH <(%
EQHKPCNN[ OCP[ KPCEEGUUKDNGU 6JG ECTFKPCN PWODGT QH UWEJ C UGV KU
NCPIWCIG QH <(% M VJG UGEQPFQTFGT XCTKCDNGU QH <(% CTG PQV PGGFGF UKORN[ VQ VCNM
CDQWV OQFGNU QH UGEQPFQTFGT VJGQTKGU
HKTUV CPF UOCNNGUV QH NCTIG ECTFKPCNU 6JGTG CTG OCP[ NCTIGT NCTIG ECTFKPCNU M UWEJ CU VJG
UQECNNGF KPFGUETKDCDNG ECTFKPCNU QH YJKEJ VJGTG KU C JKGTCTEJ[ QH MKPFU M GXGP COQPI
VJG UQECNNGF UOCNN NCTIG ECTFKPCNU VJQUG YJQUG GZKUVGPEG KU EQPUKUVGPV YKVJ
QT RGTJCRU +
UJQWNF UC[ PQV MPQYP VQ DG KPEQPUKUVGPV YKVJ 8 . 1PG UGEQPFQTFGT UGV VJGQT[ YJQUG
UVTGPIVJ QEEWRKGU C RQUKVKQP KP VJG JKGTCTEJ[ QH KPFGUETKDCDNGU $GTPC[U UGV VJGQT[ $ YKNN
RNC[ C URGEKCN TQNG VQYCTFU VJG GPF QH VJKU OQPQITCRJ DWV + YKNN FGHGT FGUETKRVKQP QH KV
WPVKN VJGP
$G[QPF VJGUG CTG VJG NCTIG NCTIG ECTFKPCNU VJGOUGNXGU FKXKFGF KPVQ VJG OGFKWO
NCTIG ECTFKPCNU 6JG UVTQPIGUV NCTIG ECTFKPCN J[RQVJGUKU QH CNN VJG GZKUVGPEG QH C
4GKPJCTFV ECTFKPCN JCU DGGP UJQYP VQ DG KPEQPUKUVGPV CNN VJG TGUV CTG RTGUWOGF EQPUKUVGPV
D[ UGV VJGQTKUVU VJQWIJ YKVJ FGETGCUKPI EQPHKFGPEG CU QPG IQGU WR VJG UECNG 'CEJ PGY
J[RQVJGUKU KORNKGU PGY VJGQTGOU GZRTGUUKDNG KP VJG NCPIWCIG QH HKTUVQTFGT CTKVJOGVKE CPF
KPFGGF VJGQTGOU GZRTGUUKDNG D[ Π HQTOWNCU
NKOKVGF VJCP QVJGTU CU VQ JQY OWEJ QH ENCUUKECN OCVJGOCVKEU ECP DG FGXGNQRGF YKVJKP
VJGO
2JKNQUQRJKECN6CTIGVUHQT0GQ(TGIGCPKUO
#ICKPUV CP[ NKOKVCVKQPU QP JQY OWEJ OCVJGOCVKEU QPG ECP IGV QP C IKXGP
UC[ VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU KP VJG YC[ VJCV RCTVKEWNCT PGQ(TGIGCP CRRTQCEJ FQGU 9JCV
DGPGHKVU KH CP[ VJGTG CTG YKNN FGRGPF QP VJG FGVCKNU QH VJG RCTVKEWNCT PGQ(TGIGCP UVTCVGI[
KP SWGUVKQP DWV UQOG IGPGTCN TGOCTMU OC[ DG KP QTFGT KP CFXCPEG DGHQTG WPFGTVCMKPI VJG
RTQOKUGF UWTXG[ QH UVTCVGIKGU 6Q DGIKP YKVJ QPG OWUV FKUVKPIWKUJ VYQ MKPFU QH
CFXCPVCIGU VJCV OKIJV DG ENCKOGF HQT C IKXGP PGQ(TGIGCP CRRTQCEJ QT VYQ RTQDNGOU VQ
6JG HKTUV KU VJG KFGPVKV[ RTQDNGO 9JCV CTG PCVWTCN PWODGTU! 6JG UGEQPF KU VJG
KPHQTOCVKQP RTQDNGO *QY ECP YG JCXG MPQYNGFIG QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU! (TGIG CNTGCF[
JKOUGNH JCF DGGP EQPEGTPGF KP JKU QYP YC[ YKVJ DQVJ RTQDNGOU
*KU HCOQWU SWGUVKQP
Q*QY FQ YG MPQY VJG PWODGT VYQ KU PQV ,WNKWU %CGUCT!R EQODKPGU DQVJ RTQDNGOU #PF
GCEJ YCU OCFG VJG VQRKE QH C ENCUUKE RCRGT D[ 2CWN $GPCEGTTCH YJQUG YQTM JCU UGV VJG
CIGPFC HQT OWEJ QH RJKNQUQRJ[ QH OCVJGOCVKEU QXGT VJG RCUV UGXGTCN FGECFGU YKVJ VJG
UVTGUUGF KP $GPCEGTTCH
5WRRQUG C PGQ(TGIGCP FGHKPKVKQP QT EQPUVTWEVKQP JCU DGGP IKXGP HTQO YJKEJ CNN
RTQRGTVKGU QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU PGGFGF HQT RWTRQUGU QH RWTG CPF CRRNKGF OCVJGOCVKEU ECP
DG FGFWEGF 6JGP VJGTG CTG VYQ OQTG ENCKOU VJCV OKIJV DG OCFG HQT VJG FGHKPKVKQP 1PG
YQWNF DG VJG GZGIGVKECN ENCKO VJCV VJG FGHKPKVKQP EQTTGEVN[ UVCVGU YJCV QPCVWTCN PWODGTR
TGCNN[ OGCPV CNN CNQPI QT
KP VJG OCVGTKCN TCVJGT VJCP VJG HQTOCN OQFG YJCV PCVWTCN
PWODGTU TGCNN[ YGTG CNN CNQPI UQ VJCV VJG KFGPVKV[ RTQDNGO KU UQNXGF 6JG QVJGT YQWNF DG
PGQ(TGIGCP FGHKPKVKQP VJGP KV DGEQOGU GCUKGT VQ GZRNCKP JQY YG ECP JCXG MPQYNGFIG QH
6JG GZGIGVKECN CPF GRKUVGOQNQIKECN KUUWGU CTG NCTIGN[ KPFGRGPFGPV QH GCEJ QVJGT
*QY VJGTG OKIJV DG CP CFXCPEG QP VJG GRKUVGOQNQIKECN HTQPV YKVJQWV CP[ RTQITGUU QP
PWODGTU )TQUUN[ QXGTUKORNKH[KPI HQT VJG UCMG QH GZCORNG YG OC[ TGFWEG VJCV JKUVQT[ VQ
LWUV VYQ UVCIGU KPXQNXKPI LWUV VYQ HKIWTGU VJTGG EGPVWTKGU CRCTV ECTVQQP XGTUKQPU QH
1WT ECTVQQP %CTFCPQ DGIKPU YKVJ VJG CNIGDTC QH TGCN PWODGTU JCXKPI U[ODQNU HQT
VJG CFFKVKQP CPF OWNVKRNKECVKQP CPF OCP[ NCYU CDQWV VJGO *G CUUWOGU VJCV CFFKVKQP CPF
OWNVKRNKECVKQP
CPF VJGKT KPXGTUGU UWDVTCEVKQP CPF FKXKUKQP ECP UVKNN DG CRRNKGF CPF YKNN
UVKNN QDG[ VJG UCOG NCYU KH C PGY QDLGEV K VQ DG ECNNGF VJG KOCIKPCT[ WPKV KU CFLQKPGF
CPF CUUWOGF VQ HWNHKNNGF VJG EQPFKVKQP K ⋅ K VJWU QDVCKPKPI C YJQNG U[UVGO QH PGY
QDLGEVU VQ DG ECNNGF VJG EQORNGZ PWODGTU 6JG EQORNGZ PWODGTU UQQP RTQXG VQ DG
CUUWORVKQPU KU QHHGTGF QPG JCU QPN[ KPFWEVKXG GXKFGPEG VJCV VJG EQPENWUKQPU CDQWV TGCN
1WT ECTVQQP *COKNVQP DGIKPU YJGTG %CTFCPQ NGCXGU QHH DWV CVVCEJGU C URGEKCN
∀\
\ EQORNGZ → ∃Z∃[
Z TGCN [ TGCN \ Z
[K
Z
[K
W
XK
Z
W
[
XK
Z
[K ⋅
W
XK
ZW [X
ZX
[WK
*COKNVQP RTQRQUGU VQ FGHKPG VJG EQORNGZ PWODGT Z
[K VQ DG UKORN[ QTFGTGF RCKT 〈Z [〉 QH
TGCN PWODGTU CPF VQ FGHKPG CFFKVKQP CPF OWNVKRNKECVKQP HQT EQORNGZ PWODGTU KP VGTOU QH
\ EQORNGZ ↔ ∃Z∃[
Z TGCN [ TGCN \ 〈Z [〉
〈Z [〉 〈W X〉 〈Z [ W X〉
6JGP
CPF
HQNNQY CPF OQTGQXGT JG KU CDNG VQ UJQY VJCV HTQO VJGO HQNNQY IKXGP
FKURQUKPI QH CP[ KPHQTOCVKQP RTQDNGO CDQWV EQORNGZ PWODGTU QXGT CPF CDQXG VJG
CRRCTGPV YJGP QPG EQPUKFGTU QVJGT YC[U KP YJKEJ *COKNVQP EQWNF JCXG RTQEGGFGF *G
EQWNF JCXG KFGPVKHKGF VJG EQORNGZ PWODGT Z
[K [K
Z YKVJ VJG QTFGTGF RCKT 〈[ Z〉
7UKPI C FKHHGTGPV PQTOCN HQTO VJGQTGO JG EQWNF JCXG KFGPVKHKGF C EQORNGZ PWODGT
T
EQU θ
K UKP θ YKVJ VJG QTFGTGF RCKT 〈T θ〉 UWDLGEV VQ CRRTQRTKCVG TGUVTKEVKQPU QP T CPF
θ QT HQT VJCV OCVVGT YKVJ 〈θ T〉 9KVJ CRRTQRTKCVG OQFKHKECVKQPU QH
CPF
QPG CICKP
IGVU
CPF
CPF VJGPEG CNN QVJGT NCYU QH CP[ KORQTVCPEG
6JG KFGPVKHKECVKQP YKVJ 〈T θ〉 QT 〈θ T〉 KU UQ CTVKHKEKCN VJCV YG OC[ DG UWTG VJCV
O
%CTFCPQ FKF PQV JCXG KV KORNKEKVN[ KP OKPF *COKNVQP U KFGPVKHKECVKQP YKVJ 〈Z [〉 ECPPQV DG
KOOGFKCVGN[ FKUOKUUGF QP ITQWPFU QH CTVKHKEKCNKV[ DWV VJGP PGKVJGT ECP VJG CNVGTPCVKXG
KFGPVKHKECVKQP YKVJ 〈[ Z〉 5KPEG DQVJ KFGPVKHKECVKQPU [KGNF CNN NCYU QH CP[ KORQTVCPEG VQ C
OCVJGOCVKEKCP NKMG %CTFCPQ GXGP DGHQTG TGCFKPI JKU YQTMU YG ECP RTGFKEV VJCV YG YKNN
HKPF YJCV YG FQ HKPF YJGP YG NQQM CV VJGO PCOGN[ VJCV VJGTG KU C EQORNGVG NCEM QH
DG ETGCVKPI C UVTQPI FQWDV YJGVJGT JG OGCPV EQORNGZ PWODGTU VQ DG CP[ UQTV QH QTFGTGF
JCXKPI CP[ URGEKCN QFGHKPKVKQPCNR UVCVWU COQPI VJG \KNNKQP NCYU QH EQORNGZ PWODGTU VJCV
HQNNQY HTQO JKU KPKVKCN CUUWORVKQPU
<GTOGNQOU CPF XQP 0GWOCPPOU FGHKPKVKQPU QH PWODGT HQT VJG FGHKPKVKQPU 〈 〉 CPF 〈 Z [ [ Z 〉
CPF 〈T θ〉 CPF 〈θ T〉 UWDUVKVWVG VJG 2GCPQ RQUVWNCVGU HQT
CPF
CPF [QW JCXG VJG EQTG
O
QH VJG CPVKGZGIGVKECN CTIWOGPV KP $GPCEGTTCH
+H $GPCEGTTCH U CTIWOGPVU CTG
CEEGRVGF QPN[ VYQ QRVKQPU TGOCKP VQ VCMG PCVWTCN PWODGTU CU QDLGEVU UWK IGPGTKU QT VQ
CFQRV VJG UVTWEVWTCNKUV XKGY VQYCTFU YJKEJ $GPCEGTTCH JKOUGNH UGGOU VQ KPENKPG VJCV
CUUGTVKQPU CDQWV QVJGR PCVWTCN PWODGTU CTG TGCNN[ IGPGTCNK\CVKQPU CDQWV CP[ U[UVGO HQT
$GPCEGTTCH FQGU PQV EQPVTCFKEV CP[VJKPI <GTOGNQ ENCKOGF KP FGHKPKPI VJG PWODGT
VYQ VQ DG ]]∅ __ QT CP[VJKPI XQP 0GWOCPP ENCKOGF KP FGHKPKPI VJG PWODGT VYQ VQ DG
]∅ ]∅__ UKPEG PGKVJGT UGV VJGQTKUV GXGT RTGVGPFGF VQ DG FQKPI OQTG VJCP FGHKPKPI
UWTTQICVGU HQT VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU YKVJ CNN VJG KORQTVCPV RTQRGTVKGU VTCFKVKQPCNN[ CUETKDGF
VQ VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU $[ EQPVTCUV (TGIG CPF UQOG PGQ(TGIGCPU FQ UQOGVKOGU YTKVG CU
KH VJG[ YGTG CFXCPEKPI GZGIGVKECN ENCKOU CDQWV YJCV PWODGTU TGCNN[ YGTG CNN CNQPI
O
(TGIG U CVVKVWFG KP VJKU TGICTF KU RW\\NKPI 1P VJG QPG JCPF KV YQWNF UGGO VJCV JG
EQWNF JCTFN[ DG FKUCITGGKPI YKVJ .GKDPK\ QT -CPV QT /KNN QXGT VJG PCVWTG QH MPQYNGFIG QH
PWODGTU TCVJGT VJCP LWUV VCNMKPI RCUV VJGO WPNGUU JG OGCPU D[ QPWODGTR YJCV VJG[ FKF
1P VJG QVJGT JCPF JG KU KPFKHHGTGPV QT QWVTKIJV JQUVKNG VQ RU[EJQNQIKECN CPF JKUVQTKECN
$QODGNNK +P VJG ECUG QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU KV KU WPENGCT YJCV PCOGU UJQWNF DG RWV KP VJG
RNCEG QH VJQUG QH VJG 4GPCKUUCPEG HKIWTGU LWUV OGPVKQPGF +V KU WPENGCT YJQ HKTUV VJQWIJV QH
PWODGTU CU QDLGEVU QH UQOG MKPF CPF WUGF PWOGTCNU CU PQWPU CPF PQV LWUV CU CFLGEVKXGU
$WV ENGCTN[ VJGTG KU PQ QDXKQWU TGCUQP YJ[ C PKPGVGGPVJEGPVWT[ QT NCVGT YQTMGT UJQWNF
ECTG CDQWV TGRTQFWEKPI CNN CURGEVU QH VJG O[UVKECN PQVKQP QH PCVWTCN PWODGT M QT TCVJGT
QH PWODGT UKPEG VJG[ TGEQIPK\GF PQ QVJGT MKPF M QH VJG 2[VJCIQTGCPU UC[ YJQ YGTG
GSWCNN[ VJG HQTGTWPPGTU QH NCVGT PWODGT VJGQT[ CPF NCVGT PWOGTQNQI[ #PF QPEG KV KU
CFOKVVGF VJCV VJG EQOOQPUGPUG GXGT[FC[ PQVKQP QH PCVWTCN PWODGT RTGXCKNKPI D[ VJG
OQFGTP GTC YCU CP CFXCPEG KP UQOG TGURGEVU QP 2[VJCIQTGCP PQVKQPU M \GTQ CPF QPG
JCXKPI DGGP CEEGRVGF CU PWODGTU HQT QPG VJKPI CPF VJG KFGC VJCV GXGP PWODGTU CTG
HGOCNG CPF QFF PWODGTU OCNG JCXKPI DGGP CDCPFQPGF HQT CPQVJGT M VJGTG KU PQ QDXKQWU
TGCUQP YJ[ C UEKGPVKHKE PQVKQP QH PWODGT UJQWNF PQV KP UQOG TGURGEVU TGRTGUGPV CP
CFXCPEG QP CPF VQ VJCV FGITGG C FGRCTVWTG HTQO GXGP OQFGTP NC[ PQVKQPU
PQPURGEKCNKUVU UWTGN[ OWUV CXQKF WUKPI CP[ FGXKEG CU EQPURKEWQWUN[ CTVKHKEKCN CU VJG XQP
0GWOCPP KFGPVKHKECVKQP QH C PCVWTCN PWODGT YKVJ VJG UGV QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU NGUU VJCP KV
TGPQWPEGF CP[ CODKVKQP VQ UQNXG VJG KFGPVKV[ RTQDNGO OC[ OCMG HTGG WUG QH UWEJ FGXKEGU
+ O[UGNH UWDUETKDG VQ VJG UWK IGPGTKU XKGY DWV JCXG PQVJKPI VQ CFF JGTG VQ YJCV
$GPCEGTTCH JCU CTIWGF CICKPUV GZGIGVKECN XKGYU +P VJG UWTXG[ QH PGQ(TGIGCP CRRTQCEJGU
VQ HQNNQY + YKNN CKO VQ OCMG ENGCT HQT GCEJ CRRTQCEJ YJGVJGT QT PQV KV WUGU UWEJ CTVKHKEGU
CU VJG XQP 0GWOCPP QT 9GKPGT-WTCVQYUMK FGHKPKVKQPU DWV YKNN NGCXG VJG TGCFGT VQ LWFIG
6WTPKPI HTQO VJG GZGIGVKECN VQ VJG GRKUVGOQNQIKECN KUUWG VJGTG KU NGUU VQ DG UCKF CV
VJG RTGUGPV JKIJ NGXGN QH IGPGTCNKV[ DWV CV NGCUV KV OC[ DG TGOCTMGF VJCV VJGTG CTG VYQ
ENCUUGU QH TGCFGTU QH YJQO KV ECP DG EQPHKFGPVN[ RTGFKEVGF KP CFXCPEG VJCV VJG[ YKNN PQV
EQOG CYC[ HTQO VJG YQTM QH VJG PGQ(TGIGCPU VJKPMKPI VJCV CTKVJOGVKE JCU DGGP RNCEGF
QP C HKTOGT HQWPFCVKQP #V VJG QPG GZVTGOG VJGTG CTG VJG PQOKPCNKUVU YJQ JCXG DGGP
VJCV VJGTG ECP PGXGT DG CP[ LWUVKHKECVKQP HQT CUUWOKPI QDLGEVU QH C IKXGP MKPF GZKUV WPNGUU
VJQUG QDLGEVU ECP DG UGGP KH PQV CU EJCKTU CPF VCDNGU ECP DG UGGP VJGP CV NGCUV CU RCTVKENGU
KP C ENQWF EJCODGT ECP DG UGGP VJTQWIJ VJGKT GHHGEVU (QT VJGO PQVJKPI VJG PGQ(TGIGCPU
FQ YKNN GXGT DG UWHHKEKGPV HQT PQ PGQ(TGIGCP RTQRQUGU VQ KFGPVKH[ PWODGTU YKVJ CP[VJKPI
XKUKDNG
#V VJG QVJGT GZVTGOG VJGTG CTG VJG RTCIOCVKUVU HQT YJQO EQPXGPVKQP CPF
EQPXGPKGPEG WUCIG CPF WVKNKV[ CTG CNYC[U LWUVKHKECVKQP GPQWIJ (QT VJGO VJG VJGQT[ QH
EQORNGZ PWODGTU YCU CNTGCF[ LWUVKHKGF DGHQTG *COKNVQP D[ KVU UWEEGUUHWN CRRNKECVKQPU
O
6JKU KU PQV VQ FGP[ VJG XCNWG QH *COKNVQP U YQTM YJKEJ PQV QPN[ ENCTKHKGF VJG NQIKECN
UVTWEVWTG QH VJG VJGQT[ QH EQORNGZ PWODGTU M UJQYKPI VJCV GUUGPVKCNN[ GXGT[VJKPI GNUG
HQNNQYU HTQO LWUV QWV QH VJG \KNNKQP NCYU CUUWOGF HQT VJGO M DWV CNUQ UWIIGUVGF
VJTGG
RTCIOCVKUV FQGU FGP[ VJCV VJG XCNWG QH *COKNVQPOU YQTM ECP DG RTQRGTN[ EJCTCEVGTK\GF D[
UC[KPI VJCV JG TCKUGF YJCV JCF DGGP OGTG URGEWNCVKQP VQ VJG NGXGN QH IGPWKPG MPQYNGFIG
5KOKNCTN[ HQT RTCIOCVKUVU VJG VJGQT[ QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU YCU CNTGCF[ LWUVKHKGF DGHQTG
(TGIG CPF PQ YQTM D[ PGQ(TGIGCPU KU PGGFGF HQT RWTRQUGU QH LWUVKHKECVKQP VQFC[ 6JG
O
XCNWG KP PGQ(TGIGCP CPCN[UGU YKNN JCXG VQ NKG CU VJG XCNWG QH *COKNVQP U YQTM NC[
RTQXKFG C LWUVKHKECVKQP VJCV YCU PGGFGF CPF PQV RTGXKQWUN[ CXCKNCDNGM QT OQTG OQFGUVN[
VQ RTQXKFG C LWUVKHKECVKQP VJCP CP[ VJCV YCU RTGXKQWUN[ CXCKNCDNG M YKNN DG VJQUG
DGVVGT
YJQUG QXGTCNN QTKGPVCVKQPU NKG UQOGYJGTG DGVYGGP VJG RQNGU QH PQOKPCNKUOOU KORNCECDNG
RJKNQUQRJGTU YKVJ KPVGTOGFKCVG RQUKVKQPU LWUV JQY QPG QT CPQVJGT RTQRQUCN KPVTQFWEGU
PWODGTU CPF QVJGT OCVJGOCVKECN QDLGEVU OC[ OCMG C UGTKQWU FKHHGTGPEG CU VQ YJCV
$GKPI C RTCIOCVKUV O[UGNH + FQ PQV CITGG VJQWIJ + JCXG PQVJKPI VQ CFF JGTG D[
4QUGP
KP QRRQUKVKQP VQ PQOKPCNKUO +P VJG UWTXG[ VQ HQNNQY QH JQY PWODGTU ECP
DG KPVTQFWEGF QP XCTKQWU MKPFU QH PGQ(TGIGCP CRRTQCEJGU + YKNN PQV DG CTIWKPI VJCV QPG
PWODGTU OCMGU VJCV CRRTQCEJ OQTG QT NGUU CDNG VQ RTQXKFG C LWUVKHKECVKQP HQT CTKVJOGVKE
4CVJGT + YKNN DG UVTKXKPI VQ OCMG ENGCT KP GCEJ ECUG YJCV VJG NQIKECN HGCVWTGU QH VJG
CRRTQCEJ WPFGT EQPUKFGTCVKQP CTG UQ VJCV TGCFGTU OC[ LWFIG VJG GRKUVGOQNQIKECN
TGUVTKEVKQP JG KORQUGF KP JKU VJGQT[ QH V[RGU YCU GUUGPVKCNN[ WPFQPG D[ JKU CZKQO QH TGFWEKDKNKV[
6JKU EJCRVGT KU FGXQVGF VQ PGQ(TGIGCP VJGQTKGU VJCV KORQUG CPF FQ PQV UWDUGSWGPVN[ WPFQ
UGTKQWU RTGFKECVKXKV[ TGUVTKEVKQPU QP VJG CUUWORVKQP QH VJG GZKUVGPEG QH EQPEGRVU DWV VJCV WPNKMG
O
4WUUGNN U U[UVGO HTGGN[ CNNQY VJG GZKUVGPEG QH GZVGPUKQPU HQT VJQUG EQPEGRVU CNNQYGF VQ GZKUV
/KEJCGN &WOOGVV VJG OQUV RTQNKHKE CPF KP OCP[ YC[U VJG OQUV KPHNWGPVKCN HKIWTG KP (TGIG
O
VJG TGCN UQWTEG QH VJG RTQDNGO KP (TGIG U U[UVGO KU VJG CFOKUUKQP QH KORTGFKECVKXG EQORTGJGPUKQP
O
HQT EQPEGRVU 2CTVKCN UWRRQTV HQT &WOOGVV U RQUKVKQP KU UWRRNKGF D[ C TGUWNV QH 6GTGPEG 2CTUQPU
YJQ UJQYGF VJCV FTQRRKPI EQORTGJGPUKQP FQGU TGPFGT (TGIG U U[UVGO EQPUKUVGPV CU JCF
O
HCEV KP KVUGNH KU JCTFN[ UWHHKEKGPV VQ LWUVKH[ &WOOGVV U ENCKO WPNGUU KV ECP DG UJQYP VJCV FTQRRKPI
QT TGUVTKEVKPI EQORTGJGPUKQP FQGU PQV KPVGTHGTG VQQ DCFN[ YKVJ VJG RTQLGEV QH FGTKXKPI VJG DCUKE
O
+P GHHGEV &WOOGVV U ENCKO RTGUGPVU WU YKVJ C EJCNNGPIG VQ FGVGTOKPG LWUV JQY OWEJ
OCVJGOCVKEU ECP DG FQPG KP C RTGFKECVKXG (TGIGCP U[UVGO 6JKU EJCNNGPIG YCU HKTUV VCMGP WR D[
4KEJCTF *GEM
YJQ HQWPF VJCV 3 EQWNF DG KPVGTRTGVGF KP C RTGFKECVKXG XGTUKQP QH (TGIG U O
U[UVGO #P CNVGTPCVKXG FGXGNQROGPV QH C UQOGYJCV NCTIGT HTCIOGPV QH CTKVJOGVKE KP C UQOGYJCV
YGCMGT (TGIGCP U[UVGO YKNN DG RTGUGPVGF JGTG FGTKXKPI HTQO LQKPV YQTM QH VJG CWVJQT YKVJ # 2
*C\GP 1VJGT TGNCVGF RWDNKUJGF YQTM YKNN CNUQ DG UWTXG[GF KP VJG RTGUGPV EJCRVGT CNQPI YKVJ
#5KORNG2TGFKECVKXG6JGQT[
.GV WU DGIKP YKVJ VJG UKORNGUV KOCIKPCDNG MKPF QH RTGFKECVKXG XGTUKQP QH (TGIG U U[UVGO O
9G JCXG VYQ UV[NGU QH XCTKCDNGU Z [ \ W HQT QDLGEVU CPF : ; < W HQT RTGFKECVKXG EQPEGRVU
YG JCXG VJG KFGPVKV[ U[ODQN HQT QDLGEVU CPF VJG GZVGPUKQP U[ODQN U YJKEJ CRRNKGU VQ C
XCTKCDNG QH V[RG : VQ HQTO C VGTO U : VJCV ECP DG UWDUVKVWVGF HQT XCTKCDNGU QH V[RG Z 6JGTG CTG LWUV
VYQ CZKQOU RTGFKECVKXG EQORTGJGPUKQP HQT QPGRNCEG EQPEGRVU QPN[ CPF .CY 8
∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ φ
Z
RTQXKFGF φ
Z EQPVCKPU PQ DQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU
U U : ; ↔ ∀\
:\ ↔ ;\
.GV OG ECNN VJKU U[UVGO 28
YKVJ QR Q
2 HQT RTGFKECVKXG R QR
CPF 8 RTQPQWPEGF Q R
HKXG 9G OC[ VJGP
²[ ↔ ∃;
[ U;
Z ∈ [ ↔ ∃;
[ U ; ;Z
# RQKPV PGGFU VQ DG OCFG JGTG CDQWV VJGUG CDDTGXKCVKQPU JQYGXGT 9JCV VJG RTQXKUQ KP
OGCPU KU VJCV φ
Z KU VQ EQPVCKP PQ DQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU YJGP YTKVVGP QWV KP RTKOKVKXG
PQVCVKQP WPRCEMKPI CNN CDDTGXKCVKQPU %CP φ
Z EQPVCKP GZRTGUUKQPU QH VJG HQTO ]Z ψ
Z_! .GV WU
UGG YJCV JCRRGPU CU YG WPRCEM VJG FGHKPKVKQP QH UC[ C UKPINGVQP CU KV QEEWTU KP C HQTOWNC
φ
]\ \ Z_
C ∃[
[ Un\ \ Z φ
[
D ∃[∃<
∀\
<\ ↔ \ Z [ U < φ
[
HQTDKFFGP DQWPF EQPEGRVXCTKCDNGU 5Q VJG CPUYGT VQ QWT QTKIKPCN SWGUVKQP KU PQ UGV VGTOU
]Z ψ
Z_ OC[ PQV CRRGCT KP φ
Z KP
# TCPM\GTQ UGV VGTO KU QPG QH VJG HQTO ]Z φ(Z_ YJGTG PQ UGV VGTOU CRRGCT KP φ (QT
KPUVCPEG ]Z Z W_ VJG VGTO HQT VJG UKPINGVQP QH W KU UWEJ C VGTO # TCPMQPG UGV VGTO KU QPG QH
]Z φ
Z_ ]Z ψ
Z_ ↔ ∀Z
φ
Z ↔ ψ
Z
$WV YJCV VJG QDUGTXCVKQPU QH VJG RTGEGFKPI RCTCITCRJ UJQY KU VJCV TCPMQPG UGV VGTOU CTG KP
EQPEGRV nZ φ
Z CPF VJGPEG C EQPEGRVGZVGPUKQP QT UGV UnZ φ
Z ]Z φ
Z_
+V IQGU YKVJQWV UC[KPI VJCV YG IGV GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ YJGP UGVU CTG KPVTQFWEGF CU GZVGPUKQPU
9G CNUQ IGV VJG XCTKQWU GZKUVGPEG CZKQOU NKUVGF KP 6#$.' ( (QT KPUVCPEG VJG PWNN UGV YG QDVCKP
CU ][ [ l [_ #FLWPEVKQP YG QDVCKP CU ][ 7[ ∨ [ Z_ YJGTG W U7 6JG TGUV YKNN DG NGHV VQ VJG
TGCFGT
'ZCEVN[ JQY OWEJ UGV VJGQT[ YG IGV KP VJKU YC[ ECP DG FGUETKDGF WUKPI VJG
.ÑYGPJGKO$GJOCPP VJGQTGO 6JKU VJGQTGO KU QHVGP SWQVGF UKORN[ CU UC[KPI VJCV VJGTG KU CP
GHHGEVKXG RTQEGFWTG VQ FGEKFG HQT C IKXGP HQTOWNC QH OQPCFKE HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE YKVJ KFGPVKV[ M
HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE YKVJ PQ HWPEVKQP U[ODQNU CPF CNN TGNCVKQP U[ODQNU QPGRNCEG GZEGRV HQT VJG
.GV W TGRTGUGPV C HKPKVG UVTKPI QH XCTKCDNGU W W W WT CPF UKOKNCTN[ 2 C HKPKVG UVTKPI QH
QPGRNCEG TGNCVKQP U[ODQNU 2 2 W 2U 6JG VJGQTGO UC[U VJCV KH φ
W2
KU C HQTOWNC QH
OQPCFKE HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE YKVJ PQ TGNCVKQP U[ODQNU DWV 2 CPF PQ HTGG XCTKCDNGU DWV VJG WK HQT
GCEJ WK CPF WL GZCEVN[ QPG QH WK WL QT WK l WL 5GEQPF GCEJ KPENWFGU HQT GCEJ WK CPF 2L GZCEVN[
QPG QH 2LWK QT `2LWK 6JKTF GCEJ KPENWFGU HQT GCEJ QH VJG U RQUUKDNG EQODKPCVKQPU
`2X W
`2UX
YJGTG VJG PGICVKQP U[ODQN OC[ DG RTGUGPV QT CDUGPV KP HTQPV QH GCEJ QH VJG U TGNCVKQP U[ODQNU C
UVCVGOGPV CDQWV VJG PWODGT QH X FKUVKPEV HTQO CNN VJG WK HQT YJKEJ VJKU EQODKPCVKQP JQNFU 6JKU
UVCVGOGPV GKVJGT UC[U VJCV VJGTG CTG GZCEVN[ M UWEJ X HQT UQOG M P QT VJCV VJGTG CTG CV NGCUV P UWEJ
X
*GTG VJG HQTOWNC ∃MX ψ
X GZRTGUUKPI VJCV VJGTG CTG CV NGCUV M QDLGEVU X UWEJ VJCV ψ
Z NQQMU
NKMG VJKU KP VJG ECUGU M CPF M
∃X∃X
ψ
X ψ
X X l X
∃X∃X∃X
ψ
X ψ
X ψ
X X l X X l X X l X
CNN EQPLWPEVKQPU YKNN DG FTQRRGF CPF YG YKNN JCXG CP GORV[ FKULWPEVKQP YJKEJ D[ EQPXGPVKQP YG
VJG RCTCOGVGTU W CPF 9 6JG VJGQTGO VGNNU WU VJCV φ KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ C EQORQWPF QDVCKPGF D[
FKULWPEVKQP EQPLWPEVKQP CPF PGICVKQP HTQO HQTOWNCU PQV OGPVKQPKPI Z HQTOWNCU QH V[RG QT
U
Z X
X Z YJGTG X KU WK QT 9L CPF HQTOWNCU QH V[RG 9LZ &KULWPEVKQP EQPLWPEVKQP CPF PGICVKQP
EQTTGURQPF VQ WPKQP KPVGTUGEVKQP CPF EQORNGOGPV 6JG UGV ]Z ψ_ YJGTG ψ FQGU PQV OGPVKQP Z
KU ∅ QT 8 CEEQTFKPI CU ψ KU HCNUG QT VTWG 6JG UGV ]Z Z X_ QT ]Z X Z_ KU VJG UKPINGVQP ]X_ 6JG
UGV ]Z 9LZ_ KU U
9L 5KPEG KPVGTUGEVKQP KU QDVCKPCDNG HTQO EQORNGOGPV CPF WPKQP GXGT[ UGV YG IGV
HQT YJCVGXGT φ CPF YJCVGXGT XCNWGU QH VJG RCTCOGVGTU KU QDVCKPCDNG HTQO VJG PWNN UGV UKPINGVQPU
]X_ QH QDLGEV RCTCOGVGTU CPF QH GZVGPUKQPU U9 QH EQPEGRVRCTCOGVGTU CPF VJQUG GZVGPUKQPU
VJGOUGNXGU D[ WPKQP CPF EQORNGOGPVCVKQP #NN VJG UGVGZKUVGPEG CZKQOU YG IGV CTG KORNKGF D[
PWNN UGV UKPINGVQP WPKQP CPF EQORNGOGPV # UKOKNCT CPCN[UKU UJQYU VJCV KH YG EQPUKFGTGF CP
YG YQWNF IGV EQWNF DG CZKQOCVK\GF YKVJ PWNN UGV UKPINGVQP RCKT VTKRNG W CPF EQORNGOGPV
0COGU HQT UGXGTCN U[UVGOU KP VJKU CTGC CTG NKUVGF KP 6#$.' ) 2( HQT RTGFKECVKXG (TGIGCP
UGV VJGQT[ CPF 72( HQT WNVTCRTGFKECVKXG (TGIGCP UGV VJGQT[ CTG VJG UGVU VJGQTKGU QDVCKPGF HTQO
28 CPF 728 CU LWUV FGUETKDGF 56 HQT 5\OKGNGY6CTUMK UGV VJGQT[ KU C UWDU[UVGO QH 2(
CFLWPEVKQP DGKPI C EQPUGSWGPEG QH WPKQP CPF UKPINGVQPU CPF 756 C U[UVGO TGNCVGF VQ 72( CU
56 KU TGNCVGF VQ 2( 6JG UVKNN YGCMGT U[UVGO 7756 KU QH KPVGTGUV DGECWUG KH YG CFQRV <GTOGNQ U O
FGHKPKVKQP QH CU ∅ CPF Z CU ]Z_ VJGP KP 7756 YG ECP RTQXG VJG 2GCPQ RQUVWNCVGU QVJGT VJCP
KPFWEVKQP QT YJCV KU VJG UCOG VJKPI VJG HKTUV VYQ CZKQOU
3
3 QH 3 CPF 3 +PXGTUGN[ KH
YG JCXG
3 CPF
3 YG IGV CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH 7756 D[ TGNCVKXK\KPI SWCPVKHKGTU VQ VJG
HQTOWNC Z ∨ ∃[
Z [ CPF FGHKPKPI Z ∈ [ VQ CDDTGXKCVG Z [ #FFKPI OQPCFKE QT F[CFKE
RTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE KU KPFKECVGF D[ RTGHKZKPI 2 QT 2 TGURGEVKXGN[ VQ VJG PCOG QH VJG
VJGQT[ VJQWIJ VJG FKHHGTGPEG DGVYGGP OQPCFKE CPF F[CFKE OCMGU PQ FKHHGTGPEG HQT CP[ U[UVGO
HQT YJKEJ YG JCXG RCKTKPI UKPEG F[CFKE 4 ECP DG UKOWNCVGF D[ OQPCFKE : WUKPI QTFGTGF RCKTU
YJKEJ YG IGV KP VJG WUWCN YC[ HTQO WPQTFGTGF RCKTU .CVGT YG YKNN EQPUKFGT VJG TGUWNV QH CFFKPI
O
<GTOGNQ U CZKQO QH UGRCTCVKQP VQ 56 IKXKPI 56<
6JG TGUWNV HQT 56 KU FWG VQ 9CPFC 5\OKGNGY CPF 6CTUMK CPF KU OGPVKQPGF YKVJQWV RTQQH KP VJG
FKHHGTGPV OGVJQF CPF CU QHVGP JCRRGPU KP UWEJ UKVWCVKQPU VJG PGY RTQQH KU HTQO UQOG RQKPVU QH
XKGY OQTG KPVGTGUVKPI VJCP VJG PGY TGUWNV 6JG UVTGPIVJGPKPI EQPUKUVU KP UJQYKPI VJCV
GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ KU PQV PGGFGF YJKEJ KU UKIPKHKECPV HTQO UQOG RGTURGEVKXGU DWV PQV HTQO VJG
(TGIGCP 6JG OGVJQF KU CP CFCRVCVKQP QH VJG 5QNQXC[0GNUQP OGVJQF QH RTQXKPI QVJGT VJGQTKGU
KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 3 VQ RTQXG 3 KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP QVJGT VJGQTKGU 6JG OGVJQF + WUG KP VJG PGZV UGEVKQP
KU C UKORNKHKECVKQP HQTOWNCVGF UQ CU VQ EQXGT VJG ECUGU QH VJG QVJGT VYQ VJGQTKGU OGPVKQPGF
6JG EQOOQP HGCVWTGU QH VJG VJTGG ECUGU CTG HKTUV VJCV VJG[ CNN IKXG
3 CPF
3 CPF
UGEQPF VJCV GCEJ KP QPG YC[ QT CPQVJGT OCMGU CXCKNCDNG TGNCVKQPU 4 5 6 W UWDLGEV VQ VJG
4 ∃ ∀Z∀[ ` Z[
4 4
4 ∀ ∀W∀X∃ ∀Z∀[
4 5 5Z[ ↔ 4Z[ ∨
Z W [ X
VJCV QTFGT VQ 4 +V YQWNF DG EQPXGPKGPV VQ JCXG KP CFFKVKQP VQ VJG VYQRNCEG 4 UQOG QPGRNCEG :
∃ ∀Z `
: :Z
∀ ∀W∃ ∀Z
: ; ;Z ↔ :Z ∨ Z W
YG KPVGTRTGV :Z CU 4ZZ
+P GHHGEV : KU TGRTGUGPVGF D[ VJG KFGPVKV[ TGNCVKQP QP :
#U VQ JQY YG IGV
4 CPF
4 VJCV FKHHGTU KP VJG VJTGG ECUGU 6JG RCKTKPI CZKQO IKXGU
QTFGTGF RCKTU 〈W X〉 ]]W_ ]W X__ +P 56 YJGTG YG JCXG PWNN UGV CPF CFLWPEVKQP YG ECP VCMG
VJG TGNCVKQPU 4 VQ DG UGVU QH QTFGTGF RCKTU +P 2756 YG ECPPQV UKPEG YG NCEM CFLWPEVKQP DWV YG
ECP VCMG VJG TGNCVKQPU 4 VQ DG RTGFKECVKXG EQPEGRVU WPFGT YJKEJ QTFGTGF RCKTU HCNN +P 27756 YG
JCXG PQ QTFGTGF RCKTU DWV ECP VCMG VJG TGNCVKQPU 4 VQ DG RTGFKECVKXG TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU
+PVGTRTGVKPI#TKVJOGVKE
9JCV YKNN DG UJQYP KP VJKU UGEVKQP KU VJCV KP VJG VYQUQTVGF VJGQT[ YKVJ CZKQOU
3
3
4
4 VJGTG KU HQT UWKVCDNG FGHKPKVKQPU QH CPF
CPF ⋅ C OWNVKRNKECVKXG HQTOWNC φ UWEJ
VJCV GCEJ QH VJG CZKQOU QH 3 JQNFU HQT CNN QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ φ JQNFU 6JG HKTUV VCUM YKNN DG VQ
FGHKPG 6Q VJCV GPF ECNN : TGITGUUKXG KH :Z JQNFU YJGPGXGT :Z FQGU CPF FGHKPG Z \ VQ JQNF KH
CPF QPN[ KH HQT CP[ : KH : KU TGITGUUKXG CPF UWEJ VJCV :[ JQNFU KH [ \ VJGP :Z JQNFU 9G SWKEMN[
3 `Z
3 Z \ ↔Z\∨Z\
(QT
3 EQPUKFGT VJG GORV[ : 6JKU : XCEWQWUN[ HWNHKNNU VJG EQPFKVKQP HQT DGKPI
TGITGUUKXG CPF CNUQ XCEWQWUN[ HWNHKNNU VJG EQPFKVKQP VJCV :[ HQT [ YKVJ [ UKPEG VJGTG CTG PQ
UWEJ [ D[
3 $WV `:Z CPF VJGTGHQTG `Z (QT VJG NGHV VQ TKIJV FKTGEVKQP QH
3 UWRRQUG Z
\ CPF Z l \ CPF NGV : DG TGITGUUKXG CPF UWRRQUG :[ JQNFU KH [ \ #FLQKP \ VQ : QDVCKPKPI ; 6JKU
; HWNHKNNU VJG EQPFKVKQP HQT DGKPI TGITGUUKXG UKPEG VJG QPN[ PGY KVGO KU \ [ CPF YG JCXG :[ D[
l
;
KH W \ UKPEG : FQGU 5KPEG Z \ YG JCXG ;Z CPF UKPEG Z \ VJG QPN[ PGY KVGO YG JCXG :Z
5WRRQUG PQY KPUVGCF Z \ CPF NGV : DG TGITGUUKXG CPF UWEJ VJCV :[ JQNFU KH [ \ UQ :\ JQNFU
Z \
Z m [ ↔ Z [ ∨ Z [
6JGP
3 CPF
3 KOOGFKCVGN[ [KGNF VJG HQNNQYKPI
Z m ↔Z
Z m \ ↔ Z m
\ ∨ Z \
%QPUKFGT PQY VJG KPFWEVKXG RTQQH QH VTCPUKVKXKV[ TGXKGYGF KP VJG FKUEWUUKQP QH U[UVGOU QH
CTKVJOGVKE KP VJG RTGEGFKPI EJCRVGT 9JCV VJKU RTQQH RTQXGU HTQO VJG RTGUGPV RGTURGEVKXG KU VJCV
∀[∀\
\ [ [ Z → \ Z
0QY NGV φ
Z DG CP[ KPFWEVKXG HQTOWNC +V KU GCUKN[ UGGP VJCV VJG EQPLWPEVKQP QH VYQ KPFWEVKXG
HQTOWNCU KU KPFWEVKXG
CPF UKOKNCTN[ HQT QTFGTN[ CFFKVKXG CPF OWNVKRNKECVKXG 5Q KH YG NGV ψ
Z DG
VJG EQPLWPEVKQP QH φ
Z CPF φ
Z VJGP ψ
Z KU KPFWEVKXG .GV WU WUG KP VJG WUWCN YC[ VJG DQWPFGF
SWCPVKHKGTU ∀[ Z CPF ∀[ Z CPF ∃[ Z CPF ∃[ m
Z 0QY NGV φ
Z DG VJG HQTOWNC ∀\ m m Z ψ
\
6TKXKCNN[ φ
Z KORNKGU ψ
Z CPF JGPEG KORNKGU DQVJ φ
Z CPF φ
Z
3 Z ∨ ∃[
[ Z Z [
1DXKQWUN[
3 JQNFU HQT Z 'XGP YKVJQWV CUUWOKPI
3 JQNFU HQT Z
3 JQNFU HQT Z
VCMKPI Z CU [ UKPEG Z Z D[
3 5Q
3 KU KPFWEVKXG *GPEG UQ KU KVU EQPLWPEVKQP ψ YKVJ φ
+H YG NGV φ ψ VJGP φ KORNKGU φ φ KU QTFGTN[ CPF CNN VJG CZKQOU QH 3 FQYP VJTQWIJ
3
GZENWUKXG CU YGNN CU LQKPVN[ GZJCWUVKXG (QT VJG TGOCKPFGT QH VJG RTQQH YG TGUVTKEV QWT CVVGPVKQP VQ
QTFGTN[ QDLGEVU 6JG 'PINKUJ Q CNN QDLGEVU R KU VQ DG WPFGTUVQQF CU GNNKRVKECN HQT QCNN QTFGTN[
R
QDLGEVU VJG HQTOCN ∀Z
W KU VQ DG WPFGTUVQQF CU CP CDDTGXKCVKQP HQT ∀Z
φ
Z → W
9G CTG PQY TGCF[ VQ VCEMNG CFFKVKQP (QT Z FGHKPG C TGNCVKQP 4 VQ DG C EQORWVCVKQP QH UWOU
C ∃X 4 X
D ∀X
4 X → X [
C ∀W
∃Y W Y → ∃X 4 4WX
D ∀W∀Y∀X
W Y 4 4WX → Y X
UWO QH [ YKVJ Z CU X KH HWTVJGT 4ZX &GHKPG Y VQ DG C UWO QH [ YKVJ Z CPF YTKVG Σ[ZY KH VJGTG
GZKUVU C EQORWVCVKQP QH C UWO QH [ YKVJ Z CU Y +H ∃YΣ[ZY YG ECNN VJKU Y VJG UWO [
Z QH [ CPF
Z QVJGTYKUG VJG UWO [
Z KU WPFGHKPGF %CNN Z UWOOCDNG KH ∀[∃YΣ[ZY QT KP QVJGT YQTFU KH HQT
CNN [ VJG UWO [
Z KU FGHKPGF CPF HWTVJGT VJKU UWO KU YJCV KV QWIJV VQ DG D[ YJKEJ + OGCP VJCV YG
C Z →[ Z[
D Z Y → [
Y KU FGHKPGF [
Z
[
Y
UGVVJGQTGVKE CTIWOGPV VJCV GXGT[ Z KU UWOOCDNG WUKPI VJG CTKVJOGVKECN TGUWNVU YG CNTGCF[ JCXG +
YKNN UGV QWV VJG RTQQH KP UQOGYJCV VGFKQWU FGVCKN UQ CU VQ OCMG RNCKP YJCV CUUWORVKQPU CTG WUGF
(QT Z YG JCXG D[
4 CP GORV[ TGNCVKQP ' CPF D[
4 VJG TGUWNV 4 ' [ QH CFLQKPKPI
CPF [ KP VJCV QTFGT VQ KV UQ VJCV YG JCXG 4WX KH CPF QPN[ KH W CPF X [
C CPF
D HQNNQY
KOOGFKCVGN[ CPF
C CPF
D JQNF XCEWQWUN[ UKPEG VJG \GTQ CPF UWEEGUUQT ECUGU CTG GZENWUKXG
TGUWNV 4 5
Z Y
QH CFLQKPKPI Z CPF Y KP VJCV QTFGT VQ UQ VJCV YG JCXG
5 4WX KH CPF QPN[ KH 5WX QT
W Z CPF X Y #PF D[ VJG GZENWUKXGPGUU QH VJG \GTQ CPF UWEEGUUQT ECUGU CPF VJG WPKSWGPGUU
QH RTGFGEGUUQTU KP VJG QPG PGY ECUG W Z CPF X Y VJG HKTUV EQORQPGPV Z KU PQV \GTQ CPF KU PQV
HQNNQYU VJCV
CPF
JQNF HQT YJKEJ VJGTGHQTG KU C EQORWVCVKQP QH C UWO YKVJ QH CU Y
l
4 [ Z
CPF YG JCXG Σ[Z Y /QTGQXGT YG ECPPQV JCXG Σ[Z X HQT CP[ X Y DGECWUG KH 6 KU C
CNUQ C EQORWVCVKQP QH C UWO YKVJ Z QH [ CU UQOGVJKPI W YJKEJ ECP QPN[ DG Y D[ VJG UWOOCDKNKV[
QH Z %NCWUG
D VJGP TGSWKTGU VJCV X W Y 5Q Y KU VJG WPKSWG X UWEJ VJCV Σ[Z X CPF
[
Z Y KP CITGGOGPV YKVJ
D
C JQNFU XCEWQWUN[ 5Q Z KU UWOOCDNG
0QY HQT C ETWEKCN RQKPV YG CTG PQV KP C RQUKVKQP VQ CUUGTV VJCV φ KU CFFKVKXG (QT VJKU
YQWNF TGSWKTG PQV LWUV VJCV VJG UWO [
Z GZKUVU HQT CNN [ CPF Z HQT YJKEJ φ JQNFU DWV CNUQ VJCV VJG
UWO UCVKUHKGU φ $GHQTG YG ECP IGV CFFKVKXKV[ YG YKNN PGGF VQ GUVCDNKUJ VYQ CWZKNKCT[ NCYU VJG
NCY VJCV CFFKVKQP RTGUGTXGU QTFGT CPF VJG NCY VJCV CFFKVKQP KU CUUQEKCVKXG
[ m Z →\ [ m \ Z
\
[
Z KU FGHKPGF \
[
Z
\
[
Z
0QVG VJCV KH φ
Z CPF [ m Z VJGP φ
[ CPF VJGTGHQTG PQV LWUV Z DWV [ CNUQ KU UWOOCDNG CPF VJG
VYQ UWOU OGPVKQPGF KP
GZKUV 0QVG CNUQ VJCV KH φ
Z CPF φ
[ CPF φ
\ UQ VJCV CNN VJTGG CTG
UWOOCDNG VJG UWOU
[
Z CPF
\
[ CPF
\
[
Z CTG CNN FGHKPGF 9G CTG PQV JQYGXGT KP C
UWOOCDNG QT VJCV \
[
Z KU FGHKPGF 6JCV KV KU UQ JCU VQ DG GZRNKEKVN[ UVCVGF KP
CU RCTV QH
YJCV KU VQ DG RTQXGF
(QT
VJG RTQQH HQT VJG DCUG UVGR EQPUKUVU QH UGTKGU QH GSWCVKQPU FGTKXGF HTQO
3 YJKNG VJCV
J[RQVJGUKU VJWU
C
\
[
\
[ \
[
D
\
[
Z
\
[
Z
\
[
Z \
[
Z \
[
Z
+P VJG D[PQY WUWCN OCPPGT VJGUG RTQQHU ECP DG CFCRVGF VQ IKXG WU CP QTFGTN[ φ KORN[KPI φ CPF
CP QTFGTN[ φ KORN[KPI φ UWEJ VJCV HQT QDLGEVU UCVKUH[KPI φ YG JCXG CNN VJG NCYU FGTKXGF UQ HCT
FQYP VJTQWIJ
CPF
ψ
Z ∀\
ψ
\ → ψ
\
Z
6TKXKCNN[ φ
Z KORNKGU ψ
Z CPF JGPEG KORNKGU DQVJ φ
Z CPF φ
Z
+ OCMG HQWT HWTVJGT ENCKOU (KTUV + ENCKO VJCV φ
JQNFU +PFGGF VJG HKTUV EQPLWPEV ψ
JQNFU UKPEG ψ KU KPFWEVKXG CPF VJG UGEQPF EQPLWPEV KU KOOGFKCVG UKPEG HQT CNN \ YG JCXG \
\
D[
3
ψ
Y HQT CP[ Y m \
Z UKPEG ψ KU QTFGTN[ CPF UQ YG JCXG ψ
\
[ UKPEG \
[ m \
Z D[
\
[
Z HTQO φ
Z CPF UQ YG JCXG φ
\
[
Z UKPEG \
[
Z
\
[
Z D[
YJKEJ YG JCXG UKPEG φ
Z KORNKGU φ
Z
6JG VTGCVOGPV QH OWNVKRNKECVKQP YKNN DG IKXGP QPN[ KP QWVNKPG 9G DGIKP D[ FGHKPKPI VJG
PQVKQP C PQVKQP Π[ZY QH VJGTG DGKPI C EQORWVCVKQP QH VJG RTQFWEV YKVJ [ QH Z CU Y CPF YJGP
∃Y Π[ZY FGHKPKPI VJCV Y VQ DG VJG RTQFWEV [ ⋅ Z 9G VJGP ECNN Z RTQFWEVKXG KH HQT CP[ [ VJG
RTQFWEV [ ⋅ Z KU FGHKPGF # OQTG QT NGUU UVCPFCTF UGVVJGQTGVKE CTIWOGPV UJQYU VJCV VJG HQTOWNC
GZRTGUUKPI VJCV Z KU RTQFWEVKXG KU KPFWEVKXG CPF VCMKPI KVU CFFKVKXG MGTPGN YG QDVCKP CP CFFKVKXG φ
KORN[KPI φ UWEJ VJCV CNN VJG CZKQOU QH 3 JQNF HQT QDLGEVU UCVKUH[KPI φ
9G CTG PQV KP C RQUKVKQP VQ CUUGTV φ KU OWNVKRNKECVKXG $GHQTG YG ECP IGV OWNVKRNKECVKXKV[
YG YKNN PGGF VQ GUVCDNKUJ VJTGG CWZKNKCT[ NCYU VJG NCY VJCV OWNVKRNKECVKQP RTGUGTXGU QTFGT CPF VJG
NCY VJCV OWNVKRNKECVKQP KU FKUVTKDWVKXG QXGT CFFKVKQP CPF VJG NCY VJCV OWNVKRNKECVKQP KU CUUQEKCVKXG
[ m Z →\⋅\ m⋅Z \
\ ⋅
[
Z \ ⋅ Z
\ ⋅ [
\ ⋅
[ ⋅ Z
\ ⋅ [ ⋅ Z
#U KP UQ OCP[ RTGXKQWU ECUGU VJGUG YQWNF PQV DG JCTF VQ RTQXG WUKPI OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP +P
VJG WUWCN YC[ M DWV PQY VCMKPI CFFKVKXG TCVJGT VJCP LWUV QTFGT MGTPGNU M YG IGV UWEEGUUKXG
CFFKVKXG HQTOWNCU φ KORN[KPI φ φ KORN[KPI φ CPF φ KORN[KPI φ UWEJ VJCV HQT QDLGEVU
UCVKUH[KPI φ YG JCXG CNN VJG NCYU FGTKXGF UQ HCT FQYP VJTQWIJ
0QY HQT CP[ KPFWEVKXG HQTOWNC φ
Z NGV ψ
Z DG VJG EQPLWPEVKQP QH φ
Z YKVJ φ
Z CPF
NGV φ⋅
Z DG VJG HQTOWNC
ψ
Z ∀\
ψ
\ → ψ
\ ⋅ Z
6TKXKCNN[ φ⋅
Z KORNKGU φ
Z + OCMG HKXG HWTVJGT ENCKOU (KTUV UGEQPF CPF VJKTF + ENCKO VJCV
φ⋅
JQNFU VJCV φ⋅
Z JQNFU KH φ⋅
Z JQNFU CPF VJCV KH φ⋅
Z JQNFU CPF [ Z VJGP φ⋅
[ JQNFU
OCMKPI φ⋅ KPFWEVKXG CPF QTFGTN[ 6JG RTQQHU CTG LWUV NKMG VJQUG WUGF KP VJG CFFKVKXG ECUG OQFWNQ
TGRNCEGOGPV QH CFFKVKQP D[ OWNVKRNKECVKQP CPF CRRGCNU VQ
3
3 CPF
D[ CRRGCNU VQ
3
3 CPF
(QWTVJ + ENCKO VJCV KH φ⋅
Z CPF φ⋅
[ JQNF VJGP φ⋅
[
Z JQNFU OCMKPI φ⋅ CFFKVKXG
.GCXKPI VJG HKTUV EQPLWPEV VQ VJG TGCFGT CU VQ VJG UGEQPF EQPLWPEV VJG MG[ UVGR KU LWUV VJKU
#UUWOKPI φ
\ CPF φ⋅
[ CPF φ⋅
Z VJG HKTUV CPF UGEQPF IKXG ψ
\ ⋅ [ YJKNG VJG HKTUV CPF VJKTF IKXG
ψ
\ ⋅ Z 9G VJGP IGV ψ
\ ⋅ [
\ ⋅ Z UKPEG ψ KU CFFKVKXG CPF JGPEG ψ
\ ⋅
[
Z D[
YJKEJ YG
JCXG UKPEG φ
Z KORNKGU φ
Z (KHVJ + ENCKO VJCV KH φ⋅
Z CPF φ⋅
[ JQNF VJGP φ⋅
[ ⋅ Z JQNFU
OCMKPI φ⋅ OWNVKRNKECVKXG .GCXKPI VJG HKTUV EQPLWPEV VQ VJG TGCFGT CU VQ VJG UGEQPF EQPLWPEV VJG
MG[ UVGR KU LWUV VJKU #UUWOKPI φ
\ CPF φ⋅
[ CPF φ⋅
Z VJG HKTUV CPF UGEQPF IKXG φ
\ ⋅ [ CPF VJG
\ ⋅ [ ⋅ Z CPF JGPEG φ
\ ⋅
Z ⋅ [ D[
YJKEJ YG JCXG UKPEG φ
Z KORNKGU
φ
Z 6JG HQTOWNC φ⋅ YKNN DG ECNNGF VJG OWNVKRNKECVKXG MGTPGN QH φ .GV φ φ⋅ 6JGP φ KU
OWNVKRNKECVKXG CPF CNN VJG CZKQOU QH 3 JQNF HQT CNN QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ φ JQNFU CPF YG ECP
TGUVTKEV QWT CVVGPVKQP VQ OWNVKRNKECVKXG QDLGEVU FGHKPGF KP VJG QDXKQWU YC[ CPF YG CTG FQPG YKVJ
VJG RTQQH 7PFGTUVCPFKPI QH VJG RTQQH LWUV EQPENWFGF ECP DG GPJCPEGF D[ EQPUKFGTKPI YJCV
GZVGPUKQPU YG ECP CPF ECPPQV IGV D[ VJG UCOG OGVJQFU (QT YG ECP D[ VJG UCOG OGVJQFU IGV
KPVGTRTGVCVKQPU QH UQOG GZVGPUKQPU QH 3 YKVJ OQTG CZKQOU VJQWIJ PQV QH QVJGTU +V UJQWNF DG
ENGCT VJCV HQT CP[ NCY χ VJCV EQWNF DG RTQXGF D[ SWCPVKHKGTHTGG KPFWEVKQP YG IGV CP KPFWEVKXG
HQTOWNC YJQUG OWNVKRNKECVKXG ENQUWTG YKNN IKXG WU CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH 3
χ # UKORNG GZCORNG
YQWNF DG CP[ QH VJG UGTKGU QH NCYU VJCV NGCF WR VQ VJG EQOOWVCVKXG NCY HQT CFFKVKQP DGIKPPKPI
IGPGTCN VJG ECUG VJCV QPG ECP IGV CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH 3
χ HQT C NCY χ VJCV JCU VQ DG RTQXGF D[
ΣKPFWEVKQP YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ KPFWEVKQP QP C EQPFKVKQP KPXQNXKPI CP GZKUVGPVKCN SWCPVKHKGT 6JKU KU
PQV VJG ECUG KP IGPGTCN DGECWUG QH VJG ICR DGVYGGP UC[KPI CP GZKUVGPVKCN HQTOWNC JQNFU HQT CNN
DGVYGGP RTQFWEVKXKV[ CPF OWNVKRNKECVKXKV[ YGTG KPUVCPEGU *QYGXGT VJGTG CTG UQOG ECUGU QH
NCYU χ YKVJ GZKUVGPVKCN SWCPVKHKGTU YJGTG YG ECP IGV CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH 3
χ D[ VJG OGVJQFU
YG JCXG DGGP WUKPI # UKORNG GZCORNG YQWNF DG VJG RCTKV[ NCY
∃[ m Z
Z [ ⋅∨Z
QH φ
Z YJKEJ PGCTN[ GPQWIJ KU YJCV KU GZRTGUUGF D[ VJG HQNNQYKPI HQTOWNC
m
QTFGTNKPGUU
∀Z
φ
Z → ∀[ Z φ
[$[
VJG KPUGTVKQP QH φ
Z KP
C VQ RTQFWEG
D KU
TGFWPFCPV 6JG ICR KU KP HCEV CNYC[U DTKFIGCDNG KP VJG ECUG QH ∆KPFWEVKQP YJKEJ KU VQ UC[
KPFWEVKQP QP C HQTOWNC KP YJKEJ CNN SWCPVKHKGTU
KH CP[ CTG DQWPFGF 6JKU KU QYKPI VQ YJCV KU
ECNNGF VJG CDUQNWVGPGUU QH UWEJ HQTOWNCU #DUQNWVGPGUU OGCPU VJCV VJG HQTOWNC YKVJ SWCPVKHKGTU
DQWPFU CTG XCTKCDNGU CPFQT VGTOU DWKNV WR WUKPI UWKVCDKNKV[ OC[ DG WPFGTUVQQF CU CFFKVKXKV[ +H
VJG DQWPFU CTG XCTKCDNGU CPFQT VGTOU DWKNV WR WUKPI CPFQT ⋅ UWKVCDKNKV[ OC[ DG WPFGTUVQQF CU
OWNVKRNKECVKXKV[
C ∃[
[ mZ
Z ∀\
\ W ⋅ W → m W
D ∃[
φ
[ [ m
Z
Z ∀\
φ
\ \ m W ⋅W→ W
W
\
7UKPI VJG UCOG OGVJQF QXGT CPF QXGT YG ECP IGV CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH 3 χ χ P
HQT CP[ NCYU χ VJCV ECP DG RTQXGF D[ SWCPVKHKGTHTGG QT OQTG IGPGTCNN[ ∆KPFWEVKQP 5WEJ KU VJG
O Q R
K
RTQQH QH 0GNUQP U TGUWNV VJCV +∆ KU NQECNN[ KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP C VJGQT[ QPEG 3 KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP
VJCV VJGQT[ 9G FQ JQYGXGT YJGP WUKPI VJKU OGVJQF JCXG VQ EJCPIG VJG KPVGTRTGVCVKQP GCEJ VKOG
YG YCPV C PGY NCY 5QOGVJKPI OQTG VJCP VJKU KU VTWG PCOGN[ 9KNMKG U TGUWNV VJCV +∆ KU O
Q INQDCNN[ KPVGTRTGVCDNG R KP C VJGQT[ QPEG 3 KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP VJCV VJGQT[ $WV 9KNMKG U RTQQH KUO
DG[QPF VJG UEQRG QH VJG RTGUGPV YQTM
1PG VJKPI YG ECPPQV IGV KU GZRQPGPVKCVKQP +V YKNN DG KPUVTWEVKXG VQ EQPUKFGT JQY VJG
CVVGORV VQ IGV KV D[ VJG OGVJQFU WUGF HQT OWNVKRNKECVKQP CPF CFFKVKQP DTGCMU FQYP 9G ECP DGIKP
CPF YJGP ∃Yϒ[ZY FGHKPKPI VJCV Y VQ DG VJG RQYGT [ ↑ Z 9G ECP VJGP ECNN Z RQYGTHWN KH HQT CP[
[ VJG RQYGT [ ↑ Z KU FGHKPGF # OQTG QT NGUU UVCPFCTF UGVVJGQTGVKE CTIWOGPV UJQYU VJCV VJG
HQTOWNC GZRTGUUKPI VJCV Z KU RQYGTHWN KU KPFWEVKXG CPF VCMKPI KVU OWNVKRNKECVKXG MGTPGN YG QDVCKP C
OWNVKRNKECVKXG HQTOWNC UWEJ VJCV CNN VJG CZKQOU QH 3 JQNF HQT QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ VJG HQTOWNC
3 Z ↑
3 Z ↑ [
Z ↑ [ ⋅ Z
9G CTG PQV JQYGXGT KP C RQUKVKQP VQ UC[ VJCV Z ↑ [ KU RQYGTHWN YJGPGXGT Z CPF [ CTG CP[
OQTG VJCP YG YGTG KP C RQUKVKQP VQ UC[ VJCV Z ⋅ [ KU RTQFWEVKXG YJGP Z CPF [ CTG QT VJCV Z
[ KU
UWOOCDNG YJGP Z CPF [ CTG +V KU OQTG QT NGUU ENGCT D[ CPCNQI[ YJCV CWZKNKCT[ NCYU YG YQWNF
YCPV VQ DG CDNG VQ IQ QP CPF IGV C HQTOWNC ENQUGF WPFGT GZRQPGPVKCVKQP KP VJG YC[ VJCV
OWNVKRNKECVKXG HQTOWNCU CTG ENQUGF WPFGT OWNVKRNKECVKQP QT CFFKVKXG HQTOWNCU ENQUGF WPFGT
CFFKVKQP 9G YQWNF YCPV C NCY VJCV GZRQPGPVKCVKQP RTGUGTXGU QTFGT CPF NCYU UVCVKPI JQY
GZRQPGPVKCVKQP FKUVTKDWVGU QXGT CFFKVKQP CPF QXGT OWNVKRNKECVKQP CPF HKPCNN[ CP CUUQEKCVKXG NCY QH
Y m Z →[↑Y m [ ↑Z
\ ↑
[
Z
\ ↑ [ ⋅
\ ↑ Z
\ ↑
[ ⋅ Z
\ ↑ [ ↑ Z
ψ
Z & ∀[
ψ
[ → ψ
[ ↑ Z
6JGP YG YKNN YCPV VQ OCMG UKZ ENCKOU YJQUG EQPVGPV VJG TGCFGT ECP IWGUU 6JG HKTUV HKXG QH VJGUG
DGECWUG VJG CUUQEKCVKXG NCY KU OKUUKPI #NN YG YKNN IGV KU C OWNVKRNKECVKXG HQTOWNC φ↑ KORN[KPI φ
UWEJ VJCV YJGPGXGT φ↑
Z CPF φ↑
[ YG JCXG φ
Z ↑ [ M DWV PQV PGEGUUCTKN[ φ↑
Z ↑ [
/KUEGNNCP[
+P VJKU UGEVKQP + YKNN EQPUKFGT C XCTKGV[ QH U[UVGOU KP VJG IGPGTCN PGKIJDQTJQQF QH VJG
UKORNGUV RTGFKECVKXG U[UVGO 28 KVU FQWDNG RTGFKECVKXG EQORCPKQP 28 CP WP(TGIGCP U[UVGO
VJCV QEJGCVUR D[ JGNRKPI KVUGNH VQ CP KPVWKVKXG PQVKQP QH HKPKVWFG C RTGFKECVKXG U[UVGO 2*2 DCUGF
QP *2 TCVJGT VJCP .CY 8 CPF UQOG EWTKQWU UGEQPFQTFGT UGVVJGQTKGU KP YJKEJ VJG UGVU CTG PQV
QDVCKPGF HTQO EQPEGRVU CU VJGKT GZVGPUKQPU DWV OGTGN[ JCXG EQPEGRVU QHNQCVKPIR QXGT VJGO
C # &QWDNG 2TGFKECVKXG 6JGQT[
.GV WU VWTP HKTUV VQ VJG UGEQPF UKORNGUV MKPF QH RTGFKECVKXG (TGIGCP U[UVGO 28 9G YTKVG
VJG HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU W QH 28 PQY CU W CPF VJG HWPEVKQP U[ODQN
: ; < : ; <
U CU U 9G CFF UGEQPFTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU
W CPF C HWPEVKQP U[ODQN U VCMKPI
:
; <
VJGO CU CTIWOGPVU YKVJ VJG HQNNQYKPI CFFKVKQPCN XGTUKQPU QH EQORTGJGPUKQP CPF .CY 8
∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ φ
Z
RTQXKFGF φ
Z EQPVCKPU PQ DQWPF UGEQPFTQWPF XCTKCDNGU
C U: U ; ↔ ∀\
:\ ↔ ;\
D U: U ;
↔ ∀\
:\ ↔ ;\
+V YKNN DG TGECNNGF VJCV KP 28 YG JCF TCPM\GTQ UGV VGTOU UWEJ CU ] _ DWV PQ TCPMQPG UGV
W
VGTOU UWEJ CU ] ∃
] __ QP CEEQWPV QH VJG TCPM\GTQ VGTOU KPXQNXKPI KORNKEKV
Z W Z W
] φ
_ ] ψ
_ ↔ ∀
φ
↔ ψ
Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
*QYGXGT YG FQ PQV IGV TCPMVYQ UGV VGTOU KP 28 DGECWUG HQTOWNCU KPXQNXKPI TCPMQPG UGV
VGTOU KPXQNXG KORNKEKV SWCPVKHKECVKQP QXGT TQWPF EQPEGRVU
UGEQPF
+V VWTPU QWV VJCV CNNQYKPI C UGEQPF TQWPF QH RTGFKECVKXG EQPEGRVU ECP IGV WU QXGT VJG
KORCUUG YG TGCEJGF KP VT[KPI VQ IGV GZRQPGPVKCVKQP +P HCEV HQT VJKU RWTRQUG VJGTG KU PQ PGGF VQ
WUG
HQT UGEQPFTQWPF EQPEGRVU CV CNN CPF PQ PGGF VQ FQ CP[VJKPI OQTG YKVJ VJG HKTUVTQWPF
EQPEGRVU DG[QPF IGVVKPI VJG UGV VJGQT[ 56 HTQO VJGO 6JG VJGQT[ 256 EQPUKUVKPI QH 56 RNWU
OQPCFKE RTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 28 WUKPI VJG HKTUV TQWPF EQPEGRVU LWUV
VQ IGV 56 CPF VJGP HQTIGVVKPI CDQWV VJGO CPF OCMKPI PQ WUG QH U #PF + ENCKO 3 KU
KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 256
+H YG JCXG OQPCFKE RTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE VJG YJQNG FGXGNQROGPV QH VJG
RTGEGFKPI UGEVKQP ECP DG TGFQPG HQT EQPEGRVU KP RNCEG QH HQTOWNCU # EQPEGRV KU ECNNGF KH KPFWEVKXG
HCNNU WPFGT KV CPF HCNNU WPFGT KV YJGPGXGT FQGU CPF VJG PQVKQPU
Z Z CPF CPF
QTFGTN[ CFFKVKXG
OWNVKRNKECVKXG CTG UKOKNCTN[ FGHKPGF 6JGP VJG RTQQHU CNTGCF[ QWVNKPGF UJQY VJCV GXGT[ KPFWEVKXG
EQPEGRV EQPVCKPU C OWNVKRNKECVKXG EQPEGRV ↑ UWEJ VJCV VJG QDLGEVU HCNNKPI WPFGT
: ; : ;
*QYGXGT YG CTG KP C RQUKVKQP PQY VQ OCMG QPG FGHKPKVKQP VJCV YG EQWNF PQV OCMG
RTGXKQWUN[ YJGP YG JCF QPN[ 56 CPF HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE 9G ECNN CP QDLGEV C Z KH KV
PCVWTCN PWODGT
CZKQOU
3
3 VJKU FQGU PQV OCVVGT + ENCKO VJCV VJG HQTOWNC ν
KU GZRQPGPVKCN Z
6JG XGTKHKECVKQP VJCV KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT CPF VJCV KH KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT VJGP UQ KU
Z Z
YKNN DG NGHV VQ VJG TGCFGT #U HQT QTFGTNKPGUU NGV DG C PCVWTCN PWODGT CPF 9G YCPV VQ UJQY
Z [ Z
VJCV KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT 9JCV YG PGGF VQ FQ KU EQPUKFGT CP[ KPFWEVKXG CPF UJQY VJCV HCNNU
[ : [
;
↑ HQT KPUVCPEG 5KPEG KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT CPF KU KPFWEVKXG HCNNU WPFGT CPF UKPEG
: Z ; Z ;
;
KU QTFGTN[ CPF HCNNU WPFGT CPF UKPEG KU EQPVCKPGF KP HCNNU WPFGT CU
[ Z [ ; ; : [ :
TGSWKTGF #FFKVKXG CPF OWNVKRNKECVKXG ENQUWTG YKNN DG NGHV VQ VJG TGCFGT #U HQT GZRQPGPVKCN ENQUWTG
NGV CPF DG PCVWTCN PWODGTU 9G YCPV VQ UJQY VJCV ↑
KU FGHKPGF CPF KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT
W X W X
9JCV YG PGGF VQ FQ KU EQPUKFGT CP[ KPFWEVKXG CPF UJQY VJCV ↑ HCNNU WPFGT 6Q VJKU GPF
: W X :
EQPUKFGT ↑ 5KPEG CPF CTG PCVWTCN PWODGTU CPF KU KPFWEVKXG CPF DQVJ HCNN WPFGT
; : W X ; W X
;
$WV VJGP D[ FGHKPKVKQP QH ↑ KV HQNNQYU VJCV ↑ HCNNU WPFGT CU TGSWKTGF VQ EQORNGVG
; : W X :
VJG RTQQH
6JG VJGQT[ 3 CFFU ∆KPFWEVKQP VQ
3
3 *C\GP QDUGTXGF
KP C UNKIJVN[ FKHHGTGPV
EQPVGZV VJCV CNNQYKPI C UGEQPF TQWPF QH RTGFKECVKXG EQPEGRVU CU YG JCXG FQPG RGTOKVU C
EQORCTCVKXGN[ GCU[ FGTKXCVKQP QH ∆KPFWEVKQP M C GCU[ FGTKXCVKQP EQORCTGF VQ 9KNMKGOU
XGT[
RTQQH
.GV WU HKTUV IGV ENGCT YJCV YG CTG VT[KPI VQ RTQXG # ∆KPFWEVKQP CZKQO KP IGPGTCN NQQMU
NKMG VJKU
∀W
φ
W ∀Z
φ
Z W → φ
Z W → ∀Zφ
Z W
YJGTG φ KU C ∆ HQTOWNC 6JG HQTOWNC φ KU DWKNV WR HTQO GSWCVKQPU CPF KPGSWCNKVKGU CPF V U V U
DGVYGGP VGTOU VJGOUGNXGU DWKNV WR HTQO XCTKCDNGU WUKPI CPF CPF
CPF ⋅ CPF ↑ WUKPI PGICVKQP
9JCV
NQQMU NKMG YJGP TGNCVKXK\GF KU VJKU
∀W
ν
W →
φν
W ∀Z
ν
Z →
φν
Z W → φν
Z W →
∀Z
ν
Z → φν
Z W
YJGTGKP VJG UWRGTUETKRV ν KPFKECVGU TGNCVKXK\CVKQP QH VJG SWCPVKHKGTU KP φ 6JG ETWEKCN QDUGTXCVKQP KU
VJG QH ∆ HQTOWNCU CNTGCF[ FKUEWUUGF KP VJG RTGEGFKPI UGEVKQP CEEQTFKPI VQ YJKEJ
CDUQNWVGPGUU
YG CEVWCNN[ FQPOV JCXG VQ YQTT[ CDQWV TGNCVKXK\KPI VJG SWCPVKHKGTU KP φ DGECWUG YG JCXG VJG
HQNNQYKPI
ν
[ ν
\ →
φν
[ \ ↔ φ
[ \
∀
ν
W →
φ
W ∀
ν
→
φ
W → φ
W →
W Z Z Z Z
∀
ν
→ φ
W
Z Z Z
φ
∀Z
ν
Z →
φ
Z → φ
Z → ∀Z
ν
Z → φ
Z
5Q CUUWOG φ JQNFU HQT \GTQ CPF HQT VJG UWEEGUUQT QH CP[ PCVWTCN PWODGT HQT YJKEJ KV JQNFU
CPF NGV DG CP[ PCVWTCN PWODGT 9G PGGF VQ RTQXG φ JQNFU HQT 6Q VJKU GPF NGV ψ
DG VJG
Z Z Y
HQNNQYKPI HQTOWNC
Y m Z → φ
Y
UJQY VJCV ψ
KU CP KPFWEVKXG HQTOWNC UKPEG VJKU HQTOWNC ψ
M WPNKMG HQT KPUVCPEG VJG
Y Y
HQTOWNC ν
→ φ
YJKEJ KPXQNXGU VJG PQVKQP QH PCVWTCN PWODGT M KPXQNXGU PQ SWCPVKHKECVKQP
Z Z
QXGT UGEQPFTQWPF EQPEGRVU CPF VJGTGHQTG FGVGTOKPGU C UGEQPFTQWPF EQPEGRV YJKEJ YKNN DG CP
KPFWEVKXG EQPEGRV KH VJG HQTOWNC KU CP KPFWEVKXG HQTOWNC CPF YJKEJ KP VJCV ECUG YKNN JCXG GXGT[
PCVWTCN PWODGT HCNNKPI WPFGT KV
0QY ψ
JQNFU UKPEG YG CTG CUUWOKPI φ
5Q UWRRQUG ψ
JQNFU VQ RTQXG ψ
Y Y
JQNFU 6JGTG KU PQVJKPI VQ RTQXG WPNGUU m KP YJKEJ ECUG m CPF KU VJGTGHQTG C PCVWTCN
Y Z Y Z
( `∃ φ
→ # φ
Z Z Z Z
( # φ
→ #
φ
∨
Z Z Z Z Z [
( # φ
∀
ψ
→ φ
→ # ψ
Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
+H QPG JCU PQ VJKPIU QPG JCU QPN[ HKPKVGN[ OCP[ VJKPIU +H QPG JCU HKPKVGN[ OCP[ VJKPIU CPF QPG
OQTG QPG JCU QPN[ HKPKVGN[ OCP[ VJKPIU +H QPG JCU UQOG VJKPIU HTQO COQPI HKPKVGN[ OCP[ VJKPIU
QPG JCU QPN[ HKPKVGN[ OCP[ VJKPIU
+H QPG YCPVGF VQ FGXGNQR C VJGQT[ QH
CNN CPF QPN[ HKPKVG UGVU WUKPI VJG PGY SWCPVKHKGT VJG
QDXKQWU YC[ VQ RTQEGGF YQWNF DG VQ KPVTQFWEG U[ODQNU ² CPF ∈ HQT UGV CPF GNGOGPV CPF KP
CFFKVKQP VQ VJG CZKQO QH GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ C UKPING UGVGZKUVGPEG CZKQO
UEJGOG CU HQNNQYU
∃[
²[ ∀Z
Z ∈ [ ↔ φ
Z ↔ #Z φ
Z
6JG VJKPIU HQT YJKEJ φ JQNFU HQTO C UGV KH CPF QPN[ KH VJGTG CTG QPN[ HKPKVGN[ OCP[ QH VJGO
6JTGG UGV GZKUVGPEG CZKQOU HQNNQY KOOGFKCVGN[ EQTTGURQPFKPI VQ VJG VJTGG NCYU
(
(
6YQ QH VJGUG YG JCXG CNTGCF[ UGGP VJG PWNN UGV CPF CFLWPEVKQP CZKQOU QH 56 EQTTGURQPFKPI VQ
( CPF
( 6JG QVJGT KU VJG CZKQO UEJGOG QH <GTOGNQOU CZKQO QH UGRCTCVKQP KP VJG HQNNQYKPI
HQTO
∀[(²[ → ∃\
²\ ∀Z
Z ∈ \ ↔ Z ∈ [ ψ
Z
6CMKPI FQYP VJG UECHHQNFKPI QH VJG PGY SWCPVKHKGT NGV WU LWUV EQPUKFGT VJG HKTUVQTFGT UGV VJGQT[
56< EQPUKUVKPI QH 56 RNWU
6JG PGZV TGUWNV KU YGNNMPQYP VQ URGEKCNKUVU 6JGTG KU JQYGXGT PQ IGPGTCNN[ CITGGF
CVVTKDWVKQP HQT VJG TGUWNV KP SWGUVKQP YJKEJ RNCEGU KV KP VJG ECVGIQT[ ECNNGF OCVJGOCVKECN
QHQNMNQTGR
(QNM 6JGQTGO (KTUVQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 56<
6JG OCEJKPGT[ FGXGNQRGF CV VJG DGIKPPKPI QH VJG RTQQH QH VJG VJGQTGO CDQWV VJG KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[
QH 3 RGTOKVU C RTQQH QH VJKU HCEV TGSWKTKPI NKVVNG CFFKVKQPCN YQTM .GV WU VJKPM QH VJCV RTQQH
GURGEKCNN[ CU KV CRRNKGU VQ 56 UQ VJG 4 CPF : CTG LWUV EGTVCKP UGVU (QNNQY VJG RTQQH FQYP VQ VJG
KPVTQFWEVKQP QH VJG PQVKQP QH QTFGTN[ MGTPGN
m
0GZV YG PGGF UQOG CWZKNKCTKGU (KTUV + ENCKO VJG HQTOWNC Z KU KPFWEVKXG 6JG GCU[
RTQQH KU NGHV VQ VJG TGCFGT 5GEQPF + ENCKO VJG HQNNQYKPI HQTOWNC KU CNUQ KPFWEVKXG
∃W∀[
[ ∈ W ↔ [ m
Z
0QVG VJCV KH UWEJ C W GZKUVU KV KU WPKSWG D[ GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ YG OC[ VJGP ECNN KV KP YQTFU VJG
UGIOGPV WR VQ Z CPF KP U[ODQNU =Z? 6Q UJQY VJCV =Z? GZKUVU YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ VJCV
JQNFU HQT
Z PQVG VJCV D[
3 YG JCXG =? ]_ 6Q UJQY =Z ? GZKUVU KH =Z? GZKUVU PQVG VJCV D[
3
YG JCXG =Z ? =Z? @ Z
6JKTF HQT C IKXGP Z YG OC[ UC[ VJCV C UGV W KU KPFWEVKXG WR VQ Z KH ∈ W CPF Y ∈ W
m
YJGPGXGT Y ∈ W CPF Y Z %CNN Z KPFWEVKDNG KH Z ∈ W HQT GXGT[ W VJCV KU KPFWEVKXG WR VQ Z + ENCKO
VJG HQTOWNC GZRTGUUKPI KPFWEVKDKNKV[ KU KPFWEVKXG 6JCV KU KPFWEVKDNG KU KOOGFKCVG HTQO VJG
FGHKPKVKQP QH KPFWEVKXG WR VQ Z 5WRRQUKPI Z KU KPFWEVKDNG KV OC[ DG UJQYP VJCV Z KU KPFWEVKDNG CU
HQNNQYU .GV W DG CP[ UGV VJCV KU KPFWEVKXG WR VQ Z 9G HKTUV UJQY W KU CNUQ KPFWEVKDNG WR VQ Z #PF
m m
KPFGGF YG JCXG ∈ W CPF OQTGQXGT KH Y ∈ W CPF Y Z VJGP D[
3 YG JCXG Y Z CPF UQ
Y ∈ W UKPEG W YCU KPFWEVKXG WR VQ Z 5KPEG W KU VJWU KPFWEVKXG WR VQ Z CPF Z KU KPFWEVKDNG YG JCXG
m
Z ∈ W $WV VJGP UKPEG W KU KPFWEVKXG WR VQ Z CPF Z Z YG JCXG Z ∈ W VQ EQORNGVG VJG RTQQH
.GV PQY δ
Z DG VJG QTFGTN[ MGTPGN QH VJG EQPLWPEVKQP QH VJG VJTGG CWZKNKCT[ HQTOWNCU LWUV
UJQYP VQ DG KPFWEVKXG CPF ECNN VJG QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ δ
Z JQNFU PCVWTCN PWODGTU 5KPEG δ
Z KU
QTFGTN[ KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT Z KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT YJGPGXGT Z KU CPF Y KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT
m m
YJGPGXGT Z KU CPF Y Z #NUQ HQT CP[ PCVWTCN PWODGT YG JCXG Z =Z? GZKUVU CPF Z KU
KPFWEVKDNG
0QY NGV φ
Z DG CP[ HQTOWNC UWEJ VJCV φ
JQNFU CPF UWEJ VJCV KH φ
Z JQNFU CPF Z KU C
PCVWTCN PWODGT VJGP φ
Z JQNFU + ENCKO VJCV φ
Z JQNFU HQT GXGT[ PCVWTCN PWODGT Z 6JG TGCUQPKPI
KU PQV FKUUKOKNCT VQ VJCV KP VJG RTQQH QH ∆KPFWEVKQP KP VJG RTGEGFKPI UWDUGEVKQP 6Q UGG φ
Z JQNFU
HQT GXGT[ PCVWTCN PWODGT Z NGV Z DG CP[ PCVWTCN PWODGT CPF CRRN[ UGRCTCVKQP VQ =Z? VQ QDVCKP C UGV
W UWEJ VJCV HQT CNN Y YG JCXG
Y ∈W↔Y m Z φ
Y
m
+ ENCKO W KU KPFWEVKXG WR VQ Z 9G JCXG ∈ W UKPEG Z KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT CPF VJGTGHQTG Z CPF
m
UKPEG φ
D[ QWT J[RQVJGUKU CDQWV φ 5WRRQUG YG JCXG Y ∈ W CPF Y Z 6Q RTQXG Y ∈ W HKTUV
m m
PQVG VJCV UKPEG Y ∈ W YG JCXG φ
Y 6JGP PQVG VJCV UKPEG Y Y Z CPF Z KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT
UQ CTG Y CPF Y 6JGTGHQTG φ
Y JQNFU D[ QWT J[RQVJGUKU CDQWV φ CPF JGPEG Y ∈ W CU TGSWKTGF VQ
UJQY W KPFWEVKXG WR VQ Z 5KPEG Z KU KPFWEVKDNG YG JCXG Z ∈ W CPF VJGTGHQTG φ
Z
6JWU VJG HWNN WPTGUVTKEVGF RTKPEKRNG QH OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP HQT CNN HQTOWNCU QH VJG
NCPIWCIG CRRNKGU VQ PCVWTCN PWODGTU 9JCV YGTG KP VJG RTQQH QH VJG KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ QH 3 OGTGN[
RTQQHU VJCV EGTVCKP HQTOWNCU CTG KPFWEVKXG PQY DGEQOG RTQQHU VJCV EGTVCKP NCYU JQNF HQT PCVWTCN
PWODGTU 6JGUG NCYU KPENWFG DGUKFGU VJG HCEVU HTQO YJKEJ YG UVCTVGF VJCV \GTQ KU PQV C UWEEGUUQT
CPF VJCV VJG UWEEGUUQT HWPEVKQP KU QPGVQQPG VJG HCEV VJCV UWOU CPF RTQFWEVU QDG[KPI VJG
TGEWTUKQP GSWCVKQPU
3
3 GZKUV $WV VJQUG NCYU VQIGVJGT YKVJ KPFWEVKQP CTG CNN VJG CZKQOU QH
2
6JG KFGC QH UQOGJQY WUKPI CP KPVWKVKXG PQVKQP HKPKVWFG CU C HQWPFCVKQP HQT HKTUVQTFGT
CTKVJOGVKE
CPF KP RCTVKEWNCT VQ GXCFG VJG MKPF QH NKOKVCVKQPU QH RTGFKECVKXG CRRTQCEJGU VJCV YKNN
DG GUVCDNKUJGF KP VJG PGZV UGEVKQPU VWTPU WR KP UGXGTCN FKHHGTGPV IWKUGU KP VJG TGEGPV NKVGTCVWTG QP
HQWPFCVKQPU QH OCVJGOCVKEU + HGGN KV YQWNF DG QWV QH RNCEG JQYGXGT KP VJG RTGUGPV OQPQITCRJ
QP PGQ(TGIGCPKUO VQ UWTXG[ VJKU NKVGTCVWTG QT GNCDQTCVG HWTVJGT VJCP + JCXG CNTGCF[ FQPG (QT KV
UGGOU ENGCT VQ OG VJCV PQ KFGC EQWNF DG OQTG PQP WP CPF CPVK(TGIGCP VJCP VJCV QH JGNRKPI
QPGUGNH VQ KPVWKVKQPU CDQWV HKPKVWFG CU CZKQOU PQV RTQXGF CU VJGQTGOU HTQO NQIKECN CZKQOU CPF C
UWKVCDNG FGHKPKVKQP QH HKPKVWFG
.GV WU PGZV RGGM CJGCF DTKGHN[ CV C UWDLGEV VJCV YKNN DG VTGCVGF OQTG HWNN[ KP VJG PGZV
EJCRVGT 0GQ(TGIGCP VJGQTKGU VJCV FKURGPUG YKVJ GZVGPUKQPU CPF VCMG VJGKT UVCTV HTQO *WOG U O
RTKPEKRNG CTG RTKOCTKN[ C VQRKE HQT VJCV EJCRVGT JQYGXGT KV KU PCVWTCN VQ EQPUKFGT RTGFKECVKXG
XGTUKQPU QT XCTKCPVU QH UWEJ CP CRRTQCEJ JGTG
#EVWCNN[ + YKNN EQPUKFGT QPN[ VJG UKORNGUV KOCIKPCDNG CRRTQCEJ QH VJKU MKPF 9G JCXG
W W
VJTGG UV[NGU QH XCTKCDNGU Z [ \ HQT QDLGEVU CPF : ; < HQT HKTUVTQWPF RTGFKECVKXG
Q R W
EQPEGRVU JGPEGHQTVJ LWUV ECNNGF EQPEGRVU CPF 4 5 6 HQT HKTUVTQWPF RTGFKECVKXG VYQRNCEG
Q R
TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU JGPEGHQTVJ LWUV ECNNGF TGNCVKQPU 9G JCXG VJG KFGPVKV[ U[ODQN HQT QDLGEVU
CPF VJG PWODGT U[ODQN YJKEJ CRRNKGU VQ CP[ XCTKCDNG QH V[RG : VQ HQTO C VGTO : VJCV ECP DG
UWDUVKVWVGF HQT XCTKCDNGU QH V[RG Z
6JGTG CTG LWUV VJTGG CZKQOU RTGFKECVKXG EQORTGJGPUKQP HQT EQPEGRVU CPF TGNCVKQPU CPF
O
*WOG U RTKPEKRNG CU HQNNQYU
∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ φ
Z
YJGTG φ
Z EQPVCKPU PQ DQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU
∃4∀Z∀[
4Z[ ↔ ψ
Z [
YJGTG ψ
Z [ EQPVCKPU PQ DQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU
: ; ↔ : ≈ ;
O
.GV OG ECNN VJKU UKORNG RTGFKECVKXG U[UVGO YKVJ *WOG U RTKPEKRNG 2*2 D[ CPCNQI[ YKVJ
28 + ENCKO VJCV VJG VYQUQTVGF U[UVGO YKVJ CZKQOU
3
3
4
4 ECP DG KPVGTRTGVGF KP
2*2 CPF JGPEG VJCV 3 ECP DG
#U C RTGNKOKPCT[ UGXGTCN PQVKQPU CPF PQVCVKQPU RGTVCKPKPI VQ EQPEGRVU CPF TGNCVKQPU VJCV
YKNN DG WUGF DGNQY CTG EQNNGEVGF KP 6#$.'5 * CPF +
0QVG VJCV VJG GORV[ TGNCVKQP CPF CFLWPEVKQP HQT TGNCVKQPU KOOGFKCVGN[ IKXG WU CZKQOU
4
CPF
4 5Q KV QPN[ TGOCKPU VQ IKXG FGHKPKVKQPU QH CPF CPF HKPF UQOG HQTOWNC φ(Z UWEJ VJCV
CZKQOU
3 CPF
3 JQNF HQT CNN QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ φ JQNFU
6JKU COQWPVU VQ KPVGTRTGVKPI 7756
KP 2*2 /WEJ QH VJG YQTM JCU DGGP FQPG HQT WU D[ (TGIG 9G OC[ HQNNQY JKO KP FGHKPKPI \GTQ
CPF KOOGFKCVG UWEEGUUKQP DWV OWUV FGRCTV HTQO JKO KP FGHKPKPI QTFGT
«
Z[ ↔ ∃:∃Y
Z : `:Y [
: @ Y
Z [ ↔ ∃:∃;
Z : : ⊂ ; [ ;
+ YTKVG HQT VJG CWZKNKCT[ PQVKQP QH QTFGT PGGFGF HQT VJG HQNNQYKPI EQPUVTWEVKQP VQ NGCXG QRGP VJG
EQPPGEVKQP QH VJKU CWZKNKCT[ TGNCVKQP VQ CP[ QTFGT TGNCVKQP QPG OC[ KPVTQFWEG NCVGT QPEG YG
JCXG HQWPF CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH 3
O
9G ECP WUG (TGIG U RTQQH HQT VJG HQNNQYKPI HCEV
Z[ Z\ → [ \
6JG RTQQH TWPU CU HQNNQYU )KXGP Z : : CPF Y CPF Y YKVJ `:Y CPF `:Y CPF [
: @ Y CPF \
: @ Y VJGP UKPEG : : VJGTG KU C QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG 4 UWEJ
VJCV : ≈4 : CPF YJCV YG PGGF VQ UJQY KU VJCV VJGTG KU C QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG 5 UWEJ VJCV
: @ Y ≈5 : @ Y YJKEJ YKNN UJQY [ \ 5WEJ CP 5 KU RTQXKFGF D[ 4 @ 〈 Y Y〉 6JG FGVCKNU +
+H Z GZKUVU VJGP l Z
6JG RTQQH TWPU CU HQNNQYU 5KPEG Z [ VJGTG CTG : ⊂ ; YKVJ Z : CPF [ ; 5KPEG CNUQ
[ ; VJGTG KU C QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG 4 UWEJ VJCV ; ≈4 ; 9G YCPV VQ UJQY VJGTG KU CP
: ⊂ ; YKVJ Z : +V UWHHKEGU VQ NGV : DG VJG KOCIG 4=:? # QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG 5 UWEJ CU
Z [ [\→Z\
6JG RTQQH TWPU CU HQNNQYU 5KPEG [ \ VJGTG GZKUV ; ⊂ < YKVJ [ ; CPF \ < $WV VJGP D[
UKPEG Z [ VJGTG GZKUVU : ⊂ ; YKVJ Z : +V HQNNQYU VJCV : ⊂ < CPF UQ Z \
6JG VJKTF NGOOC UC[U
[\ →
Z \ ↔ Z [ ∨ Z [
6JG RTQQH TWPU CU HQNNQYU #UUWOG VJGTG GZKUV ; CPF Y YKVJ [ ; CPF `;Y CPF \
; @ Y
(QT VJG NGHV VQ TKIJV FKTGEVKQP QH VJG DKEQPFKVKQPCN KP
CUUWOG Z \ 6JGP D[
VJGTG GZKUVU
: ⊂ ; @ Y YKVJ Z : 6Q UJQY Z m [ KV YKNN UWHHKEG VQ UJQY VJGTG GZKUVU : ⊆ ; YKVJ Z :
+H `:Y YG OC[ VCMG : HQT : CPF YG CTG FQPG +H :Y VJGTG OWUV DG C X YKVJ `:X DWV ;X KP
YJKEJ ECUG YG NGV :
: Y @ X +V VJGP TGOCKPU VQ UJQY VJCV : Z : YJKEJ KU VQ UC[
VJCV VJGTG KU UQOG QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG 4 UWEJ VJCV : ≈4 : 5WEJ CP 4 KU RTQXKFGF D[ +:Y
@ 〈Y X〉 (QT VJG TKIJV VQ NGHV FKTGEVKQP KV KU KOOGFKCVG HTQO VJG FGHKPKVKQPU VJCV [ ;
; @ Y
m
\ +H Z [ VJGP Z \ D[
+V KU KOOGFKCVG HTQO VJG FGHKPKVKQPU VJCV `Z CPF VJKU HCEV CPF
IKXG WU VJG
3
CPF
3 YKVJ VJG NCVVGT KP SWCNKHKGF HQTO
`Z
+H [ GZKUVU VJGP Z [ ↔ Z [ ∨ Z [
∃:
∀[
:[ ↔ [ Z Z : `:Z
+V OC[ DG TGOCTMGF VJCV UKPEG VJG FGHKPKVKQP QH [ Z KPXQNXGU DQWPF EQPEGRV CPF TGNCVKQP
SWCPVKHKGTU YG CTG PQV KP C RQUKVKQP VQ CUUGTV VJCV HQT GXGT[ Z VJGTG YKNN GZKUV C EQPEGRV : JQNFKPI
QH CNN CPF QPN[ VJG [ Z +H VJGTG FQGU YG OC[ ECNN KV KP YQTFU VJG UVTKEV UGIOGPV QH Z CPF KP
U[ODQNU 〈Z〉
0QY KU RTQVQPCVWTCN YKVJ « HQT VJG : KP VJG FGHKPKVKQP
(QT 〈0〉 « D[
3 «
D[ FGHKPKVKQP QH CPF `« D[ FGHKPKVKQP QH « 0QY UWRRQUG Z KU RTQVQPCVWTCN CPF NGV : DG CU KP
FGHKPKVKQP
6JGP
: @ Z KU VJG UWEEGUUQT Z QH Z + ENCKO Z KU RTQVQPCVWTCN YKVJ : @ Z HQT VJG
: KP VJG FGHKPKVKQP
$[
YG JCXG 〈 Z 〉 〈 Z〉 @ Z : @ Z CPF JGPEG VJG HKTUV CU YGNN CU VJG
UGEQPF EQPLWPEV QH VJG FGHKPKVKQP JQNF 9JCV TGOCKPU VQ RTQXGF KU YJCV KU CUUGTVGF KP VJG VJKTF
EQPLWPEV PCOGN[ VJCV Z FQGU PQV HCNN WPFGT : @ Z 〈Z〉 @ Z 6JCV KU VQ UC[ YG JCXG VQ GZENWFG VJG
RQUUKDKNKV[ VJCV Z Z CPF VJG RQUUKDKNKV[ VJCV Z Z $[
YG JCXG Z Z +H Z Z VJGP D[
YG JCXG Z Z YJKNG KH Z Z YG JCXG Z Z FKTGEVN[ $WV Z Z KU RTGENWFGF D[ VJG HKTUV CPF VJKTF
EQPLWPEVU QH
HQT Z
6JWU YG JCXG RTQXGF VJG HQNNQYKPI
6JG 2TGFKECVKXG 8CTKCPV QH (TGIGOU 6JGQTGO 6JG CZKQOU QH 4QDKPUQP CTKVJOGVKE ECP DG
O
FGFWEGF KP F[CFKE RTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE HTQO *WOG U RTKPEKRNG CPF UWKVCDNG FGHKPKVKQPU
QH CTKVJOGVKECN PQVKQPU
e Z: e [; →
Z [ ↔ : ≡ ;
6JG CUUWORVKQP VJCV : JCU CP GZVGPUKQP KH KV KU UKORNG OC[ VJGP DG GZRTGUUGF VJWU
∀[
:[ ↔ φ
[ → ∃Z e Z:
RTQXKFGF φ
Z KU UKORNG
5GVJQQF ² CPF GNGOGPVJQQF ∈ OC[ VJGP DG FGHKPGF KP VJG WUWCN (TGIGCP YC[
Q R
# NKVVNG VJQWIJV UJQYU VJCV UKORNG YKNN JCXG VQ DG UQ WPFGTUVQQF CU VQ GZENWFG VJG
CRRGCTCPEG QH EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU CU RCTCOGVGTU 'NUG VJG XGT[ UKORNGUV ECUG YJGTG φ
[ KU ;[ ;
Q
DGKPI C RCTCOGVGT YQWNF IKXG VJG GZKUVGPEG QH CP GZVGPUKQP HQT GXGT[ EQPEGRV ; +H CNUQ UKORNG R
KU VCMGP VQ KORN[ RTGFKECVKXG VJGP φ
[ YKNN KP HCEV JCXG VQ DG HKTUVQTFGT 6JG TGUWNV YKNN COQWPV
VQ VJG HKTUVQTFGT UGV VJGQT[ 72( DWV PQY YKVJ HWNN KORTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE
W
#P CNVGTPCVKXG CRRTQCEJ YQWNF DG VQ JCXG KP CFFKVKQP VQ XCTKCDNGU : ; < HQT EQPEGRVU
W Q R
KP IGPGTCN URGEKCN XCTKCDNGU : ; < HQT UKORNG QPGU YKVJ C TGUVTKEVGF XGTUKQP QH
EQORTGJGPUKQP HQT VJGUG CPF QPN[ VJGUG CNNQYGF VQ JCXG GZVGPUKQPU 6JKU KU OQTG HNGZKDNG KP VJCV
Q R Q R
KV ECP CEEQOOQFCVG UKORNG EQPEGRV RCTCOGVGTU #ICKP KH UKORNG KU WPFGTUVQQF CU RTGFKECVKXG
YG YKNN IGV UQOGVJKPI HCOKNKCT 2( DWV CICKP YKVJ HWNN KORTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE
9G JCXG PQY GPEQWPVGTGF UGXGTCN FKHHGTGPV U[UVGOU EQPUKUVKPI QH C YGCM HKTUVQTFGT UGV
VJGQT[
2( 72( 56 756 7756 RNWU UQOG XCTKGV[ QH UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE (QT 7756 YJGTG
RCKTKPI KU PQV CXCKNCDNG QPG IGVU C XGT[ YGCM U[UVGO WPNGUU QPG CFFU F[CFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE
HQT VJG QVJGTU VJGTG KU PQ FKHHGTGPEG DGVYGGP OQPCFKE CPF F[CFKE 9JGTG VJG UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE
KU RTGFKECVKXG VJGTG OC[ DG UNKIJV FKHHGTGPEGU KP UVTGPIVJ QH VJG EQODKPGF VJGQT[ CV CP[ TCVG YG
IQV CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH 3 YKVJ 56 CU VJG WPFGTN[KPI UGV VJGQT[ CPF QPN[ 3 YKVJ 756 VJQWIJ
VJGUG FKHHGTGPEGU YKNN DG UOQQVJGF QWV D[ TCOKHKECVKQP RGTOKVVKPI OQTG TQWPFU QH RTGFKECVKXG
EQPEGRVU 9KVJ HWNN KORTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE VJG FKHHGTGPEGU COQPI VJG XCTKQWU
WPFGTN[KPI YGCM UGV VJGQTKGU CTG QDNKVGTCVGF 6JG YGCMGUV QH VJGO EQODKPGF YKVJ UQ RQYGTHWN C
NQIKE VCMG WU CNN VJG YC[ WR VQ UGEQPFQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE 2
CPF VJG UVTQPIGUV QH VJGO VCMGU
WU PQ HWTVJGT .GV OG UVCVG VJKU TGUWNV CU C PCOGF VJGQTGO
&GFGMKPFOU 6JGQTGO 8GTUKQP ++ 5GEQPFQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE KU KPVGRTGVCDNG KP 7756 YKVJ
F[CFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE CPF KU CNUQ KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 756 YKVJ OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE
∃W∀Y
Y ∈ W ↔ Y ∈ Z φ
Y
9JGP QPG OQXGU VQ C UGEQPFQTFGT XGTUKQP 6 VJKU UEJGOG IGVU TGRNCEGF D[ C UKPING CZKQO
∃W∀Y
Y ∈ W ↔ Y ∈ Z :Y
∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ φ
Z
Q R
+P UWEJ C EQPXGPVKQPCN U[UVGO 6 VJG ENCUUGU KPVGTCEV YKVJ VJG UGVU VJTQWIJ
QT QVJGT
UGEQPFQTFGT CZKQOU TGRNCEKPI YJCV KP VJG HKTUVQTFGT XGTUKQP YGTG UEJGOGU 6JG TGUWNV QH VJG
Q R
KPVGTCEVKQP KU VJCV OQTG ECP DG RTQXGF KP 6 WUKPI ENCUUGU VJCP EQWNF DG RTQXGF KP 6 CNQPG D[
VJKU + OGCP OQTG ECP DG RTQXGF LWUV CDQWV UGVU 3WGUVKQPU VJCV ECP DG HQTOWNCVGF KP VJG NCPIWCIG
QH 6 DWV PQV CPUYGTGF KP 6 IGV CPUYGTU KP 6 6 KU PQV C EQPUGTXCVKXG GZVGPUKQP QH 6
6Q DG UWTG KH YG EQPUKFGT QPN[ CFFKPI RTGFKECVKXG EQORTGJGPUKQP
VJGP VJG TGUWNVKPI
M
VJGQT[ ECNN KV 6u M KU C EQPUGTXCVKXG GZVGPUKQP QH 6 D[ 5JQGPHKGNFOU VJGQTGO YJKEJ UC[U VJCV
QPG ECP CNYC[U CFF RTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE VQ C HKTUVQTFGT VJGQT[ CPF KP VJG RTQEGUU KH
VJGTG CTG CP[ UEJGOGU KP VJG QTKIKPCN VJGQT[ TGRNCEG VJGO D[ UKPING CZKQOU CPF VJG TGUWNV YKNN DG
C EQPUGTXCVKXG GZVGPUKQP $WV VJKU KU C UQOGYJCV UWTRTKUKPI TGUWNV TGSWKTKPI C PQPVTKXKCN RTQQH
$[ EQPVTCUV YKVJ CNN VJKU KP VJG ECUG QH VJG MKPFU QH EQODKPCVKQPU QH C UGV VJGQT[ YKVJ C
UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE VJCV YG JCXG DGGP EQPUKFGTKPI VJGTG KU PQ UEJGOG VJCV IGVU TGRNCEGF D[ C
UKPING CZKQO QT CP[VJKPI QH VJG UQTV 6JG UGVU CPF QENCUUGUR QT EQPEGRVU FQ PQV KPVGTCEV VJG
EQPEGRVU LWUV QHNQCVR QXGT VJG UGVU UQ VQ URGCM 9G OC[ DG CDNG VQ KPVGTRTGV UVTQPIGT VJGQTKGU KP
VJG UGEQPFQTFGT VJGQT[ VJCP KP VJG HKTUVQTFGT VJGQT[ DWV VJKU KU PQV DGECWUG YG ECP RTQXG
CP[VJKPI OQTG CDQWV VJG QDLGEVU QH VJG HKTUVQTFGT VJGQT[ DWV QPN[ DGECWUG YG ECP UKPING QWV
URGEKCN QPGU COQPI VJGO D[ OGCPU QH UGEQPFQTFGT HQTOWNCU VJCV YG EQWNF PQV UKPING QWV D[
CTG EQPUGTXCVKXG GZVGPUKQPU M VJCV OWEJ YQWNF HQNNQY HTQO 5JQGPHKGNFOU VJGQTGO CPF
URGEKHKECNN[ HTQO VJG FGIGPGTCVG ECUG QH 5JQGPHKGNFOU VJGQTGO YJGTG VJGTG CTG PQ UEJGOGU VQ DG
TGRNCEGF M DWV UQ CTG VJG KORTGFKECVKXG XGTUKQPU 6JG RTQQH KU XGT[ GCU[ CUUWOKPI HCOKNKCTKV[
0QY + FQ CUUWOG HCOKNKCTKV[ YKVJ UWEJ DCUKE TGUWNVU QH OQFGN VJGQT[ CU VJG UQWPFPGUU CPF
)ÑFGN EQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGOU CPF VJG .ÑYGPJGKO5MQNGO VJGQTGO DWV NGV OG TGOCTM VJCV VJGUG
JQNF HQT OCP[UQTVGF HKTUVQTFGT VJGQTKGU CU YGNN CU HQT QPGUQTVGF HKTUVQTFGT VJGQTKGU 6Q URGEKH[
C OQFGN HQT C QPGUQTVGF VJGQT[ QPG JCU VQ URGEKH[ C PQPGORV[ UGV VJG FQOCKP QXGT YJKEJ KVU
XCTKCDNGU CTG VQ DG VJQWIJV QH CU TCPIKPI CPF HQT GCEJ MRNCEG TGNCVKQPU[ODQN KP VJG NCPIWCIG C
MRNCEG TGNCVKQP QP VJCV UGV VJG FGPQVCVKQP QH VJG U[ODQN CPF UKOKNCTN[ HQT HWPEVKQPU[ODQNU 6Q
URGEKH[ C OQFGN HQT C VYQUQTVGF VJGQT[ QPG JCU VQ URGEKH[ VYQ FQOCKPU QPG HQT VJG QPG UQTV QH
CRRGCTU KP VYQ ECRCEKVKGU UQ VQ URGCM 9JGP UC[ C DKPCT[ TGNCVKQPU[ODQN VCMGU XCTKCDNGU QH VJG
HKTUV UQTV KP VJG HKTUV RNCEG CPF XCTKCDNGU QH VJG UGEQPF UQTV KP VJG UGEQPF RNCEG VJG TGNCVKQP
URGEKHKGF CU KVU FGPQVCVKQP OWUV DG DGVYGGP QDLGEVU KP VJG HKTUV FQOCKP CPF QDLGEVU KP VJG UGEQPF
#RCTV HTQO VJGUG QDXKQWUN[ PGEGUUCT[ EJCPIGU CNN OQFGNVJGQTGVKE PQVKQPU YQTM VJG UCOG YC[ KP
4GECNN VJCV UQ HCT CU SWGUVKQPU CDQWV YJCV KU RTQXCDNG CTG EQPEGTPGF M CPF
EQPUGTXCVKXGPGUU CPF KU QH EQWTUG NKMG EQPUKUVGPE[ C SWGUVKQP CDQWV YJCV KU RTQXCDNG M
UGEQPFQTFGT VJGQTKGU CTG
QT ECP DG XKGYGF CU UKORN[ OCP[UQTVGF HKTUVQTFGT VJGQTKGU 6JG QPN[
OQFGNU YKVJ YJKEJ YG YKNN DG EQPEGTPGF CTG ∈OQFGNU KP YJKEJ VJG FQOCKP QH VJG EQPEGRV
XCTKCDNGU EQPUKUVU QH EGTVCKP UWDUGVU M RGTJCRU CNN QH VJGO RGTJCRU PQV M QH VJG FQOCKP QH VJG
QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU CPF VJG FGPQVCVKQP QH VJG WUWCNN[WPYTKVVGP HCNNKPIWPFGT U[ODQN ∇ KU VJG
TGNCVKQP ∋ QH UGV VQ GNGOGPV +P QVJGT YQTFU C QEQPEGRVR QH VJG OQFGN YKNN DG C UGV QH QQDLGEVUR QH
VJG OQFGN CPF QQDLGEVR YKNN HCNN WPFGT C QEQPEGRVR KH CPF QPN[ KH KV KU CP GNGOGPV VJGTGQH
5KOKNCTN[ QTGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVUR YKNN DG QTGNCVKQPUR YJKEJ OC[ DG EQPUVTWGF CU UGVU QH QTFGTGF
RCKTU 6JG CZKQO QH GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ YKNN EQOG QWV VTWG KP CP[ ∈OQFGN
6JG KPUVCPEG QH EQORTGJGPUKQP HQT HQTOWNC φ
Z YKNN EQOG QWV VTWG KP VJG OQFGN
HQT
HQTOWNC
HQT VJQUG XCNWGU QH VJG RCTCOGVGTU KU KPENWFGF COQPI VJG QEQPEGRVUR QH VJG OQFGN 6JKU
YKNN QDXKQWUN[ CNYC[U DG VJG ECUG KH VJG FQOCKP QH VJG EQPEGRVXCTKCDNGU VJG QEQPEGRVUR QH VJG
OQFGN KPENWFG CNN UWDUGVU QH VJG FQOCKP QH VJG QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU #P ∈OQFGN QH VJKU MKPF YJGTG
VJG FQOCKP QH VJG :XCTKCDNGU DG VJG HWNN RQYGT UGV QT UGV QH CNN UWDUGVU QH VJG FQOCKP QH VJG QDLGEV
6Q TGVWTP PQY VQ VJG EQPUGTXCVKXGPGUU ENCKO UVCVGF CDQXG NGV 6 DG C HKTUVQTFGT VJGQT[ +
HKTUV ENCKO VJCV KH 6 KU EQPUKUVGPV VJGP VJG TGUWNV 6 QH CFFKPI HWNN KORTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT
NQIKE VQ 6 KU CNUQ EQPUKUVGPV (QT KH 6 KU EQPUKUVGPV D[ VJG )ÑFGN EQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGO KV JCU C
OQFGN #U LWUV GZRNCKPGF VJKU OQFGN ECP DG VWTPGF KPVQ C OQFGN QH 6 M C UVCPFCTF OQFGN 5KPEG
6 VJWU JCU C OQFGN KV KU EQPUKUVGPV CU ENCKOGF 6JG EQPUGTXCVKXGPGUU TGUWNV HQNNQYU KOOGFKCVGN[
HTQO VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ TGUWNV (QT KH φ KU C HQTOWNC QH VJG NCPIWCIG QH 6 VJCV KU PQV RTQXCDNG KP 6
VJGP 6
`φ KU EQPUKUVGPV CPF CRRN[KPI VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ TGUWNV VQ KV KV HQNNQYU VJCV 6
`φ KU
6JG DGUVMPQYP 9CPIUV[NG UGV VJGQT[ KU KPFGGF QPG DCUGF QP C EQPUKFGTCDN[ UVTQPIGT
WPFGTN[KPI HKTUVQTFGT UGV VJGQT[ VJCP CP[ QH VJG YGCM QPGU YG JCXG EQPUKFGTGF JGTG +V KU
UGEQPFQTFGT UGV VJGQT[ VJCV 9CPI RTQRQUGF CU C TGRNCEGOGPV HQT VJG KPEQPUKUVGPV U[UVGO /.
KPVTQFWEGF KP VJG HKTUV GFKVKQP QH 3WKPGOU /CVJGOCVKECN .QIKE +P VJKU ECUG VJG HKTUVQTFGT UGV
0( JCU KPVGTGUVGF C PWODGT QH YTKVGTU DGECWUG KV CNNQYU HQT C WPKXGTUCN UGV M KP VJKU
TGURGEV KV KU C \KI\CI TCVJGT VJCP C NKOKVCVKQP QH UK\G VJGQT[ M VJQWIJ YG JCXG UGGP C EQWRNG QH
QVJGT UKORNGT UGV VJGQTKGU 2( CPF 72( VJCV FQ UQ CU YGNN CPF YKNN UGG CPQVJGT KP VJG PGZV EJCRVGT
6JG KFGC WPFGTN[KPI VJG EJQKEG QH GZKUVGPEG CZKQOU KP 0( KU WP(TGIGCP /QTGQXGT HQT 0( VJG
TGNCVKXG VQ CP[ VJGQT[ KP YJQUG EQPUKUVGPE[ VJGTG KU CP[ XGT[ IGPGTCN EQPHKFGPEG COQPI
URGEKCNKUVU (QT VJGUG TGCUQPU + YKNN NGCXG 0( CPF OQTG IGPGTCNN[ 9CPIUV[NG UGV VJGQTKGU CPF
VJG \KI\CI KFGC CUKFG JGTG CPF TGVWTP VQ VJG RTQRGT UWDLGEV QH VJKU EJCRVGT RTGFKECVKXG VJGQTKGU
%QPUKUVGPE[/QFGN6JGQTGVKE2TQQHU
1PG OKIJV YGNN JQRG VJCV KH QPG TQWPF QH RTGFKECVKXG EQPEGRVU IGVU WU 0GNUQP9KNMKG
CTKVJOGVKE 3 YKVJ CFFKVKQP CPF OWNVKRNKECVKQP CPF KH VYQ TQWPFU IGVU WU -CNOCT CTKVJOGVKE 3
YKVJ GZRQPGPVKCVKQP VJGP VJTGG TQWPFU YQWNF IGV WU )GPV\GP CTKVJOGVKE 3 YKVJ
RTGFKECVKXG VJGQT[ YG YQWNF IGV CNN RTKOKVKXG TGEWTUKXG HWPEVKQPU 0QVJKPI QH VJG UQTV KU VJG ECUG
HQT C TGCUQP
RQKPVGF QWV VQ VJG CWVJQT KP C FKHHGTGPV EQPVGZV D[ 5CWN -TKRMG VJCV KU ENQUGN[
EQPPGEVGF YKVJ VJG TGCUQP YJ[ + JCXG CVVCEJGF )GPV\GPOU PCOG VQ 3
6JG TGCUQP KU UKORN[ VJKU VJCV VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH VJG VJGQTKGU 28 CPF 28 CPF VJG
CPCNQIQWU 28 28 W CU YGNN CU VJCV QH VJG VJGQTKGU KP VJG RCTCNNGN UGTKGU DGIKPPKPI YKVJ 2*2
ECP DG RTQXGF WUKPI QHKPKVKUVKER RTQQHVJGQTGVKE OGVJQFU RKQPGGTGF D[ )GPV\GP YJKEJ CTG MPQYP
VQ DG HQTOCNK\CDNG KP 3 $WV )ÑFGNOU UGEQPF EQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGO UC[U TQWIJN[ URGCMKPI VJCV
PQ EQPUKUVGPV VJGQT[ 6 ECP RTQXG KVU QYP EQPUKUVGPE[ CPF KORNKGU VJCV PQ VJGQT[ VJCV KU
KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 6 ECP RTQXG VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH 6 +V HQNNQYU VJCV KH VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH C VJGQT[ 6
ECP DG RTQXGF KP 3M VJGP VJG 3O HQT O n M ECPPQV DG KPVGTRTGVGF KP 6 +P VJKU YC[ YG IGV WRRGT
DQWPFU QP JQY NCTIG C HTCIOGPV QH CTKVJOGVKE ECP DG KPVGTRTGVGF KP QWT RTGFKECVKXG (TGIGCP
U[UVGOU
+P VJKU UGEVKQP + YKNN FGUETKDG QKPHKPKUVKER OQFGNVJGQTGVKE EQPUKUVGPE[ RTQQHU HQT VJG
XCTKQWU RTGFKECVKXG (TGIGCP U[UVGOU KP VJG PGZV + YKNN FGUETKDG YJCV PGGFU VQ DG FQPG VQ EQPXGTV
VJGUG KPVQ QHKPKVKUVKER RTQQHVJGQTGVKE EQPUKUVGPE[ RTQQHU /[ IQCN KP VJKU UGEVKQP YKNN DG VQ
FGUETKDG OQFGNU HQT VJG UGEQPFQTFGT VJGQTKGU 28 CPF 28 D[ C OGVJQF VJCV QDXKQWUN[ ECP DG
GZVGPFGF VQ 28 CPF DG[QPF #U HQT 2*2 KV KU C UWDVJGQT[ QH HWNN KORTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT
NQIKE RNWU *2 M C U[UVGO QHVGP ECNNGF (TGIG CTKVJOGVKE M HQT YJKEJ C UKORNG OQFGNVJGQTGVKE
EQPUKUVGPE[ RTQQH YKNN DG FKUEWUUGF KP VJG PGZV EJCRVGT
6JG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH 28 CPF 28 YKNN DG RTQXGF KP VJKU UGEVKQP D[ RTQXKPI VJG EQPUKUVGPE[
EQPXGPKGPV VQ VJKPM QH ℘8 CU DGKPI QDVCKPGF KP VYQ UVCIGU (KTUV NGV . DG VJG NCPIWCIG YKVJ
∃: ∀Z
: Z ↔ φ
Z
YJGTG φ
Z KU C HQTOWNC QH .
φ
Z KU RGTOKVVGF VQ EQPVCKP DQWPF HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU
0QVG VJCV
0QY NGV . CFF VJG GZVGPUKQP U[ODQN U CPF NGV 6 ℘8 CFF .CY 8
U
:
U
;
↔ ∀\
:
\ ↔; \
0QY
IKXGU HWNN KORTGFKECVKXG EQORTGJGPUKQP HQT HQTOWNCU PQV KPXQNXKPI U
*C\GP
RQKPVU QWV VJCV HQT HQTOWNCU YKVJQWV DQWPF EQPEGRVXCTKCDNGU GCEJ KPUVCPEG QH EQORTGJGPUKQP HQT
EQPEGRVXCTKCDNGU KP φ
Z W 9 YJGTG
W UVCPFU HQT C UVTKPI QH QDLGEV RCTCOGVGTU WK CPF 9
HQT C
HTQO YJKEJ φ
Z W9
ECP DG TGEQXGTGF D[ UWDUVKVWVKPI U
9 K
HQT XK 6JGP
VGNNU WU
ψ
Z WX9
FGVGTOKPGU C EQPEGRV HQT CNN XCNWGU QH VJG RCTCOGVGTU CPF UKPEG VJKU KPENWFGU VJG
XCNWGU X U 9 K
KV HQNNQYU VJCV φ
Z W9
FGVGTOKPGU C EQPEGRV 6JWU YG JCXG VJG HQNNQYKPI
UVTGPIVJGPGF XGTUKQP QH
∃: ∀Z
: Z ↔ φ
Z
YJGTG φ
Z KU C HQTOWNC QH . VJCV
6JG KPUVCPEG QH EQORTGJGPUKQP VJCV IQV (TGIG KPVQ VTQWDNG KV YKNN DG TGECNNGF YCU HQT
∃:
Z U: `:Z 6JKU VTQWDNGUQOG KPUVCPEG KPXQNXGU DQVJ C DQWPF EQPEGRVXCTKCDNG CPF CP
QEEWTTGPEG QH U +PUKUVKPI VJCV VJG UCOG HQTOWNC OC[ PQV KPXQNXG DQVJ VWTPU QWV VQ DG GPQWIJ VQ
UGEQPFTQWPF EQPEGRVXCTKCDNGU :
;
<
W CPF NGV 6 CFF EQORTGJGPUKQP
∃: ∀Z
: Z ↔ φ
Z
YJGTG φ
Z KU C HQTOWNC QH .
C U
: U
;
↔ ∀\
:
\ ↔;
\
D U
: U
;
↔ ∀\
:
\ ↔;
\
XGTUKQP
KPENWFGU VJG EQORTGJGPUKQP UEJGOG HQT 28
UGV CPF VCMG / CU VJG FQOCKP HQT VJG QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU +H YG VCMG VJG HWNN RQYGT UGV ℘
/ QT UGV
QH CNN UWDUGVU QH / CU VJG FQOCKP HQT VJG HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU YG YKNN IGV C OQFGN QH VJG
EQORTGJGPUKQP CZKQOU
$WV VJGTG KU PQ YC[ YKVJ VJKU U
OQFGN VQ CUUKIP C FGPQVCVKQP VQ
VJCV
VJG FQOCKP QH VJG HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU QPGVQQPG KPVQ VJG FQOCKP QH VJG QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU
CPF ℘
/ ECPPQV DG OCRRGF QPGVQQPG KPVQ / D[ %CPVQTOU VJGQTGO
5Q KPUVGCF YG CRRN[ VJG .ÑYGPJGKO5MQNGO VJGQTGO YJKEJ CRRNKGF VQ VJKU UKVWCVKQP VGNNU
KPHKPKVG VJGTG YKNN DG C QPGVQQPG HWPEVKQP HTQO VJG HQTOGT KPVQ VJG NCVVGT 9KVJ CP G[G VQ HWTVJGT
W GNGOGPVU QH VJG HQTOGT VQ VJG HKTUV VJKTF HKHVJ W GNGOGPVU QH VJG NCVVGT 6CMKPI A
VJKTF
CU VJG
9G PQY TGRGCV VJG RTQEGUU 6Q IGV C OQFGN QH 6 HKTUV VCMG CU VJG FQOCKP QH VJG
YKNN DG FQKPI FQWDNGFWV[ CU RQUUKDNG XCNWGU QH HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU CPF CU RQUUKDNG
VJGTG CTG KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ GNGOGPVU QH / VJCV CTG PQV KP VJG TCPIG QH A VJGTG YKNN DG C QPGVQQPG
EQTTGURQPFGPEG I DGVYGGP /
CPF UWEJ GNGOGPVU QH / 9G ECPPQV LWUV VCMG I CU VJG FGPQVCVKQP QH
U
DGECWUG
C TGSWKTGU CP[ GNGOGPV QH /
VJCV YCU CNTGCF[ RTGUGPV KP /
VQ DG CUUKIPGF VJG
UCOG QDLGEV D[ VJG HWPEVKQPU UGTXKPI CU FGPQVCVKQPU QH U CPF U 5Q KPUVGCF VCMG CU VJG FGPQVCVKQP
QH U
VJG HWPEVKQP A
VJCV UGPFU CP GNGOGPV # QH /
VQ A
# KH # KU KP / CPF VQ I
# KH PQV 6JKU
IKXGU C OQFGN QH 6 ℘ 8
0QVG VJCV VJGTG CWVQOCVKECNN[ YKNN DG KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ GNGOGPVU QH / VJCV CTG KP VJG TCPIG
PGKVJGT QH A
PQT QH A PCOGN[ VJG XCNWGU
I
# HQT VJG KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ # KP /
VJCV YGTG CNTGCF[
KP /
6JG RTQEGUU ECP DG KVGTCVGF KPFGHKPKVGN[ CPF CRRNKGU VQ RQN[CFKE CU YGNN CU OQPCFKE
UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE CPF KU CFCRVCDNG VQ VJGQTKGU YKVJ *WOGOU RTKPEKRNG KP RNCEG QH .CY 8 UQ YG
4GUVTKEVGF *GEM %QPUKUVGPE[ 6JGQTGO 4COKHKGF RTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE YKVJ .CY 8
6JG SWCNKHKGT Q4GUVTKEVGFR CRRGCTU KP VJG PCOG QH VJG VJGQTGO DGECWUG VJG U[UVGOU HQT YJKEJ
*GEM RTQXGF EQPUKUVGPE[ CTG UVTQPIGT VJCP VJQUG KP VJG 28UGTKGU CPF JGPEG JKU EQPUKUVGPE[
TGUWNV KU UVTQPIGT VJCP YJCV JCU LWUV DGGP UVCVGF /QTG YKNN DG UCKF QP VJKU VQRKE VQYCTFU VJG GPF QH
VJKU EJCRVGT
%QPUKUVGPE[2TQQH6JGQTGVKE2TQQHU
.GV . DG VJG NCPIWCIG YKVJ QPN[ QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU Z [ \ W CPF YKVJ PQ PQPNQIKECN
TGNCVKQP QT HWPEVKQPU[ODQNU DWV LWUV VJG KFGPVKV[ U[ODQN .GV 6 DG VJG VJGQT[ YJQUG CZKQOU
PCVWTCN PWODGTU YKNN DG C OQFGN QH 6 R NGCXKPI VCEKV QCPF UQ D[ VJG UQWPFPGUU VJGQTGO 6 KU
EQPUKUVGPVR 6JG RTQQH VJGQTKUV OKIJV UC[ Q$GECWUG CP[ FGFWEVKQP QH C EQPVTCFKEVKQP HTQO 6
YQWNF WUG QPN[ HKPKVGN[ OCP[ QH KVU CZKQOU $WV HQT GCEJ P YG ECP GZRNKEKVN[ GZJKDKV C HKPKVG
QH RTQQHVJGQT[ YJKEJ IGPGTCNN[ FQ PQV TGSWKTG HQT VJGKT HQTOCNK\CVKQP CP[VJKPI DG[QPF 3M HQT
+P VJKU UGEVKQP + YKNN HKTUV WUG VJTGG RTKPEKRNGU MPQYP VQ JCXG HKPKVKUVKE RTQQHU VQ GUVCDNKUJ C
PWODGT QH NGOOCU YJKEJ NGOOCU YKNN VJGP DG WUGF VQ IKXG RTQQHVJGQTGVKE HKPKVKUVKE RTQQHU QH
VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH 28 28 CPF 2*2 + JCXG CNTGCF[ GZRNCKPGF JQY VJG GZKUVGPEG QH UWEJ RTQQHU
KORNKGU
D[ EQPUKFGTCVKQPU TGNCVGF VQ )ÑFGNOU UGEQPF KPEQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGO VJCV YG CTG PQV
IQKPI VQ DG CDNG VQ IQ HCT WR VJG UECNG QH VJGQTKGU 3 3 3 W KP KPVGTRTGVKPI YGCM CTKVJOGVKEU
KP RTGFKECVKXG (TGIGCP VJGQTKGU
6JG VJTGG RTKPEKRNGU VJCV YKNN DG VJG OCKP KPITGFKGPVU QH VJG YQTM KP VJKU UGEVKQP CTG
5JQGPHKGNFOU VJGQTGO YJKEJ YG OGV OQUV TGEGPVN[ KP VJG FKUEWUUKQP QH \KI\CI QT 9CPIUV[NG UGV
VJGQTKGU VJG .ÑYGPJGKO$GJOCPP VJGQTGO YJKEJ YG OGV GCTN[ KP VJKU EJCRVGT YJGP FKUEWUUKPI
JQY OWEJ UGV VJGQT[ YG IGV HTQO UKORNG RTGFKECVKXG UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE RNWU .CY 8 CPF %TCKIOU
HTQO φ VJGP VJGTG KU C HQTOWNC θ ECNNGF CP KPVGTRQNCPV UWEJ VJCV ψ KU NQIKECNN[ FGFWEKDNG HTQO θ
CPF θ KU NQIKECNN[ FGFWEKDNG HTQO φ CPF θ KPXQNXGU QPN[ XQECDWNCT[ EQOOQP VQ φ CPF ψ YJKEJ KU
θ KPXQNXGU PQ PQPNQIKECN U[ODQNU QVJGT VJCP QPGU VJCV QEEWT DQVJ KP φ CPF KP ψ
VQ UC[ VJCV
6GZVDQQM RTGUGPVCVKQPU QH VJKU CPF VJG QVJGT VYQ TGUWNVU M YJGP VGZVDQQMU RTGUGPV VJGO CV CNN M
VGPF VQ IKXG KPHKPKVKUVKE OQFGNVJGQTGVKE RTQQHU HQT VJGO DGECWUG VJGUG CTG VJG GCUKGUV RTQQHU VQ
IKXG $WV KP GCEJ ECUG VJGTG KU CP JKUVQTKECNN[ GCTN[ VJQWIJ OQTG FKHHKEWNV HKPKVKUVKE RTQQH
6JG %TCKI CPF .ÑYGPJGKO$GJOCPP VJGQTGOU CTG WUGF VQIGVJGT VQ IKXG C HKPKVKUVKE RTQQH
VJGQTGVKE RTQQH QH YJCV + YKNN ECNN VJG URNKVVKPI NGOOC CPF VJG GSWKPWOGTCVKQP NGOOC YJKEJ +
OWUV PQY UVCVG #NN VJGQTKGU KP VJKU UGTKGU QH NGOOCU CTG HKTUVQTFGT
`∃Z
2Z `φ
Z
∃MZ 2
Z ∃M
`2
Z φ
Z HQT GCEJ M n
6JGP 6 KU ECNNGF VJG URNKVVKPI GZVGPUKQP QH 6 HQT φ 6JG URNKVVKPI NGOOC UC[U VJCV C URNKVVKPI
/QFGNVJGQTGVKECNN[ VJKU KU VTKXKCN 5KPEG 6 KU EQPUKUVGPV KV JCU C OQFGN HQT YJKEJ D[ VJG
CZKQOU ∃Mφ
M VJG UGV QH QDLGEVU UCVKUH[KPI φ
Z OWUV DG KPHKPKVG #P[ KPHKPKVG UGV OC[ DG FKXKFGF
KPVQ C RCKT QH FKULQKPV KPHKPKVG UWDUGVU CPF VCMKPI QPG QH VJG RCKT CU VJG FGPQVCVKQP QH 2 YG IGV C
VJCVφ
Z JCU VJG HQTO 2Z HQT UQOG QPGRNCEG TGNCVKQP U[ODQN QH . UKPEG QVJGTYKUG YG ECP TGRNCEG
. D[ VJG NCPIWCIG LWUV NKMG KV GZEGRV HQT CFFKPI C 2 CDDTGXKCVKQP φ (QT UJQTV NGV WU YTKVG ∃M2 HQT
CZKQO
OC[ DG YTKVVGP ∃M2 ∃M
`2 2 0QY UWRRQUG VJCV EQPVTCT[ VQ VJG EQPENWUKQP QH VJG
NGOOC 6 KU KPEQPUKUVGPV 6JGP C EQPVTCFKEVKQP ECP DG NQIKECNN[ FGFWEGF HTQO UQOG HKPKVGN[
OCP[ QH KVU CZKQOU 5KPEG ∃M2 KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO ∃O2 HQT O n M CPF UKOKNCTN[ HQT `2 2 YG
EQPLWPEVKQP τ QH UQOG HKPKVGN[ OCP[ CZKQOU QH 6 VQIGVJGT YKVJ VJG HQNNQYKPI HQTOWNC ψO
`∃
2`2 ∃O2 ∃O
`2 2
'SWKXCNGPVN[ `ψO KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO τ 6JG %TCKI KPVGTRQNCVKQP VJGQTGO KORNKGU VJCV VJGTG KU CP
KPVGTRQNCPVθ UWEJ VJCV QPG VJG QPG JCPF θ KU NQIKECNN[ FGFWEKDNG HTQO τ CPF JGPEG HTQO 6 YJKNG
QP VJG QVJGT JCPF `ψO KU NQIKECNN[ FGFWEKDNG HTQO θ /QTGQXGT VJG KPVGTRQNCPV EQPVCKPU PQ
TGNCVKQP QT HWPEVKQP U[ODQNU QVJGT VJCP VJG NQIKECN QPG CPF QPGU VJCV CTG CRRGCT KP DQVJ τ CPF
`ψO #PF VJG QPN[ U[ODQN QH VJG NCVVGT MKPF KU 2
.GV P DG CP[ PWODGT ITGCVGT VJCP QT GSWCN VQ VJG OCZKOWO QH O CPF VJG PWODGT QH DQWPF
XCTKCDNGU KP θ 5KPEG ψO KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO ψP KV HQNNQYU VJCV `ψP KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO θ $[ VJG
.ÑYGPJGKO$GJOCPP VJGQTGO θ KU NQIKECNN[ GSWKXCNGPV VQ C FKULWPEVKQP QH EQPLWPEVKQPU GCEJ
EQPUKUVKPI QH VYQ EQPLWPEVU VJG HKTUV DGKPI GKVJGT ∃M2 HQT UQOG M P QT ∃P2 CPF VJG UGEQPF
DGKPI GKVJGT ∃M`2 HQT UQOG M P QT ∃P`2 5KPEG 6 KU EQPUKUVGPV θ KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO 6 CPF ∃P2
CPF VJGTGHQTG `∃M2 KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO 6 VJGTG OWUV DG CV NGCUV QPG FKULWPEV YKVJ ∃P2 CU KVU HKTUV
EQPLWPEV 5KPEGθ KU NQIKECNN[ FGFWEKDNG HTQO CP[ QH KVU FKULWPEVU CPF UKPEG ∃P`2 KU NQIKECNN[
FGFWEKDNG HTQO ∃P`2 VJGTG KU UQOG M m P UWEJ VJCV `ψP KU NQIKECNN[ FGFWEKDNG HTQO ∃P2
∃M`2 #PF UKPEG VJG VJKTF EQPLWPEV QH ψP KORNKGU ∃P2 CEVWCNN[ `ψP KU NQIKECNN[ FGFWEKDNG HTQO
∃M`2 CNQPG $WV VJKU KU CDUWTF UKPEG HQT CP[ P CPF M YG ECP GZRNKEKVN[ GZJKDKV C OQFGN QH
∃M`2 ψP YKVJ P
M QDLGEVU QH YJKEJ P UCVKUH[ 2 Z
2Z P UCVKUH[ `2Z 2Z PQPG UCVKUH[
2Z `2Z CPF M UCVKUH[ `2Z `2Z 6JG UWRRQUKVKQP VJCV 6 KU KPEQPUKUVGPV JCU DGGP TGFWEGF VQ
CDUWTFKV[
#ICKP NGV 6 φ
Z CPF ψ
Z CTG ECNNGF GSWKPWOGTCVKQP
DG C VJGQT[ KP C NCPIWCIG . (QTOWNCU
HQTOWNCU HQT 6 KH `∃
φψ KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO 6 CPF ∃Mφ CPF ∃Mψ CTG FGFWEKDNG HTQO 6 HQT GCEJ M
0QVG VJCV ∃M
φ`ψ CPF ∃M
`φψ HQNNQY KOOGFKCVGN[ .GV . CFF C QPGRNCEG HWPEVKQP U[ODQN
H CPF NGV 6 CFF CU CP CZKQO VJG EQPLWPEVKQP χ
φ ψ QH VJG HQNNQYKPI
∀Z
φ
Z → ψ
H
Z
∀Z ∀Z
φ
Z φ
Z →
H
Z
H
Z ↔Z Z
∀[
ψ
[ → ∃Z
φ
Z H
Z [
5Q χ
φ ψ UC[U VJCV H GUVCDNKUJGU C QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG DGVYGGP VJG Z UWEJ VJCV φ
Z CPF
VJG Z UWEJ VJCV ψ
Z 6JKU 6 KU ECNNGF VJG GSWKPWOGTCVKQP GZVGPUKQP QH 6 HQT φ CPF ψ 6JG
GSWKPWOGTCVKQP NGOOC UC[U VJCV CP GSWKPWOGTCVKQP GZVGPUKQP QH C EQPUKUVGPV VJGQT[ KU EQPUKUVGPV
VJGQTGO 2TQQHVJGQTGVKECNN[ QPG DGIKPU D[ CUUWOKPI φ CPF ψ CTG QPGRNCEG RTGFKECVGU 2 CPF 2
CPF CRRN[KPI VJG %TCKI KPVGTRQNCVKQP VJGQTGO VQ IGV C θ UWEJ VJCV θ KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO 6
`χ
2 2 KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO θ CPF θ KPXQNXGU QPN[ CPF 2 CPF 2 6JG .ÑYGPJGKO$GJOCPP
VJGQTGO KORNKGU VJCV θ OC[ DG VCMGP VQ DG C FKULWPEVKQP QH EQPLWPEVKQPU QH UVCVGOGPVU CDQWV VJG
PWODGTU QH QDLGEVU UCVKUH[KPI GCEJ QH VJG HQWT EQODKPCVKQPU QH 2 CPF 2 7UKPI VJG HCEV 6 KORNKGU
`∃
22 CPF ∃P
2 `2 CPF
∃P
`2 2 KV HQNNQYU VJCV HQT UQOG
P CPF M m P VJG VJTGG
HQTOWNCU LWUV OGPVKQPGF VQIGVJGT YKVJ ∃M
`2 `2 CTG KPEQPUKUVGPV YKVJ χ
2 2 $WV VJKU KU
CDUWTF UKPEG KV KU RQUUKDNG VQ GZJKDKV GZRNKEKVN[ C HKPKVG OQFGN YKVJ P M QDLGEVU PQPG UCVKUH[KPI
22 P UCVKUH[KPI 2`2 P UCVKUH[KPI `22 CPF M UCVKUH[KPI `2`2 YKVJ C HWPEVKQP VJCV
KU VJG KFGPVKV[ QP VJGUG NCUV M QDLGEVU CPF UYKVEJGU VJG VYQ ENCUUGU QH P QDLGEVU
6JGUG VYQ DCUKE NGOOCU KORN[ C PWODGT QH QVJGTU #ICKP NGV 6 DG C VJGQT[ KP C NCPIWCIG
. .GV φ
Z DG C URNKVVKPI HQTOWNC HQT 6 .GV . CFF C QPGRNCEG TGNCVKQP U[ODQN H CPF NGV 6 CFF CU
CP CZKQO VJG EQPLWPEVKQP QH VJG HQNNQYKPI
∀Zφ
HZ
∀Z∀[
H
Z H
[ ↔ Z [
∃M[
φ
[ `∃Z
H
Z [ HQT CNN M n
KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ UWEJ QDLGEVU NGHV QXGT 6JKU 6 KU ECNNGF VJG KPLGEVKQP GZVGPUKQP QH 6 HQT φ 6JG
6Q UGG VJKU YG OC[ CUUWOG φ KU C RTGFKECVG 2 #RRN[ URNKVVKPI VQ 2 VQ IGV 2 CPF URNKVVKPI
VQ 2 VQ IGV 2 #RRN[ GSWKPWOGTQUKV[ VYKEG VQ IGV C QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG I DGVYGGP `2
CPF 2 CPF C QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG J DGVYGGP 2 CPF 2`2 &GHKPG H
Z VQ DG VJG
CRRTQRTKCVG QPGRNCEG TGNCVKQP U[ODQNU CNN VJTGG NGOOCU OGPVKQPGF UQ HCT JCXG OCP[UQTVGF
XGTUKQPU
∀Z
ψ
Z → θ
Z Z
∀Z∀[
ψ
Z ψ
[ →
θ
Z [ → θ
[ Z
∀Z∀[∀\
ψ
Z ψ
[ ψ
\ →
θ
Z [ θ
[ \ → θ
Z \
.GV . DG CU KP VJG KPLGEVKQP NGOOC CPF NGV 6 CFF CU CZKQOU VJG HQNNQYKPI
∀Z
ψ
Z → φ
H
Z
∀Z∀[
ψ
Z ψ
[ →
H
Z H
[ ↔ θ
Z [
CPF
CU CDQXG HQT CNN M n 5Q 6 UC[U VJCV H OCRU VJG QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ ψ JQNFU VQ VJQUG HQT
YJKEJ φ JQNFU UGPFKPI GSWKXCNGPV CPF QPN[ GSWKXCNGPV CTIWOGPVU VQ VJG UCOG XCNWGU YKVJ
KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ φ JQNFU NGHV QXGT 6JKU 6 KU ECNNGF VJG TGRTGUGPVCVKXG GZVGPUKQP
QH 6 HQT φ CPF ψ CPF θ 6JG TGRTGUGPVCVKXGU NGOOC UC[U VJCV C TGRTGUGPVCVKXG GZVGPUKQP QH C
EQPUKUVGPV VJGQT[ KU EQPUKUVGPV
9G OC[ UWRRQUG . JCU CV NGCUV QPG EQPUVCPV C HQT YJKEJ 6 RTQXGU ψ
C HQT KH PQV QPG ECP
DG EQPUKUVGPVN[
KP HCEV EQPUGTXCVKXGN[ CFFGF UKPEG 6 RTQXGU ∃Zψ
Z 9G OC[ VJGP KPVTQFWEG CP
CWZKNKCT[ NCPIWCIG YJKEJ CFFU CP GZVTC UQTV ξ υ ζ W QH XCTKCDNGU CPF PGY QPGRNCEG
.
T
HWPEVKQP U[ODQN T VCMKPI CTIWOGPVU QH UQTV CPF IKXKPI XCNWGU QH UQTV ξ CPF CP CWZKNKCT[ VJGQT[
H Z
6
T YJKEJ CFFU VJG HQNNQYKPI CU CZKQOU
∀Z
`ψ
Z → HT
Z HT
C
∀Z∀[
ψ
Z ψ
[ →
HT
Z HT
[ ↔ θ
Z [
+V KU HCKTN[ GCUKN[ UGGP VJCV T KU EQPUKUVGPV /QFGNVJGQTGVKECNN[ CU VJG FQOCKP QH VJG PGY UQTV QH
6
XCTKCDNGU YG OC[ VCMG GSWKXCNGPEG ENCUUGU QH QDLGEVU HQT YJKEJ ψ JQNFU WPFGT VJG GSWKXCNGPEG
IKXGP D[ θ YKVJ T FGPQVKPI VJG HWPEVKQP VCMKPI GCEJ QDLGEV HQT YJKEJ ψ JQNFU VQ KVU UGV QH
H
GSWKXCNGPVU CPF VQ CNN QVJGTU VJG UGV QH GSWKXCNGPVU QH VJG QDLGEV FGPQVGF D[ 2TQQHVJGQTGVKECNN[ C
∀ξ
W CU ∀
ψ
→ W KPVGTRTGVKPI T
ψ
CPF CPF KPVGTRTGVKPI ξ υ CU θ
YJGTG CPF CTG VJG XCTKCDNGU CUUQEKCVGF VQ VJG
Z [ Z Z [ Z [ Z
ξXCTKCDNGU ξ CPF υ
.GV TT CFF C QPGRNCEG HWPEVKQP U[ODQN TT VCMKPI CTIWOGPVU QH UQTV ξ CPF IKXKPI XCNWGU
. H
∀ξφ
HTT
ξ
∀ξ∀υ
HTT
ξ HTT
υ ↔ ξ W
∃M[
φ
[ `∃ξ
HTT
ξ [ HQT CNN M n
6JGP TT KU EQPUKUVGPV D[ CP CRRTQRTKCVG OCP[UQTVGF XGTUKQP QH VJG KPLGEVKQP NGOOC 6JGP
6 6
# HQNF
P KU C RNCEG TGNCVKQP YKVJ VJG RTQRGTVKGU CPCNQIQWU VQ VJQUG QH CP
GSWKXCNGPEG P '
GSWKXCNGPEG (QT GZCORNG C VTKRNG GSWKXCNGPEG YQWNF DG C RNCEG TGNCVKQP YKVJ VJG HQNNQYKPI
RTQRGTVKGU
4Z Z Z Z Z Z
4Z Z Z [ [ [ → 4[[[ZZZ
[
4Z Z Z [ [ →
4[ [ [ \ \ \
4Z Z Z \ \ \
*GTG
CTG LWUV TGHNGZKXKV[ U[OOGVT[ CPF VTCPUKVKXKV[ KP VTKRNKECVG 6JG
TGRTGUGPVCVKXGU NGOOC JQNFU CNUQ HQT HQNF GSWKXCNGPEGU /QFGNVJGQTGVKECNN[ VJG FQOCKP QH VJG
P
CWZKNKCT[ XCTKCDNGU ξ YQWNF DG VJG UGV QH UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU QH VWRNGU WPFGT VJG GSWKXCNGPEG QP P
P VWRNGU QH QDLGEVU CUUQEKCVGF KP VJG QDXKQWU YC[ YKVJ VJG HQNF GSWKXCNGPEG QP QDLGEVU 2TQQH
P
QH KPVGTRTGVCVKQP VJCP YG JCXG EQPUKFGTGF UQ HCT (WTVJGT DGNNU CPF YJKUVNGU EQWNF DG CFFGF DWV
YG JCXG PQY GPQWIJ OCEJKPGT[ HQT C PWODGT QH EQPUKUVGPE[ RTQQHU
# HKPKVKUVKE RTQQHVJGQTGVKE RTQQH QH EQPUKUVGPE[ RTQQH HQT 28 ECP PQY DG QDVCKPGF HTQO
VJG KPHKPKVKUVKE OQFGNVJGQTGVKE RTQQH QH EQPUKUVGPE[ HQT ℘8 KP VJG RTGEGFKPI UGEVKQP D[
UWDUVKVWVKPI CRRGCN VQ 5JQGPHKGNFOU VJGQTGO HQT CRRGCN VQ VJG GZKUVGPEG QH VJG RQYGT UGV CPF
CRRGCN VQ %TCKIOU VJGQTGO CPF VJG .ÑYGPJGKO$GJOCPP VJGQTGOU VJG NGOOCU CDQXG HQT XKC
W VQ
CPF YKVJ VJGO CVQOKE HQTOWNCU QH VJG V[RG
CPF NGV
: ; < . CFF RTGFKECVKXG
: Z 6
U U ↔ ≡
:
∃M `∃
U HQT CNN n
; : ;
Z : Z : M
CPF φ DGKPI VCMGP UKORN[ D[ VJG UQTVCN RTGFKECVG HQT UQTV CPF KVU PGICVKQP TGURGEVKXGN[ 9G
Z
JCXG UGGP VJCV KPUVCPEGU QH EQORTGJGPUKQP HQT HQTOWNCU YKVJQWV DQWPF XCTKCDNGU DWV YKVJ VJG :
U[ODQN U HQNNQY HTQO VJG KPUVCPEGU YKVJQWV DQWPF XCTKCDNGU CPF YKVJ VJG U[ODQN U 5Q YG
:
5JQGPHKGNFOU VJGQTGO .GV CFF C PGY HWPEVKQP U[ODQN T CPF NGV CFF VJG HQNNQYKPI CZKQOU
. 6
T T: ; ↔ : ≡ ;
T lU:
:
PQV [GV SWKVG YJCV YG YCPV $WV KV YKNN DG RTQXCDNG KP VJCV HQT GXGT[ VJGTG GZKUVU C WPKSWG
6 : Z
`∃ ∀
↔ T
: \ : \ : \ Z :
6JKU OC[ DG ECNNGF U CPF VJGP YG YKNN JCXG CNN VJG CZKQOU QH 28
Z :
6JG RTQQH HQT 2*2 2*2 KU GUUGPVKCNN[ VJG UCOG YKVJ CP CRRGCN VQ VJG TGRTGUGPVCVKXGU
NGOOC
QH YJKEJ VJG KPLGEVKQP NGOOC KU VJG URGEKCN ECUG YJGTG VJG GSWKXCNGPEG KPXQNXGF KU
KFGPVKV[ KP RNCEG QH VJG KPLGEVKQP NGOOC $QVJ YKVJ .CY 8 CU CZKQO CPF YKVJ *2 CU CZKQO VJG
RTQEGUU ECP DG KVGTCVGF KPFGHKPKVGN[ VJTQWIJ VJG UKPING FQWDNG VTKRNG RTGFKECVKXG VJGQTKGU CPF QP
VQ VJGKT WPKQP VJG HWNN TCOKHKGF RTGFKECVKXG VJGQT[
#U OGPVKQPGF GCTNKGT VJG RTQQH QH )GPV\GPOU EWVGNKOKPCVKQP VJGQTGO HTQO YJKEJ CNN QWT
QVJGT NGOOCU YGTG FGTKXGF KP C HCKTN[ GNGOGPVCT[ YC[ TGSWKTGU VJG UWRGTGZRQPGPVKCN HWPEVKQP
CPF KU MPQYP VQ DG HQTOCNK\CDNG KP 3 +∆
UWRGTGZR UWRGTGZRQPGPVKCN HWPEVKQPCN CTKVJOGVKE
+V HQNNQYU M VJQWIJ + JCXG JCTFN[ FQVVGF GXGT[ QT ETQUUGF GXGT[ KP VJG RTQQH M VJCV VJG
EQPUKUVGPE[ QH 2P8 KU RTQXCDNG HQT GCEJ W KP 3 6JG RTQQH QH VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH VJGKT
K V
WPKQP 2ω8 YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ VJG RTQQH VJCV HQT GXGT[ VJG VJGQT[ 2P8 KU EQPUKUVGPV TGSWKTGU VJG
P
CUUWORVKQP VJCV HQT GXGT[ VJG UWRGTGZRQPGPVKCN HWPEVKQP ECP DG KVGTCVGF VKOGU YJKEJ KU VQ UC[
P P
] φ
_ VJCV ECP DG UWDUVKVWVGF HQT QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU 6JG QRGTCVQT OC[ KVUGNH QEEWT KP VJG HQTOWNC
Z Z
φ
UQ YG JCXG UGV VGTOU QH CNN TCPMU
+P VJKU TGURGEV *GEMOU CPF TGNCVGF VJGQTKGU CTG ENQUGT VQ VJG NGVVGT QH (TGIG VJCP VJG VJGQTKGU
Z
EQPUKFGTGF UQ HCT UKPEG (TGIG WUGF YJCV COQWPV VQ XCTKCDNGDKPFKPI VGTOHQTOKPI QRGTCVQTU +P
CPQVJGT TGURGEV VJG[ CTG CTIWCDN[ HCTVJGT HTQO VJG URKTKV QH (TGIG CEEQTFKPI VQ YJQUG
UWDQTFKPCVKQP RTKPEKRNG EQPEGRVU CTG RTKOCT[ CPF VJG UGVU VJCV CTG VJGKT GZVGPUKQPU FGTKXCVKXG (QT
VJGUG U[UVGOU CNNQY C UGV VGTO ] φ
_ GXGP YJGP VJG[ FQ PQV CNNQY VJG EQTTGURQPFKPI EQPEGRV
Z Z
YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ GXGP YJGP VJG[ FQ PQV CNNQY VJG EQTTGURQPFKPI KPUVCPEG QH EQORTGJGPUKQP
∃ ∀
↔ φ
: Z :Z Z
UWEEGUUQT CPF PCVWTCN PWODGT 0QV VQ RWV VQQ HKPG C RQKPV QP KV *GEM HQWPF VJCV YG OC[ HQNNQY
(TGIGOU CEVWCN EJCKP QH FGFWEVKQPU GZEGRV KP JKU RTQQH QH VJG GZKUVGPEG QH UWEEGUUQTU 6JGTG
TGEQWTUG JCU VQ DG JCF VQ UQOG PQP(TGIGCP YC[ QH RTQEGGFKPI KH YG CTG VQ IGV 3
%QPUKUVGPE[ HQT C UVTQPIGT U[UVGO KU C UVTQPIGT TGUWNV VJCP EQPUKUVGPE[ HQT C YGCMGT
U[UVGO CPF QWT TGUWNVU KP VJG RTGEGFKPI UGEVKQP CTG QH KPVGTGUV QPN[ DGECWUG VJG[ YGTG RTQXGF
RTQQHVJGQTGVKECNN[ CPF HKPKVKUVKECNN[ YJKNG *GEMOU EQPUKUVGPE[ RTQQH KU OQFGNVJGQTGVKE CPF
KPHKPKVKUVKE 5Q OWEJ HQT VJG TGNCVKQPUJKR DGVYGGP *GEMOU TGUWNVU CPF VJQUG GZRQWPFGF UQ HCT KP
VJKU EJCRVGT
0QY VQ FGUETKDG VJG U[UVGO *GEM RTQXGU EQPUKUVGPV $GIKP YKVJ VJG HKTUVQTFGT
.
NCPIWCIG YKVJ KFGPVKV[ DWV PQ PQPNQIKECN U[ODQNU CPF VJG VJGQT[ YKVJ PQ PQPNQIKECN
6
CZKQOU .GV CFF C XCTKCDNGDKPFKPI VGTOHQTOKPI QRGTCVQT ]_ YJKEJ CVVCEJGU VQ CP[ HQTOWNC
.
φ
W YKVJ CV NGCUV QPG HTGG XCTKCDNG CPF RQUUKDN[ C YJQNG UVTKPI QH QVJGT HTGG XCTKCDNGU W VQ
Z Z
HQTO C VGTO ] φ
W_ VJCV ECP DG UWDUVKVWVGF HQT QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU
+P HQTOWNCU EQPVCKPKPI VJKU
Z Z
VGTO EQWPVU CU DQWPF CP[ CPF CNN RCTCOGVGTU CU UVKNN HTGG .GV CFF CU CZKQOU VJG
Z W 6
HQNNQYKPI
∀W∀X
]Z φ
Z W_ ]Z ψ
Z X_ ↔ ∀Z
φ
Z W ↔ ψ
Z X
)TWPFIGUGV\G R VJQWIJ KV KU PQV NKVGTCNN[ C HKTUVQTFGT VJGQT[ QYKPI VQ VJG RTGUGPEG QH VJG QRGTCVQT
]_ +V KU HQT VJKU VJGQT[ VJCV 2CTUQPU UWRRNKGF C OQFGNVJGQTGVKE EQPUKUVGPE[ RTQQH
# HKPKVKUVKE RTQQH QH VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH KU KORNKEKV KP QWT GCTNKGT TGUWNVU UKPEG YG JCXG
6
KP GHHGEV UGGP VJCV VJG RCTV QH KPXQNXKPI QPN[ UGV VGTOU QH TCPM KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 2P
8 CPF
6 P
VJCV VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH CNN 2P8 KU RTQXCDNG HKPKVKUVKECNN[ 5KPEG CP[ FGFWEVKQP QH C EQPVTCFKEVKQP KP
6 YQWNF KPXQNXG QPN[ HKPKVGN[ OCP[ HQTOWNCU CPF VJGTGHQTG QPN[ VGTOU WR VQ UQOG HKPKVG TCPM P
$GHQTG IQKPI CP[ HWTVJGT KV OC[ DG TGOCTMGF VJCV VJG UGV VJGQT[ 756 YKVJ GZVGPUKQPCNKV[
PWNN UGV CPF RCKTKPI ECP DG KPVGTRTGVGF KP 4GNCVKXK\G SWCPVKHKGTU VQ VJG HQNNQYKPI HQTOWNC
6
[ ] _∨∃ ∃
]
Z Z Z W X [ Z Z W ∨ Z X_
∃W∃X
[ ]Z Z W ∨ Z X_
\ W ∨ \ X
6JG KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ QH 756 OGCPU VJCV CU UQQP CU YG CFF HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRVXCTKCDNGU CPF
RTGFKECVKXG EQORTGJGPUKQP HQT VJGO GXGP YKVJQWV CNNQYKPI CP[ OQTG UGV VGTOU 3 CPF JGPEG 3
YKNN DG KPVGTRTGVCDNG D[ VJG TGUWNVU QH VJKU EJCRVGT
CPF UKOKNCTN[ HQT 3 KH YG IQ QP VQ C UGEQPF
TQWPF
.GV PQY CFF HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU W CPF CNNQY VJG HQTOCVKQP QH UGV
. : ; <
VGTOU ] φ
_ HQT φ VJCV OC[ EQPVCKP HTGG HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU DWV FQ PQV EQPVCKP DQWPF
Z Z
∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ φ
Z
RTQXKFGF φ
Z EQPVCKPU PQ DQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU
] φ
_ CNUQ HQT φ VJCV OC[ EQPVCKP DQWPF HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU CPF NGV CFF VJG PGY
Z Z 6
KPUVCPEGU QH
HQT VJG PGY UGV VGTOU CNNQYGF D[ .
6JKU KU YJCV *GEM VCMGU CU JKU QUKORNG RTGFKECVKXGR VJGQT[ 1DXKQWUN[ KPVTQFWEKPI
6
CNUQ KU WUGF VQ IGV VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH P QPEG VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH P KU GUVCDNKUJGF 6JG UGEQPF
6 6
GZEGRV HQT CNNQYKPI XCTKCDNGDKPFKPI VGTOHQTOKPI QRGTCVQT =? CPF JCXG C VJGQT[ VJCV JCU CP 6
CZKQO UEJGOG
Mφ
Mψ
M
Z Z
YJGTG φ
CPF ψ
OC[ DG CP[ HQTOWNCU QH RGTJCRU EQPVCKPKPI HTGG XCTKCDNGU DGUKFGU CPF
Z Z . Z
OC[ QEEWT KP
= φ
? = ψ
?
VJTQWIJ VGTOU Z Z CPF Z Z .GV CFF
CU YGNN CU FKTGEVN[ .
∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ φ
Z
RTQXKFGF φ EQPVCKPU PQ DQWPF EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU
VJG GZVGPFGF 5JQGPHKGNF VJGQTGO UC[U VJCV KU EQPUKUVGPV 5JQGPHKGNFOU QTKIKPCN VJGQTGO KU VJG
6
∀Z
∃7φ
Z 7 ↔ ∀7ψ
Z 7 → ∃:∀Z
:Z ↔ ∃7φ
Z 7
RTQXKFGF φ CPF ψ EQPVCKP PQ DQWPF EQPEGRVXCTKCDNGU
6JKU UC[U VJCV KH C HQTOWNC ∃ φ JCXKPI C UKPING KPKVKCN GZKUVGPVKCN SWCPVKHKGT CPF C HQTOWNC ∀ ψ
JCXKPI C UKPING KPKVKCN WPKXGTUCN EQPEGRVSWCPVKHKGT M Σ CPF Π HQTOWNCU M JQNF QH VJG
7 7
UCOG QDLGEVU VJGP VJG[ FGVGTOKPG C EQPEGRV +H φ FQGU PQV EQPVCKP VJG XCTKCDNG VJG CPVGEGFGPV
7
QH
KU WPFGTUVQQF VQ JQNF XCEWQWUN[ HQT φ ψ 6JWU ∆ EQORTGJGPUKQP UWDUWOGU RTGFKECVKXG
EQORTGJGPUKQP CU C URGEKCN ECUG
#P CPCNQIQWU UVTGPIVJGPKPI QH *GEMOU EQPUKUVGPE[ TGUWNV HQT YCU UWDUGSWGPVN[
QDVCKPGF D[ (GTTGKTC CPF 9GJOGKGT
6JGKT U[UVGO KU GUUGPVKCNN[ *GEMOU YKVJ ∆
6
EQORTGJGPUKQP +P EQPPGEVKQP YKVJ ∆ EQORTGJGPUKQP KV UJQWNF DG PQVGF VJCV VJG UGV QH CNN
UGVU VJCV CTG PQV GNGOGPVU QH VJGOUGNXGU JCU C Σ FGHKPKVKQP YJKEJ YG JCXG UGGP KP UGXGTCN
Z
∃:
Z ][ :[_ `:[
5KOKNCTN[ VJG UGV QH CNN QDLGEVU VJCV CTG PQV GNGOGPVU QH VJGOUGNXGU JCU C Π FGHKPKVKQP CU
HQNNQYU
∀:
Z ][ :[_ → `:[
KORNKGU VJG GZKUVGPEG QH CV NGCUV QDLGEVU VJCV CTG PQV UWEJ GZVGPUKQPU *G FGUETKDGU VJG VJGQT[ CU
KORN[KPI VJG GZKUVGPEG QH CP KPHKPKV[ QH QPQPNQIKECNR QDLGEVU
O
+H KV YGTG VJG ECUG CU VJKU FGUETKRVKQP UWIIGUVU VJCV ∆ EQORTGJGPUKQP KU UQOGVJKPI QPG
ECPOV EQPUKUVGPVN[ CUUWOG YKVJQWV CUUWOKPI HQT GCEJ VJCV VJGTG GZKUV CV NGCUV QPQPNQIKECNR
O O
QDLGEVU VJGP KPFGGF VJG VJGQT[ YQWNF KPXQNXG CP CUUWORVKQP WPEQOHQTVCDN[ ENQUG VQ 4WUUGNNOU
CZKQO QH KPHKPKV[ CPF EQORNGVGN[ EQPVTCT[ VQ VJG (TGIGCP KFGC VJCV NQIKECN FGFWEVKQP PQV
UJQWNF IKXG WU CP KPHKPKV[ QH QDLGEVU
,WUVKHKGF VJQWIJ 9GJOGKGTOU EQPENWUKQP OC[ DG YJGP VJG UKORNG ∆ EQORTGJGPUKQP
CTDKVTCT[ RQUVWNCVKQP
VJGQT[ KU XKGYGF KP KUQNCVKQP HTQO VJG TCOKHKGF RGTURGEVKXG YJGTG VJG VJGQT[ KU QPN[ VJG HKTUV QH
YJCV KU VQ DG CP GPFNGUU UGTKGU KPXQNXKPI OQTG CPF OQTG TQWPFU QH EQPEGRVU KV UGGOU RTGOCVWTG
NKMG VJG EQPENWUKQP QPG OKIJV FTCY HTQO C UKORNG RTGFKECVKXG VJGQT[ EQPUKFGTGF KP KUQNCVKQP VJCV
EGTVCKP HQTOWNCU CTG DGKPI CNNQYGF KPVQ VJG NCPIWCIG VJCV FQ PQV FGVGTOKPG EQPEGRVU 6JG QDLGEVU
UVKIOCVK\GF CU QPQPNQIKECNR VJQWIJ KPFGGF PQV VJG GZVGPUKQPU QH HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRVU OC[
PQPGVJGNGUU DG QNQIKECNR KP VJCV PQVJKPI GZENWFGU VJGKT DGKPI GZVGPUKQPU QH UGEQPFTQWPF
EQPEGRVU
9G MPQY VJGTG YKNN DG GZVGPUKQPU QH UGEQPFTQWPF EQWPEGRVU VJCV CTG PQV VJG
GZVGPUKQPU QH CP[ HKTUVTQWPF EQPEGRVU +PFGGF KP C HWNN[ TCOKHKGF VJGQT[ YKVJ KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[
TQWPFU QH EQPEGRVU KV KU PQV GXGP RQUUKDNG VQUVCVG VJCV CP QDLGEV KU QPQPNQIKECNR KP VJG UGPUG QH
PQV DGKPI VJG GZVGPUKQP QH C EQPEGRV QH CP[ TQWPF OWEJ NGUU RTQXG VJCV VJGTG CTG CP[
QPQPNQIKECNR QDLGEVU UKPEG VJGTG KU PQ SWCPVKHKECVKQP QXGT QDLGEVU QH CNN TQWPFU
$G CNN VJCV CU KV OC[ VJG (GTTGKTC9GJOGKGT RTQQH WUGU TCVJGT OQTG UQRJKUVKECVGF
OQFGNVJGQTGVKE VGEJPKSWGU VJCP VJG *GEM RTQQH CPF KU EQTTGURQPFKPIN[ HWTVJGT CYC[ HTQO DGKPI
HKPKVKUVKE 9G FQ PQV [GV JCXG C FGHKPKVG WRRGT DQWPF QP JQY NCTIG C HTCIOGPV QH CTKVJOGVKE VJG
(GTTGKTC9GJOGKGT U[UVGO ECP KPVGTRTGV 6JWU EGTVCKPN[ JCU PQV [GV DGGP TKIQTQWUN[ RTQXGF VJCV
QPG ECPPQV IGV 3 KP C RTGFKECVKXG (TGIGCP U[UVGO HQT KPUVCPEG &GURKVG UWEJ NQQUG GPFU
JQYGXGT + DGNKGXG PQ QPG YQTMKPI KP VJG CTGC UGTKQWUN[ GZRGEVU VQ DG CDNG VQ IGV XGT[ OWEJ
HWTVJGT KP VJG UGSWGPEG 3O YJKNG YQTMKPI KP RTGFKECVKXG (TGIGCP VJGQTKGU QH YJCVGXGT MKPF +V KU
VKOG VJGTGHQTG VQ JCXG C NQQM CV VJG KORTGFKECVKXG QRVKQP
+ORTGFKECVKXG6JGQTKGU
6*' 24'%'&+0) EJCRVGT YCU FGXQVGF VQ U[UVGOU VJCV CUUWOG VJG GZKUVGPEG QH GZVGPUKQPU
HQT YJCVGXGT EQPEGRVU CTG CNNQYGF VQ GZKUV DWV VJCV FQ PQV CNNQY HQTOWNCU KPXQNXKPI
SWCPVKHKECVKQP QXGT CDUQNWVGN[ CNN EQPEGRVU VQ FGVGTOKPG EQPEGRVU QT VJCV UKORN[ FQ PQV
CNNQY HQTOWNCU KPXQNXKPI SWCPVKHKECVKQP QXGT CDUQNWVGN[ CNN EQPEGRVU 6JG RTGUGPV EJCRVGT
KU FGXQVGF VQ VJGQTKGU VJCV VCMG VJG QRRQUKVG VCEM CPF CEEGRV HWNN UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE YKVJ
SWCPVKHKECVKQP QXGT CNN EQPEGRVU HTGGN[ CFOKVVGF KP HQTOWNCU CPF YKVJ CNN HQTOWNCU
CUUWOGF VQ FGVGTOKPG EQPEGRVU DWV VJCV TGUVTKEV VJG CUUWORVKQP QH VJG GZKUVGPEG QH
6GPPCPV
, . $GNN
$QD *CNG
-KV (KPG
«[UVGKP .KPPGDQ
(TGIG#TKVJOGVKECPF.GUU
KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH OWEJ NCTIGT HTCIOGPVU QH ENCUUKECN OCVJGOCVKEU VJCP FKF VJG RTGFKECVKXG
VJGQTKGU EQPUKFGTGF KP VJG RTGEGFKPI EJCRVGT YJKEJ KU YJ[ + JCXG FGHGTTGF EQPUKFGTCVKQP
QH VJGO WPVKN VJKU QPG $WV EJTQPQNQIKECNN[ KORTGFKECVKXG CDUVTCEVKQPKUV VJGQTKGU CEVWCNN[
CRRGCTGF KP VJG NKVGTCVWTG HKTUV CPF KV OC[ DG YGNN VQ UC[ C DKV CDQWV VJG JKUVQT[
0GQ(TGIGCPKUO CU KV JCU FGXGNQRGF QXGT VJG RCUV VYQ FGECFGU YCU NCWPEJGF D[ VJG
O
RWDNKECVKQP QH %TKURKP 9TKIJV U DQQM (TGIGOU %QPEGRVKQP QH 0WODGTU CU 1DLGEVU KP
6JCV DQQM HQT VJG HKTUV VKOG DTQWIJV VQIGVJGT VYQ QDUGTXCVKQPU HKTUV VJCV VJG
4WUUGNN RCTCFQZ FQGU PQV CTKUG KH QPG FTQRU .CY 8 CPF YQTMU QPN[ HTQO *WOG U O
O
2TKPEKRNG CPF UGEQPF VJCV YQTMKPI HTQO *WOG U 2TKPEKRNG QPG ECP FGTKXG CTKVJOGVKE
'CEJ QH VJGUG QDUGTXCVKQPU JCF DGGP OCFG UGRCTCVGN[ CV NGCUV KP RCUUKPI C FGECFG
O
TGECNNKPI (TGIG U FGHKPKVKQPU QH \GTQ UWEEGUUQT CPF PCVWTCN PWODGT KP VGTOU QH VJG PQVKQP
CP CZKQO
9TKIJV QP VJKU RQKPV YGPV HWTVJGT VJCP 2CTUQPU KP CEVWCNN[ UMGVEJKPI C FGTKXCVKQP QH VJG
2GCPQ RQUVWNCVGU VJQWIJ VJG UMGVEJ UVQRU UJQTV QH DGKPI C HWNN[ TKIQTQWU FGFWEVKQP UWEJ C
FGFWEVKQP DGKPI RTQOKUGF HQT C NCVGT LQKPV RWDNKECVKQP YKVJ 0GKN 6GPPCPV
PCVWTCN PWODGTU VQIGVJGT YKVJ ℵ 6Q CP[ RTGFKECVG FGHKPGF QXGT VJKU
FQOCKP VJGTG CVVCEJGU GKVJGT C PCVWTCN PWODGT QT ℵ CU VJG PWODGT QH
QDLGEVU QH YJKEJ VJG RTGFKECVG KU VTWG GI VJG PWODGT CVVCEJGU VQ VJG
RTGFKECVG NM O
KU RTKOG CPF NGUU VJCP VJG PWODGT ℵ VQ VJG RTGFKECVG
NM O
KU GXGP 9G JCXG PQ PGGF VQ IQ QWVUKFG VJG FQOCKP VQ HKPF ECTFKPCN
9TKIJV QP VJKU RQKPV FKF PQV IQ CU HCT CU )GCEJ HQT JG FKF PQV QHHGT C OQFGN VQ UJQY *2
EQPUKUVGPV DWV OGTGN[ KPFKECVGF JQY VJG CVVGORV VQ FGTKXG VJG 4WUUGNN RCTCFQZ DTGCMU
FQYP CPF EQPLGEVWTGU VJCV VJG U[UVGO YKVJ *2 TCVJGT VJCP .CY 8 KU EQPUKUVGPV
9JCV 9TKIJV FKF VJCV JCF PQV DGGP FQPG DGHQTG YCU VQ DTKPI VQIGVJGT VJG VYQ
QDUGTXCVKQPU CPF QHHGT CV NGCUV CU C EQPLGEVWTG YKVJ UQOG HQTOCN UWRRQTV VJG QDUGTXCVKQP
VJCV CTKVJOGVKE ECP DG FGTKXGF KP C EQPUKUVGPV VJGQT[ EQPUKUVKPI QH UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE YKVJ
JCU EQOG VQ DG ECNNGF (TGIG CTKVJOGVKE QT (# $GUKFGU VJKU 9TKIJV QHHGTGF XKIQTQWU
CTIWOGPVCVKQP HQT VJG ENCKO VJCV UWEJ C FGTKXCVKQP YQWNF DG QH UWDUVCPVKCN RJKNQUQRJKECN
CP KPVGPUG FGDCVG QXGT KVU RJKNQUQRJKECN OGTKVU CPF FGOGTKVU RTQORVN[ HQNNQYGF CU YGNN
9TKIJV JKU EQNNCDQTCVQT $QD *CNG CPF VJGKT UEJQQN VJGP VWTP VQ VJG YQTM QH -KV (KPG CPF
VQ CDUVTCEVKQPKUV UGV VJGQT[ KP VJG YQTM QH $QQNQU 6JGP + YKNN UWIIGUV JQY QPG EQWNF IQ
6Q TGVWTP VQ 9TKIJV JKU DQQM NGHV UQOG NQQUG GPFU (QT QPG VJKPI VJG LQKPV RCRGT
QH 9TKIJV CPF 6GPPCPV PGXGT OCVGTKCNK\GF (QT CPQVJGT VJKPI VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH (# YCU
UVCVGF D[ 9TKIJV OGTGN[ CU C EQPLGEVWTG CPF VJQWIJ TGUVCVGF CU HCEV VJG HQNNQYKPI [GCT D[
*CTQNF *QFGU
KV YCU UVKNN NGHV YKVJQWV RTQQH 6JGUG NQQUG GPFU YGTG JQYGXGT
HCKTN[ SWKEMN[ VKGF WR 1P VJG QPG JCPF C HWNN[ TKIQTQWU FGFWEVKQP QH VJG 2GCPQ RQUVWNCVGU
NQEWU 6GPPCPV
YJGTG KV GUECRGF VJG CVVGPVKQP QH OQUV RJKNQUQRJGTU CPF NQIKEKCPU
YJQ OKIJV JCXG DGGP KPVGTGUVGF 1P VJG QVJGT JCPF VYQ TGXKGYU *C\GP
CPF
$WTIGUU
RQKPVGF QWV VJCV EQPUKUVGPE[ HQNNQYU HTQO VJG GZKUVGPEG QH C UKORNG
O
OQFGN HQT (# VJG OQFGN YCU KPFGGF )GCEJ U DWV JKU TGOCTM JCF DGGP GPVKTGN[
ECOG CETQUU KV
# HWNN[ UCVKUHCEVQT[ VTGCVOGPV JQYGXGT JCF VQ CYCKV VJG YQTM QH CPQVJGT GCTN[
TGCFGT QH 9TKIJV YJQ JCF CNUQ KPFGRGPFGPVN[ TGFKUEQXGTGF VJG )GCEJ OQFGN )GQTIG
$QQNQU *G KPVTQFWEGF VJG VGTOKPQNQI[ UVKNN WUGF KP FKUEWUUKPI VJGUG OCVVGTU Q*WOG UO
RQ
RTKPEKRNG O RQ
(TGIG U VJGQTGO R
(TGIG CTKVJOGVKE #PF JKU DGCWVKHWN RCRGT $QQNQU
OCFG VYQ ETWEKCN PGY RQKPVU (KTUV PQV QPN[ ECP VJG 2GCPQ RQUVWNCVGU DG FGTKXGF KP (#
DWV VJG[ ECP DG FGTKXGF GUUGPVKCNN[ D[ HQNNQYKPI (TGIGOU QYP EJCKP QH FGFWEVKQPU 9KVJ
O
(TGIG U FGHKPKVKQPU QH \GTQ UWEEGUUQT CPF PCVWTCN PWODGT UGEQPFQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE
2 DGEQOGU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP (# 5GEQPF JG RTQXGF VJCV (# KU PQV QPN[ EQPUKUVGPV DWV KU
GSWKEQPUKUVGPV YKVJ QT QH VJG UCOG EQPUKUVGPE[ UVTGPIVJ CU 2 (QT JG RTQXGF VJG
HQNNQYKPI
6JG KFGC KU VQ OKOKE VJG )GCEJ OQFGN YJKNG YQTMKPI YKVJKP UGEQPFQTFGT 2GCPQ
CTKVJOGVKE YKVJ RNC[KPI VJG TQNG QH ℵ CPF [ RNC[KPI VJG TQNG QH [ 9TKVKPI 7 HQT VJG
WPKXGTUCN EQPEGRV nZ Z Z CPF 〈[〉 HQT VJG UVTKEV UGIOGPV nZ Z [ YG OWUV HKTUV RTQXG
VJCV GXGT[ : KU GSWKPWOGTQWU GKVJGT YKVJ 7 QT YKVJ UQOG 〈[〉 YJGTG VJGUG CNVGTPCVKXGU CTG
GZENWUKXG CPF [ WPKSWG 9G ECP VJGP FGHKPG VJG QRGTCVKQP D[ NGVVKPI : DG KH : KU
GSWKPWOGTQWU YKVJ 7 CPF NGVVKPI : DG [ KH : KU GSWKPWOGTQWU YKVJ 〈[〉 # DKV OQTG YKNN
DG UCKF CDQWV VJG RTQQH C DGNQY
# UGTKGU QH RCRGTU D[ $QQNQU D[ *GEM CPF QPG D[ VJG VYQ LQKPVN[ HQNNQYGF
GZCOKPKPI KP UGCTEJKPI FGVCKN VJG FGTKXCVKQP QT TCVJGT UGXGTCN RQUUKDNG FGTKXCVKQPU QH VJG
2GCPQ RQUVWNCVGU CPF QVJGT TGUWNVU HTQO *2 DQVJ HTQO C NQIKECN RQKPV QH XKGY CPF HTQO
CP JKUVQTKECN RQKPV QH XKGY KP EQORCTKUQP YKVJ (TGIGOU YC[ QH RTQEGGFKPI KP VJG KPHQTOCN
UMGVEJ KP VJG )TWPFNCIGP CPF VJG HQTOCN VTGCVOGPV KP VJG )TWPFIGUGV\G *GTG JKUVQTKECN
KUUWGU YKNN DG GPVKTGN[ NGHV CUKFG CPF CU VQ NQIKECN KUUWGU QPN[ VYQ YKNN DG CFFTGUUGF KP
CP[ FGRVJ (KTUV ECP VJG CUUWORVKQPU QH (# DG UKIPKHKECPVN[ YGCMGPGF YKVJQWV NQUKPI VJG
2GCPQ RQUVWNCVGU! 5GEQPF ECP VJG CUUWORVKQPU QH (# DG UVTGPIVJGPGF KP C OCPPGT VJCV KU
PQV CF JQE UQ CU VQ IKXG OQTG QH ENCUUKECN OCVJGOCVKEU! +P VJG TGOCKPFGT QH VJKU UGEVKQP +
YKNN VCMG WR VJG HKTUV QH VJGUG VYQ SWGUVKQPU CPF YKNN VWTP VQ VJG UGEQPF KP VJG PGZV
UGEVKQP
`∃Z:Z → : HKPKVG
: HKPKVG ∀Z
;Z ↔ :Z ∨ Z [ → ; HKPKVG
$QVJ CTG RTQXCDNG HQT &GFGMKPF CPF 4WUUGNN HKPKVWFG 6JGP YG JCXG VJG HQNNQYKPI
CDUVTCEV XGTUKQP QH VJG TGUWNV KP SWGUVKQP
+ #PF KP RCTVKEWNCT VJGTG CTG VYQ Π XGTUKQPU QH UGEQPFQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE VJG
UVTQPIGT Π %# YKVJ
+ CPF VJG YGCMGT Π %# YKVJ
+ 6JG GZRGTKGPEG QH
OCVJGOCVKECN NQIKEKCPU JCU UJQYP VJCV VJG NCVVGT U[UVGO KU VJG OQTG UKIPKHKECPV
HQWPFCVKQPCNN[
+V KU VJG NCUV QH VJG (TKGFOCP U[UVGOU (
(QT RWTRQUGU QH EQORCTKUQP YKVJ (TGIG CTKVJOGVKE JQYGXGT VJG OQUV CRRTQRTKCVG
U[UVGO KU C UNKIJVN[ FKHHGTGPV QPG + YKNN ECNN Π 2 HQT Π 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE 6JKU
U[UVGO EQPUKUVU QH F[CFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE YKVJ Π EQORTGJGPUKQP CPF CZKQOU
3
CPF
3 HQT \GTQ CPF UWEEGUUQT Π 2 KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP Π %# YJKEJ JCU QPN[
OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE WUKPI VJG EQFKPI QH RCKTU QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU D[ UKPING
PCVWTCN PWODGTU VJCV KU FGHKPCDNG KP VGTOU QH CFFKVKQP CPF OWNVKRNKECVKQP KP 2 CPF JGPEG
KP Π %# 5KPEG Π %# KU YGCMGT VJCP Π %# UQ KU Π 2 $WV Π %#
CPF Π 2 CTG QH GSWKXCNGPV UVTGPIVJ DGECWUG YG JCXG VJG HQNNQYKPI
6JG KPVGTRTGVCVKQP ECNNGF HQT D[ VJG VJGQTGO RTQEGGFU D[ FGHKPKPI VJG PQVKQP QH
KPFWEVKXG KP VJG WUWCN YC[
: KU KPFWEVKXG KH CPF QPN[ KH YG JCXG : CPF JCXG :Z
YJGPGXGT :Z CPF VJGP FGHKPKPI VJG PQVKQP QH PCVWTCN PWODGT KP VJG WUWCN YC[ IKXGP VJG
PQVKQP QH KPFWEVKXG
Z KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT KH YG JCXG :Z HQT GXGT[ KPFWEVKXG : 6JKU
FGHKPKVKQP KU GZRTGUUKDNG D[ C Π HQTOWNC ν
Z
YKVJ QGXGT[ KPFWEVKXG :R IKXKPI VJG
KPKVKCN WPKXGTUCN UGEQPFQTFGT SWCPVKHKGT *GPEG D[ Π EQORTGJGPUKQP VJGTG GZKUVU CP
0 UWEJ VJCV HQT CNN Z YG JCXG 0Z KH CPF QPN[ KH Z KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT
#PF PQY HQT C UWDVNG DWV KORQTVCPV RQKPV +V HQNNQYU VJCV Π EQORTGJGPUKQP
JQNFU HQT HQTOWNCU TGNCVKXK\GF VQ PCVWTCN PWODGTU (QT IKXGP C Π HQTOWNC φ
Z UC[ QH
HQTO ∀:∃[∀\W KVU TGNCVKXK\CVKQP φν NQQMU NKMG VJKU
∃;∀Z
X
Z →
;Z ↔ ∀:∃[
ν
[ ∀\
ν
\ → WZW:W[W\W
∀7∃;∀Z
;Z ↔ 7Z ∀:∃[
7[ ∀\
7\ → WZW:W[W\W
∃7∀Z
7Z ↔ ν
Z
# UNKIJVN[ OQTG KPHQTOCN YC[ VQ RWV VJG RQKPV YQWNF DG CU HQNNQYU 6JG HCEV VJCV ν KU C
Π HQTOWNC OGCPU VJCV Π EQORTGJGPUKQP
URGEKHKECNN[ VJG KPUVCPEG
KORNKGU VJCV
VJG EQPEGRV 0 QH DGKPI C PCVWTCN PWODGT GZKUVU QT DGNQPIU VQ VJG FQOCKP QH VJG
UGEQPFQTFGT XCTKCDNGU CPF KU VJGTGHQTG CXCKNCDNG HQT WUG CU C RCTCOGVGT KP QVJGT Π
HQTOWNCU VQ YJKEJ Π EQORTGJGPUKQP OC[ DG CRRNKGF CU KP VJG HQNNQYKPI
∃;∀Z
;Z ↔ 0Z ∀:∃[
0[ ∀\
0\ → WZW:W[W\W
CUUGTVKPI VJG GZKUVGPEG QH C UWEEGUUQT HQT GXGT[ PCVWTCN PWODGT ECPPQV DG RTQXGF KP
RTGFKECVKXG (TGIG CTKVJOGVKE KH QPG WUGU (TGIGOU FGHKPKVKQPU QH \GTQ UWEEGUUQT CPF
PCVWTCN PWODGT 6JKU KU UQ YJGVJGT QT PQV QPG VTKGU VQ HQNNQY (TGIGOU EJCKP QH FGFWEVKQPU
CPF GXGP KH QPG YQTMU YKVJ VJG UVTGPIVJGPKPI QH RTGFKECVKXG (TGIG CTKVJOGVKE YKVJ VJG
XCTKCDNGDKPFKPI VGTOHQTOKPI QRGTCVQT ^^ ^^ 6JKU PGICVKXG TGUWNV KU RTQXGF D[ C OQFGN
EQPUVTWEVKQP ENQUGN[ RCVVGTPGF QP *GEMOU OQFGN EQPUVTWEVKQP DWV DTKPIKPI KP CP
CRRNKECVKQP QH VJG .ÑYGPJGKO$GJOCPP VJGQTGO
.KPPGDQOU RTQQH QH VJG KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ QH Π 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE KP Π (TGIG
CTKVJOGVKE EQPUKUVU GUUGPVKCNN[ QH IQKPI VJTQWIJ (TGIGOU RTQQH QH (TGIGOU VJGQTGO CPF
OCMKPI EGTVCKP CFLWUVOGPVU VQ CXQKF FGRGPFGPEG QP KPUVCPEGU QH EQORTGJGPUKQP HQT
HQTOWNCU VJCV CTG VQQ EQORNGZ 6JG RTQQH QH VJG EQPXGTUG QH .KPPGDQOU VJGQTGO KPXQNXGU
UKOKNCTN[ IQKPI VJTQWIJ CPF CFLWUVKPI $QQNQUOU RTQQH QH VJG EQPXGTUG QH (TGIGOU VJGQTGO
+ YKNN IKXG JGTG QPN[ CP QWVNKPG QH VJG RTQQHU QH VJG VYQ VJGQTGOU LWUV GPWPEKCVGF NGCXKPI
VJG FGVCKNU CU CP GZGTEKUG HQT VJG TGCFGT
(QT VJG HKTUV VJGQTGO + YKNN IQ VJTQWIJ CPF CFLWUV PQV (TGIGOU RTQQH QH (TGIGOU
VJGQTGO DWV TCVJGT VJG RTQQH QH VJG KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ QH 3 KP 2*2 HTQO VJG RTGEGFKPI
EJCRVGT 6JG FKUCFXCPVCIG QH VJKU RTQEGFWTG KU VJCV YG FQ PQV IGV .KPPGDQOU TGUWNV CDQWV
YJCV ECP DG CEEQORNKUJGF WUKPI (TGIGOU FGHKPKVKQPU VJG CFXCPVCIG KU VJCV KV TGSWKTGU XGT[
NKVVNG CFFKVKQPCN YQTM UKPEG YG CNTGCF[ MPQY VJCV PQVJKPI DWV RTGFKECVKXG EQORTGJGPUKQP
YCU WUGF VQ IGV CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH
3 CPF
3 5Q CNN VJCV TGOCKPU VQ DG FQPG VQ IGV
CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH Π 2 KP VJG RTGUGPV EQPVGZV KU VQ UJQY VJCV Π EQORTGJGPUKQP
UVKNN JQNFU YJGP HQTOWNCU CTG TGNCVKXK\GF VQ VJG HQTOWNC K
Z GZRTGUUKPI VJCV Z KU C
RTQVQPCVWTCN PWODGT 6Q UGG VJKU YG PGGF QPN[ TGXKGY VJG FGHKPKVKQPU QH VJG CWZKNKCT[
PQVKQP CPF QH RTQVQPCVWTCN YJKEJ YGTG CU HQNNQYU
Z ↔ ∃:∃;
Z : : ⊂ ; [ ;
[
Z KU RTQVQPCVWTCN ↔ ∃:
∀[
:[ ↔ [ Z Z : `:Z
6JG FGHKPKVKQP
UJQYU VJCV Σ EQORTGJGPUKQP KORNKGU VJCV VJG TGNCVKQP GZKUVU CPF
DGNQPIU VQ VJG FQOCKP QH VJG F[CFKE UGEQPFQTFGT XCTKCDNGU OCMKPI KV CXCKNCDNG HQT WUG CU
C RCTCOGVGT KP NCVGT FGHKPKVKQPU PQVCDN[
#ICKP VJG FGHKPKVKQP
UJQYU VJCV Σ
EQORTGJGPUKQP KORNKGU VJCV VJG EQPEGRV 2 QH DGKPI RTQVQPCVWTCN GZKUVU CPF DGNQPIU VQ VJG
FQOCKP QH VJG OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT XCTKCDNGU #PF VJKU KU CNN YG PGGF UJQY VJCV Π
EQORTGJGPUKQP UVKNN JQNFU YJGP HQTOWNCU CTG TGNCVKXK\GF VQ VJG HQTOWNC K
Z GZRTGUUKPI
VJCV Z KU C RTQVQPCVWTCN PWODGT
%QORCTG VJG QUWDVNG DWV KORQTVCPVR UVGR KP VJG RTQQH QH
&GFGMKPFOU 6JGQTGO 8GTUKQP +++ CDQXG
(QT VJG EQPXGTUG VJGQTGO D[ &GFGMKPFOU 6JGQTGO 8GTUKQP +++ KV KU GPQWIJ VQ
UJQY VJCV Π (# KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP Π %# 6JG KFGC QH VJG QTKIKPCN $QQNQU RTQQH QH
VJG )GCEJ$QQNQU VJGQTGO VJCV (# KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 2 YCU KPFKECVGF CV VJG DGIKPPKPI QH
VJKU UGEVKQP KOOGFKCVGN[ CHVGT VJG UVCVGOGPV QH VJCV VJGQTGO 6JG ENCKO KU VJCV VJKU KFGC
ECP DG KORNGOGPVGF KP VJG RTGUGPV EQPVGZV YJGTG YG JCXG QPN[ Π EQORTGJGPUKQP
6QYCTFU UWEJ CP KORNGOGPVCVKQP FGHKPG : VQ DG DQWPFGF KH HQT UQOG [ CNN Z UWEJ
VJCV :Z JCXG Z [ CPF WPDQWPFGF QVJGTYKUG 4GECNN VJCV KP 2 QPG JCU PQV QPN[ C EQFKPI
QH RCKTU QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU D[ UKPING PCVWTCN PWODGTU DWV CNUQ C EQFKPI QH HKPKVG
UGSWGPEGU # PWODGT EQFKPI UGSWGPEG QH NGPIVJ [ VJCV JCU PQ TGRGVKVKQPU CPF YJQUG
GPVTKGU CTG CNN CPF QPN[ VJG Z UWEJ VJCV :Z KP GHHGEV EQFGU C QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG
DGVYGGP 〈[〉 CPF : 1PG ECP VJGP RTQXG WUKPI QPN[ RTGFKECVKXG EQORTGJGPUKQP VJG OCKP
NGOOC VJCV HQT CP[ : GKVJGT : KU WPDQWPFGF KP YJKEJ ECUG : KU GSWKPWOGTQWU YKVJ VJG
6JG IGQOGVGTU QH (NCVNCPF JCF C HKPG IGQOGVT[ QH VJG RNCPG VJCV YCU VJGKT YQTNF
DWV VJG[ PQVGF C EGTVCKP CU[OOGVT[ KP KV 9JKNG CP[ VYQ RQKPVU FGVGTOKPG C WPKSWG NKPG QP
YJKEJ VJG[ DQVJ NKG PQV GXGT[ VYQ NKPGU FGVGTOKPG C WPKSWG RQKPV N[KPI QP DQVJ UKPEG
UQOG RCKTU QH NKPGU CTG RCTCNNGN CPF JCXG PQ EQOOQP RQKPV 1PG FC[ JQYGXGT C XKUKQPCT[
RTQENCKOGF VJCV CNN RCKTU QH NKPGU FQ OGGV KP C EQOOQP RQKPV DWV YKVJ VJKU FKUVKPEVKQP VJCV
YJKNG OQUV RCKTU OGGV KP CP QTFKPCT[ RQKPVU VJQUG RCKTU ECNNGF RCTCNNGN OGGV QPN[ CV C
RQKPV CV KPHKPKV[ 6JG TGEQIPKVKQP QH VJGUG RQKPVU CV KPHKPKV[ OCMGU KV RQUUKDNG VQ OCKPVCKP
VJG RTKPEKRNG VJCV CP[ VYQ NKPGU FGVGTOKPG C WPKSWG RQKPV CU CP GZEGRVKQPNGUU NCY
0QT FQGU VJG TGEQIPKVKQP QH VJGUG RQKPVU CV KPHKPKV[ EQORTQOKUG VJG RTKPEKRNG VJCV
CP[ VYQ RQKPVU FGVGTOKPG C WPKSWG NKPG 6YQ QTFKPCT[ RQKPVU UVKNN FGVGTOKPG C NKPG KP VJG
QTFKPCT[ YC[ #P QTFKPCT[ RQKPV CPF C RQKPV CV KPHKPKV[ FGVGTOKPG C NKPG CU YGNN (QT VCMKPI
CP[ NKPG VJTQWIJ VJG RQKPV CV KPHKPKV[ KV YCU CNTGCF[ C RTKPEKRNG QH VJG QNF IGQOGVT[ VJCV
VJGTG KU WPKSWG NKPG VJTQWIJ VJG IKXGP QTFKPCT[ RQKPV VJCV KU RCTCNNGN VQ VJG IKXGP NKPG CPF
KP VJG PGY IGQOGVT[ VJKU OGCPU VJCV KV RCUUGU VJTQWIJ VJG IKXGP RQKPV CV KPHKPKV[ #U HQT
VYQ RQKPVU CV KPHKPKV[ CNN UWEJ RQKPVU NKG QP C EQOOQP NKPG CV KPHKPKV[
6JG PGY KPHKPKVKUVKE IGQOGVT[ UQQP RTQXGF VQ JCXG VJG RQYGT VQ WPKH[ OCP[
FKURCTCVG TGUWNVU QH VJG QNF IGQOGVT[ CPF VQ UWIIGUV PGY TGUWNVU CU YGNN KP C YC[ VJCV YKNN
HCXQTKVG GZCORNG QH VJG WVKNKV[ QH QKFGCN GNGOGPVUR ;GV FGURKVG KVU WVKNKV[ VJG PGY
IGQOGVT[ YCU TGICTFGF YKVJ UWURKEKQP D[ UQOG IGQOGVGTU CPF OQTG RJKNQUQRJGTU #HVGT
CNN PQ QPGOU G[GUKIJV KU MGGP GPQWIJ VQ GPCDNG VJGO VQ UGG VJG KPHKPKVGN[ FKUVCPV NKPG YKVJ
KVU KPHKPKVGN[ FKUVCPV RQKPVU HTQO CP[ RNCEG KP VJG QTFKPCT[ RNCPG PQT CTG CP[QPGOU HGGV
UYKHV GPQWIJ VQ GPCDNG VJGO VQ IQ VQ VJGUG KPHKPKVGN[ FKUVCPV RNCEGU CPF UGG VJGO WR ENQUG
#HVGT EQPVTQXGTU[ DGVYGGP VJQUG YJQ CEEGRVGF VJG XKUKQP QH C PGY IGQOGVT[ CPF
VJQUG YJQ TGLGEVGF KV JCF IQPG QP HQT UQOG VKOG C NQIKEKCP CTQUG YJQ YKVJ VYQ NGEVWTGU
YCU CDNG VQ RWV CP GPF VQ VJG FGDCVG &WTKPI VJG HKTUV NGEVWTG VJG NQIKEKCP TGXGCNGF JQY VJG
RQKPVU CV KPHKPKV[ CPF GXGP VJG NKPG CV KPHKPKV[ EQWNF DG TGICTF CU GPVKVKGU QH C PGY UQTV
QDVCKPGF CU CDUVTCEVU HTQO GPVKVKGU QH CP QNF UQTV RQKPVUQTNKPGU YKVJ TGURGEV VQ C EGTVCKP
GSWKXCNGPEG FGHKPGF CU HQNNQYU
: ^^ ; ↔ : CPF ; CTG DQVJ NKPGU CPF CTG RCTCNNGN ∨ : CPF ; CTG DQVJ RQKPVU
+PVTQFWEKPI C PGY UQTV QH XCTKCDNG ξ HQT CDUVTCEVU YKVJ TGURGEV VQ VJKU GSWKXCNGPEG CPF
CUUWOKPI CU KU WUWCN YKVJ CDUVTCEVU VJCV VQ CP[ : VJGTG EQTTGURQPFU C WPKSWG ξ KP UWEJ C
YC[ VJCV VJG UCOG ξ CVVCEJGU VQ VYQ FKHHGTGPV :U KH CPF QPN[ KH VJG[ CTG GSWKXCNGPV VJGP YG
OC[ KFGPVKH[ VJG RQKPV CV KPHKPKV[ QP C IKXGP NKPG : CU KVU CDUVTCEV ξ OQTG EQOOQPN[ ECNNGF
KVU FKTGEVKQP #PF CV VJG EQUV QH C NKVVNG CTVKHKEKCNKV[ OC[ KFGPVKH[ VJG NKPG CV KPHKPKV[ YKVJ VJG
QPG TGOCKPKPI CDUVTCEV ξ EQOOQP VQ CNN RQKPVU :
&WTKPI VJG UGEQPF NGEVWTG VJG NQIKEKCP TGXGCNGF VJCV YJGPGXGT GPVKVKGU QH C PGY
UQTV CTG KPVTQFWEGF CU CDUVTCEVU GXGT[VJKPI UCKF CDQWV VJGO ECP DG TGKPVGTRTGVGF CU C
UVCVGOGPV LWUV CDQWV GPVKVKGU QH VJG QNF UQTV
6JKU KU C RQKPV YG JCXG UGGP KP VJG RTQQH QH
VJG TGRTGUGPVCVKXGU NGOOC KP VJG RTGEGFKPI EJCRVGT CPF QPG QP YJKEJ + PGGF PQV GPNCTIG
JGTG #U C TGUWNV D[ VJG GPF QH VJG UGEQPF NGEVWTG GXGP VJQUG YJQ JCF PQV VJG NGCUV
KPENKPCVKQP VQ DGNKGXG KP VJG NKVGTCN VTWVJ QH XKUKQPCT[ VJGQT[ QH VJG KPHKPKVGN[ FKUVCPV NKPG
CPF KVU KPHKPKVGN[ FKUVCPV RQKPVU YGTG GSWKRRGF YKVJ C OGVJQF D[ YJKEJ VJG[ EQWNF
TGKPVGTRTGV GXGT[VJKPI UCKF D[ DGNKGXGTU KP UWEJ C YC[ CU VQ OCMG KV EQOG QWV VTWG #PF
6JG NQIKEKCPU QH (NCVNCPF JCF C VJGQT[ QH EQPEGRVU VQQ DWV VJGTG YCU C ICR KP
VJGKT VJGQT[ (QT VJG[ HQWPF VJGOUGNXGU WPCDNG VQ RTQXG VJCV HQT GCEJ HKPKVG EQPEGRV VJGTG
KU CPQVJGT HKPKVG EQPEGRV UWEJ VJCV CNN JG QDLGEVU HCNNKPI WPFGT VJG NCVVGT DCT QPG CTG
GSWKPWOGTQWU YKVJ CNN VJG QDLGEVU HCNNKPI WPFGT VJG HQTOGT 1PG FC[ JQYGXGT C XKUKQPCT[
CPPQWPEGF VJCV VJGTG YGTG QDLGEVU ECNNGF PWODGTU CPF WUKPI EGTVCKP CUUWORVKQPU CDQWV
VJGUG PWODGTU VJG XKUKQPCT[ YCU CDNG D[ C XGT[ KPIGPKQWU CTIWOGPV VQ HKNN KP VJG ICR
6JG NQIKEKCP YJQ JCF UGVVNGF VJG IGQOGVTKECN EQPVTQXGTU[ YCU KPXKVGF VQ NGEVWTG QP VJG
CTKVJOGVKECN SWGUVKQP #V C HKTUV NGEVWTG VJG NQIKEKCP TGXGCNGF JQY VJG PWODGTU EQWNF DG
TGICTF QDVCKPGF HTQO EQPEGRVU CU CDUVTCEVU YKVJ TGURGEV VQ GSWKPWOGTQUKV[ $WV VJGTG YCU
PQ UGEQPF NGEVWTG CPF VJG EQPVTQXGTU[ EQPVKPWGU VQ VJKU FC[
(TGIG#TKVJOGVKECPF/QTG
6JG U[UVGO 2 FQGU PQV DGCT VJG CNVGTPCVKXG PCOG CPCN[UKU YKVJQWV TGCUQP +V TGCNN[
KU RQUUKDNG VJTQWIJ CRRTQRTKCVG EQFKPI VQ FGXGNQR VJG DWNM QH OCVJGOCVKECN CPCN[UKU
YKVJKP VJKU U[UVGO YKVJ PCVWTCN KPVGITCN CPF TCVKQPCN PWODGTU DGKPI TGRTGUGPVGF D[
QDLGEVU Z CPF TGCN CPF EQORNGZ PWODGTU CPF QRGP UGVU VJGTGQH CPF EQPVKPWQWU HWPEVKQPU
VJGTGQP DGKPI TGRTGUGPVGF D[ EQPEGRVU : 5KPEG 2 ECP DG KPVGTRTGVGF KP (# KV KU GSWCNN[
VTWG VJCV VJG DWNM QH OCVJGOCVKECN CPCN[UKU ECP DG USWGG\GF KPVQ VJG (TGIGCP U[UVGO
TGCN CPF EQORNGZ PWODGTU CTG QDLGEVU OCMKPI CTDKVTCT[ UGVU QH CPF HWPEVKQPU QP VJGO
CXCKNCDNG CV NGCUV CU EQPEGRVU CPF VJWU OCMKPI CV NGCUV 2 KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP VJG (TGIGCP
CNNQYGF KP VJG (TGIGCP U[UVGO QPG YQWNF IGV 2 QT 2 QT 2 VJQWIJ OQUV PGQ(TGIGCPU
6JG RQUUKDKNKV[ QH OQXKPI DG[QPF VJG VJGQT[ QH VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU CU FGXGNQRGF
CPF QVJGT EQNNCDQTCVQTU QH 9TKIJV OCKPN[ CV VJG #TEJÃ +PUVKVWVG CV VJG 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 5V
#PFTGYU M VJG 5EQVVKUJ UEJQQN HQT UJQTV #PF CU C OCVVGT QH HCEV VJG KPVGIGTU TCVKQPCN
PWODGTU CPF TGCN PWODGTU ECP CNN DG SWKVG PCVWTCNN[ KPVTQFWEGF CU CDUVTCEVU
(QT VJG KPVGIGTU QPG OC[ EQPUKFGT VJG FQWDNG GSWKXCNGPEG QH GSWKFKUVCPEG QT
CPF QPN[ KH QPG QH VJG HQNNQYKPI VJTGG CNVGTPCVKXGU JQNFU GKVJGT DQVJ Z [ CPF W X CPF
[ Z CPF X W CPF HQT UQOG Y YG JCXG DQVJ [ Y Z CPF X Y W +V HQNNQYU HTQO VJG
DCUKE NCYU QH CTKVJOGVKE VJCV HQT PCVWTCN PWODGTU CP[ Z [ UVCPF KP VJG GSWKFKUVCPEG
RCKTU QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU YKVJ TGURGEV VQ GSWKFKUVCPEG VJG PGICVKXG KPVGIGT Y CPF VJG
RQUKVKXG KPVGIGT Y OC[ DG KFGPVKHKGF YKVJ VJG CDUVTCEVU HQT VJGUG VYQ RCKTU #TKVJOGVKECN
PWODGTU
CDUVTCEVU HQT VJG FQWDNG GSWKXCNGPEG QH RTQRQTVKQPCNKV[ 6JG EQPUVTWEVKQP KU PQV FKUUKOKNCT
(QT VJG TGCNU QPG OC[ FGHKPG Z VQ DG C TCVKQPCN WRRGT DQWPF QP : KH Z KU C TCVKQPCN
PWODGT CPF HQT GXGT[ TCVKQPCN PWODGT [ UWEJ VJCV :[ YG JCXG [ m Z %CNNKPI : CPF ;
EQVGTOKPQWU KH GXGT[ TCVKQPCN WRRGT DQWPF HQT GKVJGT KU C TCVKQPCN WRRGT DQWPF HQT VJG
QVJGT YG QDVCKP CP GSWKXCNGPEG QP EQPEGRVU CPF OC[ QDVCKP TGCN PWODGTU CU CDUVTCEVU HQT
VJKU GSWKXCNGPEG
#EVWCNN[ KH YG EQPUKFGT CTDKVTCT[ : YG YKNN QDVCKP VJG GZVGPFGF TGCN
PWODGTU YKVJ i CU VJG CDUVTCEV HQT VJQUG : JCXKPI :[ HQT PQ TCVKQPCN [ CPF
i CU VJG
CDUVTCEV HQT VJQUG : JCXKPI :[ HQT CTDKVTCTKN[ NCTIG TCVKQPCN [ 6JKU KU DWV C UNKIJV XCTKCPV
O
RTGUGPVCVKQP QH &GFGMKPF U VTGCVOGPV QH VJG TGCN PWODGTU
+PPWOGTCDNG XCTKCVKQPU CTG CXCKNCDNG 9G EQWNF HQT KPUVCPEG IGV VQ VJG TCVKQPCNU
D[ HKTUV KPVTQFWEKPI HTCEVKQPCN CPF VJGP KPVTQFWEKPI PGICVKXG PWODGTU TCVJGT VJCP VJG
O
TGXGTUG CU YCU FQPG CDQXG #PF &GFGMKPF U VTGCVOGPV QH VJG TGCN PWODGTU CFOKVU UGXGTCN
VJGQT[ QH TGCN PWODGTU ECP DG FGXGNQRGF #HVGT QDVCKPKPI PCVWTCN PWODGTU HTQO *WOG U O
RTKPEKRNG NGV 0 nZ Z KU C PCVWTCN PWODGT CPF EQPUKFGT PWOGTKECN GSWKXCNGPEG FGHKPGF
VJWU
: ≡0 ; ↔
∃Z
:Z `0Z ∨ `∃Z:Z
∃Z
;Z `0Z ∨ `∃Z;Z ∨ : ≡ ;
#PF CUUWOG YKVJ JCXG CDUVTCEVU HQT VJKU GSWKXCNGPEG UWDLGEV VQ YJCV YG OC[ ECNN
U0 U0 : ; ↔ : ≡0 ;
6JG RTQDNGO HQT VJG 5EQVVKUJ UEJQQN KU PQV VJCV QH HKPFKPI UQOG YC[ VQ KPVTQFWEG
VJG JKIJGT PWODGT U[UVGOU DWV TCVJGT VJCV QH FGHGPFKPI VJG ENCKO VJCV YJCVGXGT YC[ VJG[
EJQQUG KV CPF VJG OQTG DCUKE KPVTQFWEVKQP QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU VJTQWIJ *WOG U RTKPEKRNG O
JCXG FKUVKPEVKXG RJKNQUQRJKECN CPF GURGEKCNN[ GRKUVGOQNQIKECN UKIPKHKECPEG 1P VJKU
RJKNQUQRJKECN HTQPV 9TKIJV JCU HCEGF QDLGEVKQPU GXGT UKPEG VJG HKTUV TGXKGYU QH JKU DQQM
CPF JKU UEJQQN EQPVKPWGU VQ VJKU FC[ VQ UVTWIING XKIQTQWUN[ YKVJ VJG OQUV XCTKGF ETKVKEKUOU
6JG OQUV KPHNWGPVKCN QH VJGUG QDLGEVKQPU KU QPG CDQWV YJKEJ PQVJKPI JCU DGGP UCKF
UQ HCT VJG DCF EQORCP[ QDLGEVKQP 6JG QDLGEVKQP KU UKORN[ VJCV PQ EQIGPV TGCUQP JCU DGGP
O
IKXGP HQT CUUWOKPI *WOG U RTKPEKRNG NGV CNQPG YJCVGXGT QVJGT CDUVTCEVKQP RTKPEKRNGU CTG
PGGFGF VQ IGV DG[QPF VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU CU QDLGEVU VQ VJG TGCN PWODGTU CU QDLGEVU YJGP
KV KU MPQYP VJCV VJKU RTKPEKRNG KU UWTTQWPFGF D[ QVJGT CDUVTCEVKQP RTKPEKRNGU QT NCYU
CUUGTVKPI VJG GZKUVGPEG QH CDUVTCEVU VJCV CTG WPVGPCDNG DGECWUG VJG[ NGCF VQ EQPVTCFKEVKQP
1PG UWEJ WPVGPCDNG CDUVTCEVKQP RTKPEKRNG KU .CY 8 QH EQWTUG DWV VJGTG KU CPQVJGT
nZ ∃[
4Z[ ∨ 4[Z YJKEJ KU VJG WPKQP QH VJG FQOCKP nZ ∃[4Z[ CPF VJG TCPIG
nZ ∃[4[Z #P KUQOQTRJKUO DGVYGGP 4 CPF 4 KU C QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG DGVYGGP
VJGKT HKGNFU UWEJ VJCV YJGPGXGT Z [ EQTTGURQPF VQ Z [ TGURGEVKXGN[ VJGP YG JCXG
HKGNF KU HKPKVG CNN NKPGCT QTFGTU QP KV CTG KUQOQTRJKE $WV HQT CP KPHKPKVG HKGNF NKMG VJG
PCVWTCN PWODGTU OCP[ PQPKUQOQTRJKE NKPGCT QTFGTU CTG RQUUKDNG 5QOG CTG YGNNQTFGTU
NKMG VJG WUWCN QTFGT QP VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU QT VJG WPWUWCN QPG VJCV RNCEGU VJG RQUKVKXG
QPGU HKTUV KP VJGKT WUWCN QTFGT HQNNQYGF D[ \GTQ *GTG VJG HKTUV QTFGT KU KUQOQTRJKE VQ CP
KPKVKCN UGIOGPV QH VJG UGEQPF VJCV KU VQ UC[ VQ VJG TGUVTKEVKQP QH VJG UGEQPF VQ VJG RCTV QH
VJG WUWCN QTFGT QP VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU #DUVTCEVU YKVJ TGURGEV VQ KUQOQTRJKUO CTG ECNNGF
KUQOQTRJKUO V[RGU KUQOQTRJKUO V[RGU QH NKPGCT QTFGTU CTG ECNNGF QTFGT V[RGU QTFGT V[RGU
6JG QTFKPCN PWODGTU CTG ETWEKCN KP CZKQOCVKE UGV VJGQT[ 6QFC[ GCEJ KU IGPGTCNN[
O
PWODGTU CTG VJG HKPKVG QTFKPCNU VJCV VQFC[ XQP 0GWOCPP U TCVJGT VJCP <GTOGNQ U O
FGHKPKVKQP QH VJGUG KU IGPGTCNN[ CFQRVGF ∅ ]_ ] _ CPF UQ QP 6JG HKTUV
VTCPUHKPKVG QTFKPCN ω KU KFGPVKHKGF YKVJ VJG UGV ] W _ QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU CPF VJG
KFGPVKHKGF YKVJ VJG HKTUV QTFKPCN JCXKPI VJCV ECTFKPCNKV[ 6JWU ℵ KU VJG UCOG CU ω CPF ℵ
VJG UCOG CU ω VJG HKTUV WPEQWPVCDNG QTFKPCN 0GGFNGUU VQ UC[ VJGUG FGHKPKVKQPU CTG
CTVKHKEKCN
1TKIKPCNN[ %CPVQT VJQWIJV QH QTFKPCNU CU CDUVTCEVU ω DGKPI VJG QTFGT V[RG QH VJG
PCVWTCN PWODGTU KP VJGKT WUWCN QTFGT ω
VJG QTFGT V[RG QH VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU KP VJG
WPPCVWTCN QTFGT YKVJ \GTQ OQXGF VQ VJG GPF +V YCU C OKPQT VJGQTGO QH %CPVQT VJCV GXGT[
QTFKPCN α JCU C UWEEGUUQT α
#NUQ HQT %CPVQT ω YCU VJG QTFGT V[RG QH CNN VJG
EQWPVCDNG QTFKPCNU
QT QTFGT V[RGU QH FKHHGTGPV YGNNQTFGTU QH VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU
QTFGTGF D[ ECNNKPI QPG QTFKPCN α NGUU VJCP CPQVJGT QTFKPCN β KH C YGNNQTFGT QH V[RG α KU
KUQOQTRJKE VQ CP KPKVKCN UGIOGPV QH C YGNNQTFGT QH V[RG β +V YCU C OCLQT VJGQTGO QH
%CPVQT VJCV VJG TGNCVKQP QP QTFKPCNU VJWU FGHKPGF KU C YGNNQTFGT
KUQOQTRJKUO V[RG QH 4
*2 T T 4 5 ↔4 ≅5
6JKU CDUVTCEVKQP RTKPEKRNG YQWNF IKXG WU KUQOQTRJKUO V[RGU KPENWFKPI QTFGT V[RGU
KU JCTF VQ UGG YJCV EQWNF DG UCKF KP HCXQT QH CEEGRVKPI *2 CU CZKQOCVKE VJCV YQWNF PQV
$WV *2 KU PQV CEEGRVCDNG KV NGCFU VQ EQPVTCFKEVKQP 6JKU YCU KP GHHGEV PQVGF GXGP
VJG QTFKPCN QH CNN QTFKPCNU YGNNQTFGTGF CEEQTFKPI VQ VJG OCLQT VJGQTGO QH %CPVQT EKVGF
CDQXG YQWNF DG VJG NCTIGUV QTFKPCN EQPVTCT[ VQ VJG OKPQT VJGQTGO QH %CPVQT CNUQ EKVGF
CDQXG YJKEJ KORNKGU VJCV VJGTG KU PQ NCTIGUV QTFKPCN 6JGTG KU PQ TGCN EQPVTCFKEVKQP KP
O
%CPVQT U XKGYU JGTG UKPEG %CPVQT VQ UVCVG JKU XKGY C NKVVNG OQTG ECTGHWNN[ WPFGTUVQQF
QTFKPCNU VQ DG VJG QTFGT V[RGU QH YGNNQTFGTGF UGVU CPF JG PGXGT CUUWOGF VJGTG YCU C UGV
QH CNN QTFKPCNU 6JG $WTCNK(QTVK RCTCFQZ FKF EQOG DCEM VQ JCWPV UQOG CZKQOCVKE
HQWPF KP VJG U[UVGO QH VJG HKTUV GFKVKQP QH 3WKPG U O /CVJGOCVKECN .QIKE #PF PQY KV JCWPVU
PGQ(TGIGCPKUO
(QT YJKNG EQPXGPVKQPCN U[UVGOU QH CZKQOCVKE UGV VJGQT[ FQ PQV NGCF VQ VJG
RCTCFQZ *2 FQGU CU YCU RQKPVGF QWV D[ *C\GP CPF *QFGU KP VJG YQTMU EKVGF GCTNKGT
%TKVKEU QH VJG 5EQVVKUJ UEJQQN RTGUU VJG SWGUVKQP YJGVJGT QPG ECP IKXG C RTKPEKRNGF TGCUQP
CDUVTCEVKQP RTKPEKRNGU VJCV OKIJV DG YCPVGF VQ IQ DG[QPF VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU DWV PQV
JGTG +V KU CNN TKIJV VQ CEEGRV C EQPUKUVGPV CDUVTCEVKQP RTKPEKRNG DWV PQV CP KPEQPUKUVGPV QPG
6JGTG CTG JQYGXGT VYQ KPUWRGTCDNG FKHHKEWNVKGU YKVJ VJKU UWIIGUVKQP 6JG HKTUV FKHHKEWNV[
RTKPEKRNG YQWNF NGCXG QPG YKVJQWV GHHGEVKXG IWKFCPEG CU VQ YJKEJ CDUVTCEVU OC[ DG
RTKPEKRNG VJCV h4: h4; KH CPF QPN[ KH 6:; YKNN DG EQPUKUVGPV KH CPF QPN[ KH φ KU #PF
O
%JWTEJ U VJGQTGO VGNNU WU VJGTG KU PQ GHHGEVKXG OGVJQF QH FGVGTOKPKPI YJGVJGT CP
VYQ CDUVTCEVKQP RTKPEKRNGU OC[ DG EQPUKUVGPV YJGP VCMGP UGRCTCVGN[ CPF [GV VJG VYQ
%QPUKFGTKPI HQT VJG OQOGPV QPN[ UVCPFCTF OQFGNU M OQFGNU KP YJKEJ VJG UGEQPFQTFGT
XCTKCDNGU TCPIG QXGT CNN UWDUGVU QH VJG FQOCKP QH VJG HKTUVQTFGT XCTKCDNGU M CNOQUV 8 JCU
HKPKVG QPGU UKPEG CNN UWDUGVU QH C HKPKVG FQOCKP CTG CNOQUVEQGZVGPUKXG DWV PQ KPHKPKVG
O
QPGU D[ CP GZVGPUKQP QH %CPVQT U VJGQTGO $[ EQPVTCUV *WOG U RTKPEKRNG JCU PQ HKPKVG O
QPGU UKPEG VJGTG CTG P
RQUUKDNG ECTFKPCNKVKGU VJTQWIJ P HQT C UWDUGV QH FQOCKP YKVJ
P GNGOGPVU DWV JCU CP KPHKPKVG QPG VJG )GCEJ OQFGN 6JG EQPLWPEVKQP QH CNOQUV 8 CPF
O
*WOG U RTKPEKRNG VJWU JCU PQ UVCPFCTF OQFGNU
6JKU KU PQV SWKVG VJG UCOG CU UC[KPI VJCV C EQPVTCFKEVKQP ECP DG FGFWEGF HTQO VJG
EQPLWPEVKQP DWV D[ C UNKIJV OQFKHKECVKQP YG IGV CP GZCORNG YJGTG VJCV KU VJG ECUG &GHKPG
EQGZVGPUKXGPGUU CU HQNNQYU
: ≡ ; ↔ : ≡ ; ∨
`∃Z:Z `∃Z;Z
#PF EQPUKFGT VJG EQTTGURQPFKPI CDUVTCEVKQP RTKPEKRNG .CY 8 IKXKPI WU GZVGPUKQPU
U : 1PG FGFWEGU C EQPVTCFKEVKQP HTQO VJG EQPLWPEVKQP QH .CY 8 CPF *WOG U O
RTKPEKRNG CU HQNNQYU 9G OC[ CUUWOG PQ PWODGT VJTQWIJ KU C GZVGPUKQP
GNUG
TGRNCEG VJG QTKIKPCN GZVGPUKQPU D[ PGY QPGU VJCV CTG VJG UCOG GZEGRV YJGP VJG QNF QPG
YCU C PCVWTCN PWODGT KP YJKEJ ECUG VJG PGY QPG KU VJG UCOG PWODGT RNWU &GHKPG
UGEQPF VJQWIJV KU VJCV YJCV RTGXGPVU WU HTQO JCXKPI UVCPFCTF OQFGNU KU CNYC[U JCXKPI
VQQ OCP[ CDUVTCEVU OGCPKPI OQTG VJCP VJGTG CTG QDLGEVU (QT QVJGTYKUG YG ECP CNYC[U
IGV C UVCPFCTF OQFGN D[ VCMKPI VJG UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU WPFGT 4 CPF OCRRKPI VJGO
QPGVQQPG KPVQ VJG QDLGEVU 5Q UWRRQUG YG CUUWOG VJG GZKUVGPEG QH CDUVTCEVU QPN[ YJGP
YG ECP RTQXG VJCV 4 KU PQPKPHNCVKPI KP VJG UGPUG VJCV VJGTG CTG PQ OQTG UGVU QH
GSWKXCNGPVU WPFGT 4 VJCP VJGTG CTG QDLGEVU
∃4∀:∃Z4:4=Z?
QDLGEVU
0QY VJGTG CTG VYQ FKHHKEWNVKGU YKVJ TGSWKTKPI PQPKPHNCVKQP VQ DG RTQXGF DGHQTG VJG
VJCV TGSWKTKPI RTQQH QH PQPKPHNCVKQP OCMGU KV KORQUUKDNG VQ CUUWOG *2 WPVKN KV JCU DGGP
UQOGJQY RTQXGF VJCV VJGTG CTG KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ QDLGEVU YJGTGCU (TGIG U KFGC YCU VQ IGV O
KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ QDLGEVU HTQO *2 6JG UGEQPF FKHHKEWNV[ KU QPG CNNWFGF VQ KP O[ TGXKGY QH
J[RGTKPHNCVKQP 6JG RTQDNGO KU VJCV QPG ECPPQV CUUWOG GXGP HQT GSWKXCNGPEGU QP QDLGEVU
CPF GXGP HQT VJQUG VJCV JCXG QPN[ VYQ UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU CPF UQ CTG CDQWV CU HCT CU
(QT VJG KPEQPUKUVGPV PCKXG VJGQT[ QH UGVU ECP DG KPVGTRTGVGF KP C VJGQT[ VJCV CNNQYU
φ
Z φ
[ ∨
`φ
Z `φ
[
#PF C RCTCNNGN FKHHKEWNV[ CTKUGU HQT EQPEGRVCDUVTCEVKQP KFGPVKH[KPI U : CPF KVU EQORNGOGPV
: ≡ < ; ≡ < ∨
`: ≡ < `; ≡ <
*GTG YG JCXG C RTQDNGO PQV UQ OWEJ QH DCF EQORCP[ DWV QH VQQ OWEJ EQORCP[ 'XGP KH
VJG EQORCP[ KU IQQF YG JCXG VQQ OWEJ QH C IQQF VJKPI 6Q DG UWTG VJG RTQDNGO QPN[
CTKUGU KH KV KU CUUWOGF VJCV YJGP FGCNKPI YKVJ OQTG VJCP QPG GSWKXCNGPEG VJG CDUVTCEVU
YKVJ TGURGEV VQ FKUVKPEV GSWKXCNGPEGU CTG FKUVKPEV CV NGCUV KH VJG EQTTGURQPFKPI UGVU QH
6JG)GPGTCN6JGQT[QH#DUVTCEVKQP+VU5EQRG
6JG OCKP FKHHGTGPEG DGVYGGP VJG 5EQVVKUJ 5EJQQN CPF (KPG KU VJCV VJG HQTOGT CTG
EQPVGPV VQ RTQEGGF RKGEGOGCN CFFKPI URGEKHKE CDUVTCEVKQP RTKPEKRNGU QPG D[ QPG YJKNG VJG
NCVVGT YKUJGU VQ FGXGNQR C IGPGTCN VJGQT[ VJCV YKNN UQ VQ URGCM CFOKV CNN CFOKUUKDNG
GZCOKPKPI VJQTQWIJN[ VJG QPN[ MPQYP UKORNG CPF PCVWTCN TGUVTKEVKQP VJCV ECP RTGXGPV
J[RGTKPHNCVKQP
6JG MG[ PQVKQP HQT (KPG KU KPXCTKCPEG YJKEJ KU FGHKPGF CU HQNNQYU # RGTOWVCVKQP
2:; ↔ ∀Z∀[
2Z[ →
:Z ↔ ;[
GXGT[ RGTOWVCVKQP 2 QH QDLGEVU # NKVVNG VJQWIJV UJQYU VJCV VJGTG CTG QPN[ VYQ KPXCTKCPV
EQPEGRVU
VJG WPKXGTUCN CPF PWNN EQPEGRVU CPF HQWT KPXCTKCPV TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU
VJG
6JKPIU YKNN VWTP QWV VQ DG OWEJ OQTG KPVGTGUVKPI QPG NGXGN WR UQ NGV OG UGV FQYP
CNNQYGF CTDKVTCT[ RGTOWVCVKQPU QH EQPEGRVU VJG UKVWCVKQP YQWNF DG VJG UCOG CU KV YCU QPG
FQ 6JGUG NCUV VYQ PQVKQPU CTG QH OQUV KPVGTGUV YJGP 4 KU CP GSWKXCNGPEG &QWDNG
CNYC[U 4GSWKXCNGPV VQ 2
:
+P IGPGTCN C EQPEGRV TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRV JKIJGTNGXGN EQPEGRV QT JKIJGTNGXGN
YKNN DG KPXCTKCPV 6JGTG YKNN DG OQTG KPXCTKCPV UGEQPFNGXGN EQPEGRVU VJCP LWUV VJQUG
GZRNKEKVN[ FGHKPCDNG KP RWTGN[ NQIKECN VGTOU DWV CNN KPXCTKCPV UGEQPFNGXGN EQPEGRVU CTG
CDUVTCEV OQFGN VJGQT[ RTKOCTKN[ DGECWUG URGEKCNKUVU KP UWEJ DTCPEJGU HKPF VJCV OWEJ QH
VJG VJGQT[ VJCV CRRNKGU VQ QNQIKECN R EQPEGRVU KP C PCTTQY UGPUG CRRNKGU VQ VJGUG CU YGNN #V
CP[ TCVG TGSWKTKPI KPXCTKCPEG HQT VJG GSWKXCNGPEG KPXQNXGF KU CTIWCDN[ C RTKPEKRNGF CPF
O
(KPG U IGPGTCN VJGQT[ QH CDUVTCEVU KP QTFGT VQ CXQKF J[RGTKPHNCVKQP
O
9G ECP PQY KPVTQFWEG C RTGNKOKPCT[ XGTUKQP QH (KPG U IGPGTCN VJGQT[ QH
EQPVCKPU C VYQRNCEG HWPEVKQPU[ODQN h VJCV VCMGU XCTKCDNGU QH V[RG 4 KP KVU HKTUV RNCEG
CPF XCTKCDNGU QH V[RG : KP KVU UGEQPF RNCEG CPF RTQFWEGU C TGUWNV VJCV ECP DG UWDUVKVWVGF
XCNWG )GPGTCNN[ h 4: YKNN DG YTKVVGP OQTG UWIIGUVKXGN[ h4: CPF ECNNGF VJG CDUVTCEV QH :
YKVJ TGURGEV VQ 4 9G CUUWOG GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ UQ VJCV 4 ≡ 5 KORNKGU h4: h5:
# PQVKQP QH UWKVCDKNKV[ YKNN DG FGHKPGF CPF VJG QVJGT CZKQOU YKNN DG HQTOWNCVGF KP
NQIKE VJCV VJGTG KU CV NGCUV QPG QDLGEV +P VJG RTGUGPV EQPVGZV KV YKNN DG EQPXGPKGPV VQ
CUUWOG VJCV VJGTG CTG CV NGCUV VYQ QDLGEVU CPF VJCV YG JCXG C PCOG HQT QPG QH VJGO UC[
# 4 UWKVCDNG ↔ h4: ο l
# 4 UWKVCDNG →
h4: h4; ↔ 4:;
# GZRTGUUGU VJG CUUWORVKQP PQVGF GCTNKGT VJCV CDUVTCEVU YKVJ TGURGEV VQ FKUVKPEV
GSWKXCNGPEGU CTG FKUVKPEV CV NGCUV WPNGUU VJG EQTTGURQPFKPI UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU CTG VJG
UCOG 6YQ TKXCN UVTGPIVJGPKPIU UWIIGUV VJGOUGNXGU QPG DGKPI VJG RTKPEKRNG VJCV CDUVTCEVU
YKVJ TGURGEV VQ FKUVKPEV GSWKXCNGPEGU CTG PGXGT VJG UCOG VJG QVJGT VJCV VJG[ CTG VJG UCOG
LWUV KP ECUG VJG EQTTGURQPFKPI UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU CTG 6JGUG OC[ DG GZRTGUUGF CU HQNNQYU
O
# GZRTGUUGU VJG WUWCN NCY HQT CDUVTCEVU QH YJKEJ .CY 8 CPF *WOG U RTKPEKRNG
O O
*WOG U RTKPEKRNG YJKEJ YG YCPV CPF FQP V JCXG .CY 8 YJKEJ YG FQP V # NKVVNGO
VJQWIJV UJQYU VJCV
# KORNKGU VJCV CP[ UWKVCDNG 4 KU CP GSWKXCNGPEG
6JG YGCMGT YG OCMG VJG PQVKQP QH UWKVCDKNKV[ VJG UVTQPIGT YG YKNN OCMG VJG
IGPGTCN VJGQT[ QH CDUVTCEVU .GV WU DGIKP YKVJ C TCVJGT UVTQPI PQVKQP QH UWKVCDKNKV[ CPF C
EQTTGURQPFKPIN[ YGCM VJGQT[ .GV WU ECNN 4 UVTQPIN[ UWKVCDNG KH VJG HQNNQYKPI JQNF
4 KU CP GSWKXCNGPEG
4 KU FQWDN[ KPXCTKCPV
4 KU C FKEJQVQO[
6JKU NCUV OGCPU VJCV 4 JCU CV OQUV VYQ UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU QT KP QVJGT YQTFU VJCV VJGTG
GZKUV : CPF ; UWEJ VJCV GXGT[ < KU 4GSWKXCNGPV VQ QPG QT VJG QVJGT QH VJGO 6JKU
FKEJQVQO[ 4:
4::; ↔
:: :; ∨
`:: `:;
1DXKQWUN[ VJG EQORNGOGPV QH : YQWNF IKXG TKUG VQ VJG UCOG GSWKXCNGPEG 4: +PXGTUGN[
IKXGP CP[ FQWDN[ KPXCTKCPV FKEJQVQO[ 4 KV KU GSWCNN[ GCUKN[ UGGP VJCV VJG HQNNQYKPI
0QY KPXCTKCPV UGEQPFNGXGN EQPEGRVU COQWPV VQ YJCV KP CDUVTCEV OQFGN VJGQT[ CTG
ECNNGF IGPGTCNK\GF SWCPVKHKGTU 6JGUG KPENWFG HQT KPUVCPEG PQPG UQOG CNN CV OQUV QPG
GZCEVN[ QPG CV NGCUV QPG CV OQUV VYQ GZCEVN[ VYQ CV NGCUV VYQ HKPKVGN[ OCP[ KPHKPKVGN[
OCP[ OQUV GXGPN[ OCP[ QFFN[ OCP[ CPF UQ QP 6JG CUUWORVKQP QH VJG GZKUVGPEG QH
NQIKECN QDLGEVU EQTTGURQPFKPI VQ VJGUG SWCPVKHKGTU CV QPEG IKXGU WU UWTTQICVGU HQT PCVWTCN
PWODGTU KP VJG HQTO QH VJG QDLGEVU EQTTGURQPFKPI VQ GZCEVN[ \GTQ GZCEVN[ QPG GZCEVN[
VYQ CPF UQ QP 4GEQIPK\KPI VJGUG QDLGEVU EQTTGURQPFU VQ VJG JKUVQTKECN UVGR QH UYKVEJKPI
HTQO VJG CFLGEVKXCN WUG QH PWOGTCNU CU KP Q(QWT JQTUGU RWNNGF VJG EJCTKQV R VQ VJG PQOKPCN
QWT QDLGEVU EQPEGRVU WPFGT YJKEJ VJG[ HCNN IKXG WU UWTTQICVGU HQT UGVU QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU
KPENWFG UWTTQICVGU HQT UGVU QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU (QT KPUVCPEG VJG QDLGEVU EQTTGURQPFKPI VQ
GXGPN[ OCP[ CPF QFFN[ OCP[ ECP UGTXG CU UWTTQICVGU HQT VJG UGVU QH GXGP CPF QH QFF
O
PWODGTU 5WEJ KU VJG KFGC QH (KPG U KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH CPCN[UKU YKVJ TGCN PWODGTU CU QDLGEVU
∀:∀;
θ
7 W : ; ↔ χ
8 X : ; → h7W: {8X;
1HHKEKCNN[ NCPIWCIGU CTG PQV UWRRQUGF VQ JCXG TWNGU RGTOKVVKPI VJG KPVTQFWEVKQP
QH PGY U[ODQNU DWV CTG UWRRQUGF VQ JCXG CNN VJGKT U[ODQNU IKXGP KP CFXCPEG +P ECUG VJG
TGCFGT KU VTQWDNGF D[ VJKU RQKPV C NCPIWCIG QH VJG V[RG TGSWKTGF ECP DG EQPUVTWEVGF CU
HQNNQYU (KTUV GPWOGTCVG CNN VJG HQTOWNCU YG JCXG DGHQTG KPVTQFWEKPI CP[ URGEKCN U[ODQNU
CU θ θ θ W VJGP KPVTQFWEG h CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ θ VJGP GPWOGTCVG CNN VJG PGY
HQTOWNCU YG IGV YKVJ VJKU U[ODQN CU θ θ θ W
VJGP KPVTQFWEG h CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ θ
VJGP GPWOGTCVG VJG PGY HQTOWNCU YG IGV YKVJ VJKU U[ODQN CU θ θ θ W
CPF
EQPVKPWG KP VJKU YC[ GCEJ VKOG WUKPI WR JCNH VJG TGOCKPKPI RNCEGU 6JG TGUWNV KU C
K
NCPIWCIG YKVJ C U[ODQN h HQT GXGT[ HQTOWNC θK CPF YKVJ GCEJ θK EQPVCKPKPI QPN[ hL HQT
L K
KP 9)6# WUKPI QPN[ VYQ URGEKCN U[ODQNU 9G HKTUV PQVG VJCV HQT CP[ 7 VJG HQNNQYKPI
HQTOWNC φ
7 : ; FGVGTOKPGU CP GSWKXCNGPEG
: ≈ 7 ; ≈ 7 ∨
`: ≈ 7 `; ≈ 7
φ
7 : ; KU UWKVCDNG CPF YG OC[ KPVTQFWEG C U[ODQN T CPF CUUWOG VJG HQNNQYKPI
T7 T7: ; ↔
: ≈ 7 ; ≈ 7 ∨
`: ≈ 7 `; ≈ 7
7
: 7
; ∨
`7
: `7
;
FKEJQVQO[ 5Q ψ KU UWKVCDNG CPF YG OC[ KPVTQFWEG C U[ODQN { CPF CUUWOG VJG HQNNQYKPI
{7: {7; ↔
7
: 7
; ∨
`7
: `7
;
`∃:
7
: W ο∨ ∃:(7
: W {7:
#PF NGVVKPI U0 7 DG VJKU W IKXGU WU PWOGTKECN .CY 8 6JKU CTIWOGPV GUUGPVKCNN[ (KPG U O
YKVJ C DKV QH DQQMMGGRKPI CFFGF GUVCDNKUJGU VJG HQNNQYKPI TGUWNV
4GHKPGF (TGIG(KPG 6JGQTGO (QT CNN P n
P
UVQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE ECP DG
KPVGTRTGVGF KP VJG PVJ QTFGT YGCM IGPGTCN VJGQT[ QH CDUVTCEVKQP
6JG)GPGTCN6JGQT[QH#DUVTCEVKQP+VU.KOKVU
+V KU RQUUKDNG VQ FGXGNQR C UVTQPIGT IGPGTCN VJGQT[ QH CDUVTCEVKQP D[ CFQRVKPI C
YGCMGT PQVKQP QH UWKVCDKNKV[ .GV WU EJCPIG VJG FGHKPKVKQP UQ VJCV YG PQY EQPUKFGT 4
4 KU CP GSWKXCNGPEG
4 KU PQPKPHNCVKPI
6JG PQVKQP KP
PGGFU VQ DG FGHKPGF %CNN : UOCNN KH : KU PQV GSWKPWOGTQWU YKVJ
VJG WPKXGTUCN EQPEGRV 7 CPF XGT[ UOCNN KH VJGTG KU UQOG UOCNN ; UWEJ VJCV : KU
GSWKPWOGTQWU YKVJ C RTQRGT RCTV QH ; DWV PQV YKVJ CNN QH ; %CNN 4 PGCTN[ KPXCTKCPV KH
VJGTG KU C UOCNN 9 UWEJ VJCV 4 KU 9KPXCTKCPV KP VJG UGPUG VJCV HQT CP[ RGTOWVCVKQP 2 VJCV
QPN[ KH 42
:2
; HQT CNN : CPF ; &GHKPG XGT[ PGCTN[ KPXCTKCPV UKOKNCTN[ YKVJ QXGT[
UOCNN R KP RNCEG QH QUOCNNR 9KVJ VJKU YGCMGPGF FGHKPKVKQP
QH UWKVCDKNKV[ YG IGV VJG
UVTQPI IGPGTCN VJGQT[ QH CDUVTCEVKQP 5(6# VJGTG KU CNUQ C UGEQPFQTFGT XCTKCPV 5(6#
YKVJ FQOCKPU QH QDLGEVU QH XCTKQWU VTCPUHKPKVG ECTFKPCNKVKGU EQPUKFGTKPI DQVJ JQY UWEJ
OQFGNU ECP DG FGHKPGF QHTQO VJG VQR FQYPR CPF JQY VJG[ ECP DG EQPUVTWEVGF QHTQO VJG
DQVVQO WRR (QT RWTRQUGU QH RTQXKPI VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH VJG VJGQT[ M VJG QPN[ SWGUVKQP VQ
DG VCMGP WR JGTG M VJG GZKUVGPEG QH LWUV QPG OQFGN YJKEJ PGGF PQV DG UVCPFCTF KU QH
EQWTUG GPQWIJ #PF UQ HQT RTGUGPV RWTRQUGU KV YKNN DG GPQWIJ VQ GZVTCEV CPF EQPFGPUG LWUV
O
GPQWIJ QWV QH (KPG U GZVGPFGF FKUEWUUKQP VQ IKXG WU QPG OQFGN 7PHQTVWPCVGN[ HTQO VJKU
RQKPV QP KV YKNN DG PGEGUUCT[ VQ CUUWOG OQTG HCOKNKCTKV[ YKVJ CZKQOCVKE UGV VJGQT[ VJCP +
JCXG DGGP CUUWOKPI UQ HCT VJQWIJ VJG KPHQTOCVKQP VJCV ECP DG QDVCKPGF HTQO VJG GCTNKGT
CDUVTCEVKQP + YKNN CNUQ CUUWOG VJG CZKQO QH EQPUVTWEVKDKNKV[ 8 . #NN VJCV QPG PGGFU VQ
MPQY CDQWV VJKU CZKQO KU VJCV KV KORNKGU VJG EQPVKPWWO J[RQVJGUKU %* CPF KORNKGU VJCV C
EGTVCKP TGNCVKQP . FGHKPCDNG D[ C EGTVCKP HQTOWNC λ
Z [ QH VJG NCPIWCIG QH UGV VJGQT[
IKXGU C YGNNQTFGT QH CNN UGVU 6JKU HGCVWTG ECP DG WUGF YJGPGXGT YG PGGF VQ OCMG C
EJQKEG QH C UGV YKVJ C EGTVCKP RTQRGTV[ CPF YCPV VQ DG GZRNKEKV CDQWV YJKEJ EJQKEG YG CTG
OCMKPI YG VJGP EJQQUG VJG .NGCUV UGV YKVJ VJG RTQRGTV[ $WV VJKU HGCVWTG YKNN DG WUGF
QPN[ CV VJG XGT[ GPF QH VJG RTQQH 6JG CUUWORVKQP QH 8 . KU JCTONGUU (QT )ÑFGN
YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ VJCV CP[ EQPENWUKQP VJCV EQWNF DG UVCVGF KP VJG NCPIWCIG QH HKTUVQTFGT
CTKVJOGVKE VJCV KU RTQXGF YKVJ VJG CKF QH VJKU J[RQVJGUKU EQWNF DG RTQXGF YKVJQWV KV CPF
+P VJG OQFGN VQ DG EQPUVTWEVGF VJG FQOCKP QH VJG QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU YKNN DG ω VJG
HKTUV WPEQWPVCDNG QTFKPCN KFGPVKHKGF YKVJ VJG UGV QH CNN EQWPVCDNG QTFKPCNU 6JG OQFGN YKNN
DG UVCPFCTF UQ VJG FQOCKP QH VJG QPGRNCEG EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU YKNN DG RQYGT UGV ℘
ω QT
ω CPF VJG FQOCKP QH VJG VYQRNCEG TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU YKNN
UGV QH CNN UWDUGVU QH
QH GNGOGPVU QH ω VJCV KU VJG UGV QH CNN VYQRNCEG TGNCVKQPU QP ω +P VJG VJKTFQTFGT
XGTUKQP QH VJG VJGQT[ VJG UGEQPFNGXGN QPGRNCEG EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU CPF VYQRNCEG
YKNN GZVGPUKQPCNKV[
4
h :h ; 5 → ∀<
4:< ↔ 5;<
KPEQORCVKDNG UVTGPIVJGPKPIU QH
QPG RTGHGTU
C 4 l 5 → h4: l h5;
(QT VJG EQPUVTWEVKQP YG YKNN QH EQWTUG DG WUKPI VJG UWKVCDKNKV[ J[RQVJGUKU QP VJG
GSWKXCNGPEG 4 .GV WU HKTUV EQPUKFGT YJCV QXGT[ PGCTN[ KPXCTKCPVR COQWPVU VQ KP QWT
RTGUGPV EQPVGZV 5KPEG VJG FQOCKP QH VJG QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU JCU UK\G ℵ QUOCNNR YKNN OGCP
ℵ YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ m ℵ QT EQWPVCDNG CPF QXGT[ UOCNNR YKNN OGCP ℵ QT HKPKVG 5Q
KH 4 KU XGT[ PGCTN[ KPXCTKCPV VJGTG YKNN DG C HKPKVG UWDUGV U QH ω UWEJ VJCV 4 KU UKPXCTKCPV
6JG FGHKPKVKQP QHQPQPKPHNCVKPIR YCU C VGEJPKECN EQPFKVKQP UWHHKEKGPV
CPF CEVWCNN[
PGEGUUCT[ VJQWIJ YG YKNN PQV PGGF VJCV HCEV VQ KORN[ JCXKPI m ℵ UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU
9JCV KU ETWEKCN VQ VJG EQPUVTWEVKQP VQ GUVCDNKUJ VJCV VJGTG CTG QPN[ ℵ RCKTU
EQPUKUVKPI QH C UWKVCDNG GSWKXCNGPEG 4 CPF QPG QH KVU UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU 4=:? 6JG
PQPKPHNCVKPI EQPFKVKQP VGNNU WU VJGTG YKNN PQV DG VQQ OCP[ UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU HQT CP[
IKXGP UWKVCDNG GSWKXCNGPEG UQ YJCV KU ETWEKCN YKNN DG VQ GUVCDNKUJ VJCV VJGTG CTG PQV VQQ
OCP[ XGT[ PGCTN[ KPXCTKCPV GSWKXCNGPEGU 6JG MG[ VQ FQKPI UQ YKNN DG NQECVKPI C EQPFKVKQP
6JG MG[ VQ NQECVKPI UWEJ C EQPFKVKQP YKNN DG VJG HQNNQYKPI VGEJPKECN PQVKQP %CNN R
C RTQHKNG KH R KU CP QEVWRNG YJQUG HKTUV HQWT EQORQPGPVU CTG HKPKVG UWDUGVU QH ω CPF YJQUG
NCUV HQWT EQORQPGPVU CTG ECTFKPCNUm ℵ CPF ECNN R CP URTQHKNG KH VJG WPKQP QH KVU HKTUV
HQWT EQORQPGPVU KU U (QT IKXGP : CPF ; FGHKPG VJGKT URTQHKNG KU
: ; VQ DG VJG QPG YKVJ
: ∩ ; ∩ U
: ; ∩ U
; : ∩U
ω : ; ∩ U
^^
: ∩ ; U^^ ^^
: ; U^^ ^^
; : U^^ ^^
ω : ; U^^
UCOGPGUU QH VJG HKTUV HQWT EQORQPGPVU QH VJG URTQHKNGU KORNKGU VJCV VJG KFGPVKV[ +U
UCVKUHKGU +U
: ∩ U : ∩ U CPF +U
; ∩ U ; ∩ U 6Q QDVCKP VJG FGUKTGF 2 KV YKNN DG
: ∩ ; U CPQVJGT DGVYGGP
: ; U CPF
: ; U CPQVJGT DGVYGGP
; : U
CPF
; : U CPF CPQVJGT DGVYGGP
ω : ; U CPF
ω : ; U 6JGUG HQWT
0QY ECNN C UGV 5 HCKT KH HQT UQOG HKPKVG U ⊆ ω 5 KU C PQPGORV[ UGV QH URTQHKNGU
6JG U KP SWGUVKQP YKNN DG WPKSWG CPF ECP DG TGEQXGTGF HTQO 5 CU VJG WPKQP QH VJG HKTUV HQWT
U ⊆ ω UWEJ VJCV 4 KU UKPXCTKCPV OGCPKPI VJCV HQT CP[ RGTOWVCVKQP 2 HKZKPI U YG JCXG
4:; KH CPF QPN[ KH 42
:2
; HQT CNN : CPF ; .GV 5 DG VJG UGV QH URTQHKNGU KU
: ; HQT :
CPF ; UWEJ VJCV 4:; 4GXKGYKPI VJG FGHKPKVKQPU KV KU KOOGFKCVG VJCV 4:; KORNKGU VJCV :
CPF ; CTG 5TGNCVGF 6Q EQORNGVG VJG RTQQH QH VJG ENCKO KV YKNN DG GPQWIJ VQ UJQY VJCV VJG
%CNN C UGV 5 IQQF KH 5 KU HCKT CPF 5TGNCVGFPGUU KU C UWKVCDNG GSWKXCNGPEG 6JGP YJCV
JCU LWUV DGGP UJQYP KU VJCV HQT GXGT[ UWKVCDNG GSWKXCNGPEG 4 VJGTG KU C IQQF 5 UWEJ VJCV 4
EQKPEKFGU YKVJ 5TGNCVGFPGUU #PF YJCV YG JCXG CEEQORNKUJGF UQ HCT KU VQ UJQY VJCV VJGTG
CTG PQ OQTG UWKVCDNG GSWKXCNGPEGU 4 VJCP VJGTG CTG IQQF 5 9G PGGF PGZV C DQWPF QP VJG
PWODGT QH UWEJ 5 + ENCKO VJGTG CTG QPN[ ℵ HCKT 5 CPF C HQTVKQTK QPN[ ℵ IQQF 5
5KPEG GCEJ HCKT 5 KU C UGV QH URTQHKNGU HQT UQOG HKPKVG U ⊆ ω CPF VJGTG CTG QPN[ ℵ
UWEJ U VQ RTQXG VJG ENCKO KV YKNN DG GPQWIJ VQ UJQY VJCV HQT CP[ IKXGP U VJG PWODGT QH
UGVU 5 QH URTQHKNGU KU PQ OQTG VJCP ℵ 0QY GXGT[ UWEJ 5 KU C UWDUGV QH VJG UGV QH CNN
URTQHKNGU R CPF VJG UGV QH CNN URTQHKNGU KU EQWPVCDNG (QT GCEJ QH VJG HKTUV HQWT
EQORQPGPVU QH UWEJ C R KU C UWDUGV QH U CPF VJGTG CTG QPN[ HKPKVGN[ OCP[ QH VJQUG YJKNG
GCEJ QH VJG NCUV HQWT EQORQPGPVU QH UWEJ C R KU C ECTFKPCN m ℵ CPF VJGTG CTG QPN[
EQWPVCDN[ OCP[ QH VJQUG PCOGN[ VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU CPF ℵ CPF ℵ 6Q EQORNGVG VJG
RTQQH QH VJG DQWPF QP VJG PWODGT QH XGT[ IQQF 5 YG KPXQMG HQT VJG HKTUV CPF NCUV VKOG
%* YJKEJ VGNNU WU VJCV VJG PWODGT QH UWDUGVU QH C EQWPVCDNG UGV KU ℵ
6Q EQORNGVG VJG RTQQH QH EQPUKUVGPE[ KV YQWNF DG GPQWIJ PQY VQ CUUKIP GCEJ RCKT
QPN[ℵ UWKVCDNG GSWKXCNGPEGU CPF VJGTG CTG CV OQUV ℵ UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU HQT GCEJ
OCMKPI QPN[ ℵ UWEJ RCKTU KP CNN 6JKU FQPG YG EQWNF VCMG h4: VQ VJG QTFKPCN CUUKIPGF VQ
D KPUVGCF 9G YQWNF JCXG EQPUKUVGPE[ HQT GKVJGT QRVKQP CPF YKVJQWV WUKPI OQTG QH
4
WUG QH . CPF IKXG C OQTG GZRNKEKV FGHKPKVKQP QH h : 6Q DGIKP YKVJ ECNN 5 XGT[ IQQF KH
5 KU IQQF CPF VJGTG KU PQ 6 . 5 UWEJ VJCV 6 KU IQQF CPF 6TGNCVGFPGUU EQKPEKFGU YKVJ
5TGNCVGFPGUU 6JGP GXGT[ UWKVCDNG 4 EQKPEKFGU YKVJ 5TGNCVGFPGUU HQT UQOG WPKSWG XGT[
IQQF 5 %CNN C RCKT 〈 5 ;〉 GZEGNNGPV KH 5 KU XGT[ IQQF ; ⊆ ω CPF ; KU VJG .NGCUV OGODGT
QH KVU UGV QH GSWKXCNGPVU WPFGT 5TGNCVGFPGUU QT KP QVJGT YQTFU VJGTG KU PQ < . ; UWEJ
VJCV ; CPF < CTG 5TGNCVGF 5KPEG 5TGNCVGFPGUU KU C PQPKPHNCVKPI GSWKXCNGPEG VJGTG CTG CV
OQUV ℵ UGVU QH GSWKXCNGPVU GCEJ QH YJKEJ JCU GZCEVN[ QPG .NGCUV OGODGT UQ VJCV KP CNN
VJGTG m ℵ GZEGNNGPV RCKTU 〈5 ;〉 HQT CP[ QPG QH VJG ℵ XGT[ IQQF 5 CPF JGPEG QPN[ ℵ
GZEGNNGPV RCKTU CNVQIGVJGT /QTGQXGT HQT CP[ RCKT 〈 4 :〉 EQPUKUVKPI QH C UWKVCDNG
GSWKXCNGPEG 4 CPF C UWDUGV QH ω VJGTG KU C WPKSWG GZEGNNGPV RCKT 〈5 ;〉 UWEJ VJCV
4GSWKXCNGPEG EQKPEKFGU YKVJ 5TGNCVGFPGUU CPF : KU 5TGNCVGF VQ ; YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ : KU
4GSWKXCNGPV VQ ;
9G CNTGCF[ MPQY VJGTG KU C WPKSWG XGT[ IQQF 5 UWEJ VJCV
4GSWKXCNGPEG EQKPEKFGU YKVJ 5TGNCVGFPGUU CPF KV KU CNUQ ENGCTN[ VJG ECUG VJCV VJGTG KU C
WPKSWG ; VJCV KU .NGCUV COQPI CNN UWDUGVU QH ω VJCV CTG 4GSWKXCNGPV VQ : .GV WU UC[
VJCV UWEJ C RCKT ECRVWTGU 4 CPF : 5KPEG VJG PWODGT QH GZEGNNGPV RCKTU KU ℵ VJGTG KU C
QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG DGVYGGP QTFKPCNU ω CPF GZEGNNGPV RCKTU CPF COQPI CNN UWEJ
EQTTGURQPFGPEGU VJGTG KU QPG VJCV KU .NGCUV YJKEJ YG OC[ ECNN VJG ECPQPKECN
UWDUGV QH ω VJGTG KU C WPKSWG QTFKPCN Z ω UWEJ VJCV Z EQTTGURQPFU WPFGT VJG ECPQPKECN
EQTTGURQPFGPEG VQ VJG GZEGNNGPV RCKT VJCV ECRVWTGU 4 CPF : .GV σ
4 : DG VJKU WPKSWG
QTFKPCN 4GXKGYKPI VJG FGHKPKVKQPU YG UGG VJCV KH 4 CPF 5 FQ PQV EQKPEKFG VJGP
σ
4 : l σ
5 ; HQT CP[ : CPF ; YJKNG HQT HKZGF 4 YG JCXG σ
4 : σ
4 ; KH CPF
QPN[ KH : CPF ; CTG 4GSWKXCNGPV 6JGTGHQTG KH YG VCMG h4: VQ FGPQVG σ
4 ; YG IGV C
OQFGN QH
CPF
C # UNKIJVN[ OQFKHKGF EQPUVTWEVKQP YQWNF IKXG
D KPUVGCF
6JKU TGCNN[ KU GPQWIJ VQ EQORNGVG VJG RTQQH QH EQPUKUVGPE[ DWV NQQMGF CV ENQUGN[
VJG RTQQH CEVWCNN[ RTQXGU OQTG VJCP EQPUKUVGPE[ 6JG FGHKPKVKQP QH C OQFGN KP GHHGEV IKXGU
GZKUVGPEG QH ω CPF ℘
ω VQ IGV FQOCKPU HQT VJG QDLGEV CPF HKTUVNGXGN EQPEGRVXCTKCDNGU
CPF VJGTGD[ WUGF VJG GZKUVGPEG QH ℘
ω CPF ℘
ω CPF VJQWIJ VJG RTQQH WUGF UWDUGVU QH
℘
ω CU VJG FQOCKP QH VJG UGEQPFNGXGN EQPEGRV XCTKCDNGU VJG KPVGTRTGVCVKQP PQYJGTG
TGCNN[ WUGU VJG CUUWORVKQP VJCV VJGUG UWDUGVU HQTO C UGV YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ VJCV YG FQ PQV
PGGF ℘
ω QT ℘
ω HQT VJG RTQQH 6JKU OGCPU VJCV YG CEVWCNN[ IGV CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP KP
<(
℘
ω
8 . #PF KP QWT RTGNKOKPCT[ UWTXG[ QH U[UVGOU QH CPCN[UKU CPF UGV
VJGQT[ KV YCU TGOCTMGF VJCV VJKU VJGQT[ KU KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP <(
℘
ω YJKEJ KP VWTP KU
KPVGTRTGVCDNG KP 2 6JKU IKXGU VJG ECUG P KP VJG HQNNQYKPI VJGQTGO HTQO YJKEJ VJG
6JG ECUG P KU C NKVVNG OQTG FGNKECVG CPF + YKNN PQV FQV GXGT[ K QT ETQUU GXGT[ V
θ UC[U VJCV NGVVKPI σ DG VJG ECPQPKECN GPWOGTCVKQP QH GZEGNNGPV RCKTU CPF 〈5 ;〉 σ
Z
VJGP VJG RCKT 〈 5 ;〉 ECRVWTGU VJG RCKT EQPUKUVKPI QH VJG TGNCVKQP FGHKPGF D[ θ
7 W : ;
PGQ(TGIGCPU FQ VJGP TGN[KPI QP KPXCTKCPEG VQ UQNXG VJG J[RGTKPHNCVKQP RTQDNGO VJG
QNKOKVU QH CDUVTCEVKQPR VWTP QWV VQ DG VJQUG QH VJKTFQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE 6JKU KU TGCNN[ C
SWKVG UVTQPI VJGQT[ CPF CP[ OCVJGOCVKEU VJCV ECPPQV DG FQPG KP KV OKIJV YGNN DG ECNNGF
QJKIJGT UGV VJGQT[R UQ VJCV (KPGOU CRRTQCEJ ECP DG UCKF VQ IGV WU CNN QH OCVJGOCVKEU
GZEGRV JKIJGT UGV VJGQT[
O
7PHQTVWPCVGN[ JQYGXGT (KPG U CRRTQCEJ FQGU PQV IKXG C EQORNGVG CPUYGT VQ VJG
DCFEQORCP[ QDLGEVKQP CU (KPG JKOUGNH KP GHHGEV EQPEGFGU 6JG RTQDNGO KU VJCV HQT CP[ 4
'456 ↔
5 ≅ 4 6 ≅ 4 ∨
`5 ≅ 4 `6 ≅ 4
KU KPXCTKCPV CPF C FKEJQVQO[ CPF [GV VQ CUUWOG CDUVTCEVU GZKUV HQT CNN UWEJ GSWKXCNGPEGU KU
VQ CUUWOG VJG GZKUVGPEG QH KUQOQTRJKUO V[RGU KPENWFKPI QTFGT V[RGU KPENWFKPI QTFKPCN
6JG EQOOQP HGCVWTG QH VJG 9TKIJV*CNG CPF (KPG CDUVTCEVKQPKUV CRRTQCEJGU KU VJCV
VJG[ FKURGPUG YKVJ .CY 8 CPF GZVGPUKQPU CPF YQTM YKVJ CDUVTCEVU HQT GSWKXCNGPEGU VJCV
CTG SWKVG FKHHGTGPV HTQO EQGZVGPUKXGPGUU + YKUJ PQY VQ VWTP VQ VJGQTKGU VJCV KPUVGCF UCXG
(TGIG HTQO EQPVTCFKEVKQP D[ TGUVTKEVKPI .CY 8 5WEJ VJGQTKGU MGGR GZVGPUKQPU VJQWIJ
O
UWDLGEV VQ C TGUVTKEVKQP CPF NKMG (TGIG U QTKIKPCN VJGQT[ VJG[ FQ PQV FKTGEVN[ CUUWOG
O
(TGIG U KPEQPUKUVGPV UGV VJGQT[ 6JG UGV VJGQTKGU + EQPUKFGT PGQ(TGIGCP JQYGXGT JCXG
O
VYQ HGCVWTGU VJCV OCMG VJGO UKOKNCT VQ (TGIG U QTKIKPCN VJGQT[ CPF FKHHGTGPV HTQO
OCKPUVTGCO CZKQOCVKE UGV VJGQTKGU UWEJ CU <(% 6JG HKTUV UWEJ HGCVWTG KU VJCV VJG[ OCMG
O
UGTKQWU WUG QH UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE CPF VJCV KP CEEQTFCPEG YKVJ (TGIG U RTKPEKRNGU VJG[
UWDQTFKPCVG VJG PQVKQPU QH UGV CPF GNGOGPV VQ VJQUG QH HCNNKPIWPFGT CPF GZVGPUKQPQH 6JG
UGEQPF UWEJ HGCVWTG KU VJCV VJG[ JCXG QPN[ C UKPING WPKHKGF UGVGZKUVGPEG CZKQO QT CV OQUV
6Q DGIKP YKVJ NGV OG UGV WR C EQOOQP HTCOGYQTM HQT C XCTKGV[ QH UWEJ UGV
VJGQTKGU 9G JCXG HWNN UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE CPF VQ DGIKP YKVJ CV NGCUV + YKNN CUUWOG VJCV YG
JCXG HWNN F[CFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE #PF YG JCXG URGEKCN TGNCVKQPU[ODQNU e CPF ² CPF ∈
YKVJ VJG HQNNQYKPI CZKQOU (KTUV YG JCXG VJG CZKQOU QH UWDQTFKPCVKQP FGHKPKPI UGV CPF
²Z ↔ ∃: e Z:
Z ∈ [ ↔ ∃;
e [; ;Z
e Z: e [; →
Z [ ↔ : ≡ ;
0QVG VJCV
KORNKGU VJCV VJG : KP
CPF VJG ; KP
CTG WPKSWG 9G JCXG UGGP JQY
KORNKGU VJG WPKSWGPGUU QH VJG GZVGPUKQP YJGP KV GZKUVU RGTOKVVKPI VJG FGHKPKVKQP QH U: CPF
]Z φ
Z_ HQT VJQUG EQPEGRVU : CPF nZ φ
Z VJCV JCXG GZVGPUKQPU #PF YG JCXG UGGP JQY
RGTOKV VJG FGFWEVKQP COQPI QVJGT VJKPIU QH VJG HQNNQYKPI CNVGTPCVG HQTOWNCVKQP
QH GZVGPUKQPCNKV[
²Z ²[ ∀\
\ ∈ Z ↔ \ ∈ [ → Z [
C ∃Z e Z: ↔ : UCHG
D : UCHG → ∃Z e Z:
GSWKXCNGPV VQ CUUWOKPI QPG CFFKVKQPCN PCOGCDNG QDLGEV ο PQV VJG GZVGPUKQP QH CP[
EQPEGRV
1PG V[RG QH UGV VJGQT[ HKVVKPI VJKU HQTOCV YG JCXG EQPUKFGTGF CNTGCF[ VJG \KI\CI
VJGQTKGU YJGTG UCHGV[ KU WPFGTUVQQF CU C MKPF QH UKORNKEKV[ +P VJKU UGEVKQP YG YKNN JCXG C
NQQM CV QVJGT V[RGU 1PG UWEJ JCU DGGP UWIIGUVGF D[ (KPG 6JG UWIIGUVKQP KU VJCV YG VCMG
∃Z e Z: ↔ : PGCTN[ KPXCTKCPV
# NKVVNG VJQWIJV UJQYU VJCV KH : KU PGCTN[ KPXCTKCPV UQ VJCV VJGTG KU UQOG UOCNN 9
UWEJ VJCV : KU 9KPXCTKCPV VJGP GKVJGT CNN Z QWVUKFG 9 JCXG `:Z QT CNN Z QWVUKFG 9 JCXG
:Z 6JKU OGCPU VJCV GKVJGT : KVUGNH KU UOCNN QT KVU EQORNGOGPV KU UOCNN KP YJKEJ ECUG YG
UC[ : KU EQUOCNN +V GCUKN[ UGGP VJCV EQPXGTUGN[ CP[ UGV VJCV KU UOCNN QT EQUOCNN KU PGCTN[
∃Z e Z: ↔ : UOCNN ∨ : EQUOCNN
6JG (TGIGCP UGV VJGQT[ YKVJ VJKU CZKQO + YKNN ECNN (KPG UGV VJGQT[ +V KU
VJGTG CTG UKORNG EQFKPIU QH HKPKVG UGVU QH PCVWTCN PWODGTU VJCV CTG FGHKPCDNG KP 2
CPF
KPFGGF CNTGCF[ KP 2 CPF KPFGGF CNTGCF[ KP UVKNN YGCMGT VJGQTKGU CPF VJGUG ECP GCUKN[ DG
VJG UWO σ
U QH VJG RQYGTU O QH HQT O ∈ U CPF VJKU ECP DG OQFKHKGF VQ C EQFKPI KP
YJKEJ ⋅ σ
U EQFGU U CPF ⋅ σ
U
EQFGU VJG EQORNGOGPV QH U #PF VJKU KU CNN VJG
OCEJKPGT[ PGGFGF VQ IKXG CP KPVGTRTGVCVKQP
%QPXGTUGN[ YQTMKPI KP (KPG UGV VJGQT[ UKPEG VJGTG KU CV NGCUV QPG QDLGEV CP GORV[
EQPEGRV KU UOCNN CPF JGPEG VJG GORV[ UGV ∅ GZKUVU CPF VJG WPKXGTUCN EQPEGRV KU EQUOCNN
CPF JGPEG VJG WPKXGTUCN UGV 8 GZKUVU /QTGQXGT UKPEG VJGTG KU CV NGCUV QPG QDLGEV 8 l ∅
CPF VJGTG CTG KP HCEV CV OQUV VYQ QDLGEVU 6JKU KU GPQWIJ VQ IKXG WU UKPINGVQPU CPF
EQUKPINGVQPU CPF KP RCTVKEWNCT VJG CZKQOU QH 7756 YJKEJ YG MPQY VQ DG GPQWIJ YKVJ
+ VCMG KV CNN VJKU YCU MPQYP VQ (KPG VJQWIJ PQV SWKVG GZRNKEKVN[ UVCVGF KP JKU DQQM
.GV OG UGV KV FQYP CU CP QHHKEKCN VJGQTGO YKVJ C PCOG VJCV YKNN FKUVKPIWKUJ KV HTQO (KPG U O
NCTIGT VJGQTGOU QP VJG KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ QH CPCN[UKU KP VJG IGPGTCN VJGQT[ QH CDUVTCEVKQP CPF
(KPGOU .KVVNG 6JGQTGO (KPG UGV VJGQT[ CPF UGEQPFQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE CTG
OGPVKQPGF VJCV QH NKOKVCVKQP QH UK\G YJQUG TQNG KP VJG JKUVQT[ QH UGV VJGQT[ HTQO %CPVQT
FKUVKPIWKUJ HQWT HQTOU QH VJG KFGC VYQ SWCPVKVCVKXG CPF VYQ PQPSWCPVKVCVKXG CPF VYQ
OCZKOCNKUV CPF VYQ PQPOCZKOCNKUV +P CNN HQTOU VJG KFGC KU VJCV : JCU CP GZVGPUKQP KH CPF
QPN[ KH VJGTG CTG PQV VQQ OCP[ QDLGEVU HCNNKPI WPFGT : 6JG SWCPVKVCVKXG XGTUKQPU CTG
QVQQ OCP[R YKVJ QCU OCP[ CU VJGTG CTG QDLGEVU CNVQIGVJGTR VJG PQPOCZKOCNKUV XGTUKQPU
CTG PQV
O
UWHHKEKGPV VQ OQVKXCVG <GTOGNQ U CZKQO QH UGRCTCVKQP
: ⊆ ; →
∃[ e [; → ∃Z e Z:
+H : KU C RCTV QH ; CPF VJGTG CTG PQV VQQ OCP[ QDLGEVU HCNNKPI WPFGT ; VJGP VJGTG CTG PQV VQQ
OCP[ QDLGEVU HCNNKPI WPFGT : 5KPEG GXGT[ : KU EQPVCKPGF KP VJG WPKXGTUCN EQPEGRV
KU
KPEQORCVKDNG YKVJ VJG CUUWORVKQP VJCV VJG WPKXGTUCN EQPEGRV JCU CP GZVGPUKQP YJKEJ KU VQ
UC[ YKVJ VJG CUUWORVKQP VJCV VJGTG GZKUVU C WPKXGTUCN UGV # NKVVNG VJQWIJV UJQYU VJCV
KU
GSWKXCNGPV VQ VJG OQTG EQPXGPVKQPCN UGEQPFQTFGT UKPINGCZKQO HQTOWNCVKQP YJKEJ YKVJ
C ²[ → ∃Z
²Z ∀\
\ ∈ Z ↔ \ ∈ [ :\
D ²[ → ∃Z
²Z ∀\
\ ∈ Z ↔ \ ∈ [ φ
\
O
6JG SWCPVKVCVKXG PQPOCZKOCNKUV XGTUKQP KU UWHHKEKGPV VQ OQVKXCVG (TCPMGN U CZKQO
∀[∃Z4[Z ∀Z
:Z ↔ ∃[
;[ 4[Z →
∃[ e [; → ∃Z e Z:
∃Z e Z: ↔ : UOCNN
*GTG QUOCNNR KU FGHKPGF KP F[CFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE CU KV YCU GCTNKGT VQ OGCP QPQV KP
QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG YKVJ VJG WPKXGTUG QH CNN QDLGEVUR $QQNQU EQPUKFGTGF VJG
YJGTG YG JCXG QPG CFFKVKQPCN QDLGEV ο FKUVKPEV HTQO CNN GZVGPUKQPU VJQWIJ JG WUGF VJKU
NCUV QPN[ VQ IGV VJG GZKUVGPEG QH CV NGCUV VYQ QDLGEVU .GV OG ECNN VJG UGV VJGQT[ YKVJ
CPF ∃Z
Z Z CU GZKUVGPEG CZKQOU $QQNQU UGV VJGQT[ 6JGP D[ VJG UCOG TGCUQPKPI CU YKVJ
(KPG UGV VJGQT[ CDQXG YG JCXG VJG HQNNQYKPI
$QQNQUOU .KVVNG 6JGQTGO $QQNQU UGV VJGQT[ CPF UGEQPFQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE CTG
O
8QP 0GWOCPP U CZKQOCVK\CVKQP QH UGV VJGQT[ WUGF RTGFKECVKXG F[CFKE
UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE DWV QVJGTYKUG YCU $QQNQU UGV VJGQT[ YKVJ C HGY CFFKVKQPCN
CFFKVKQPCN CZKQOU PGGFGF VQ IGV HWNNUVTGPIVJ UGV VJGQT[ ECP DG TGFWEGF VQ VYQ KPHKPKV[
CPF RQYGT UGV #FFKPI KPHKPKV[ IKXGU C VJGQT[ QH VJG UCOG UVTGPIVJ CU <( QT 2 CPF
CFFKPI CNUQ RQYGT UGV IKXGU C VJGQT[ QH VJG UCOG UVTGPIVJ CU <(% $WV YG FQ PGGF VJQUG
6JG NQPI CPF UJQTV QH KV KU VJCV VJG XGTUKQPU QH VJG NKOKVCVKQP QH UK\G KFGC
EQPUKFGTGF UQ HCT FQ PQV IGV QPG XGT[ HCT KPVQ VJG TGCNO QH UGV VJGQT[ DG[QPF CPCN[UKU 6JG
RTQDNGO KU VJCV VJG RTKPEKRNG VJCV C UGV GZKUVU WPNGUU KVU GNGOGPVU YQWNF DG CU OCP[ CU
VJGTG CTG QDLGEVU FQGU PQV VGNN WU VJCV C UGV GZKUVU WPNGUU KV KU XGT[ XGT[ NCTIG YKVJQWV VJG
HWTVJGT CUUWORVKQP VJCV VJGTG CTG XGT[ XGT[ OCP[ QDLGEVU 6Q IGV OQTG QPG JCU VQ CRRGCN
TGRGCVGFN[ VQ HTGUJ KPVWKVKQPU CDQWV JQY OCP[ KU VQQ OCP[ HQT VJG CZKQO QH KPHKPKV[ VQ
VJG KPVWKVKQP VJCV KPHKPKVGN[ OCP[ KU PQV VQQ OCP[ HQT VJG RQYGT UGV CZKQO VQ CP KPVWKVKQP
KORN[KPI VJCV WPEQWPVCDN[ OCP[ KU PQV VQQ OCP[ CPF KH QPG YCPVU KPCEEGUUKDNG ECTFKPCNU
VQ CP KPVWKVKQP VJCV KPCEEGUUKDN[ OCP[ KU PQV VQQ OCP[ 6JG UGV VJGQTKUV YJQ TGNKGU QP VJG
XGTUKQPU QH VJG NKOKVCVKQP QH UK\G KFGC EQPUKFGTGF UQ HCT JCU VQ MGGR EQOKPI DCEM VQ CUM
HQT OQTG NKMG VJG HKUJGTOCP KP VJG HCKT[ VCNG CDQWV VJG OCIKE HNQWPFGT
6JG HKUJGTOCP
HKPCNN[ CUMGF HQT VQQ OWEJ CU FKF UGV VJGQTKUVU YJGP VJG[ CUMGF HQT 4GKPJCTFV ECTFKPCNU
+H QPG KU IQKPI VQ IGV QWV QH VJG NKOKVCVKQP QH UK\G KFGC C UKPING WPKHKGF HQTOCN
UGVGZKUVGPEG CZKQO UWHHKEKGPV VQ IKXG C TGCNN[ RQYGTHWN UGV VJGQT[ QPG KU IQKPI VQ JCXG VQ
6JG4GHNGEVKQP2TKPEKRNG
#NN VJG VJGQTKGU EQPUKFGTGF UQ HCT KP VJKU EJCRVGT JCXG OCFG WUG QH F[CFKE
UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE CPF VJG PQVKQP QH GSWKPWOGTQUKV[ .GV WU PQY OCMG C ENGCP DTGCM
CPF JGPEGHQTVJ UVKEM YKVJ OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE +P RCTVKEWNCT YG IKXG WR CP[
9JCV KU NGHV QH QWT (TGIGCP HTCOGYQTM HQT UGV VJGQT[ KU OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT
NQIKE YKVJ U[ODQNU e CPF ² CPF ∈ YKVJ VJG CZKQOU QH UWDQTFKPCVKQP CPF GZVGPUKQPCNKV[
²Z ↔ ∃: e Z:
Z ∈ [ ↔ ∃;
e [; ;Z
e Z: e [; →
Z [ ↔ : ≡ ;
9JCV KU CNUQ NGHV KU VJG PQPSWCPVKVCVKXG XGTUKQP QH VJG NKOKVCVKQP QH UK\G KFGC YJKEJ GXGP
: ⊆ ; →
∃[ e [; → ∃Z e Z:
9JCV KU OKUUKPI KU C HWTVJGT UGVGZKUVGPEG CZKQO QH VJG HQTO
0QY QPG EQPEGRV VJCV YG MPQY ECPPQV JCXG CP GZVGPUKQP KU VJG WPKXGTUCN EQPEGRV
6JG YGCMPGUU QH VJG XQP 0GWOCPP CRRTQCEJ YCU VJCV KV KP GHHGEV FGHKPGF QVQQ OCP[ VQ
R VQ OGCP QCU OCP[ CU VJGTG CTG QDLGEVUR VJWU FGRTKXKPI
QH CP[ UGTKQWU
HQTO C UGV
UWDUVCPEG 9JCV YG PGGF KU UQOG YC[ QH WPFGTUVCPFKPI QVQQ OCP[ VQ HQTO C UGVR VJCV YKNN
NGCXG
YKVJ UQOG WUCDNG EQPVGPV
&WOOGVV
CPF %CPVQT
VJG YQTF QKPFGHKPKVGR
QT QWPDGUVKOOVR 6JGTG KU PQ
UGV QH CNN QDLGEVU CEEQTFKPI VQ DQVJ VJKPMGTU DGECWUG VJGTG CTG KPFGHKPKVGN[ OCP[ QDLGEVU
&WOOGVV YJQ WUGU VJG GZRTGUUKQP QKPFGHKPKVGN[ GZVGPUKDNGR KU UQQP NGF D[ JKU
KPVWKVKQPKUVKE RTQENKXKVKGU VQ WPFGTUVCPF KPFGHKPKVGPGUU CU DGKPI QH C OCVVGT QH UQOG
UGPVGPEGU NCEMKPI VTWVJ XCNWGU %CPVQT YJQ WUGU VJG GZRTGUUKQP QSWCPVKVCVKXGN[
KPFGHKPKVGR
QT QSWCPVKVCVKX WPDGUVKOOVR WPFGTUVCPFU KPFGHKPKVGPGUU KP VJG UGPUG DGKPI
KPECRCDNG QH DGKPI CUUKIPGF QPG QH JKU CNGRJU CU ECTFKPCNKV[ + RTQRQUG VQ WPFGTUVCPF
#PF YJCV FQGU VJCV OGCP! 9GNN KV ECPPQV OGCP VJCV KV KU KORQUUKDNG VQ OCMG C
VTWG UVCVGOGPV CDQWV JQY OCP[ QDLGEVU VJGTG CTG UKPEG KV KU VTWG UVCVGOGPV VJCV VJGTG KU CV
C VTWG UVCVGOGPV CDQWV JQY OCP[ QDLGEVU VJGTG CTG VJGTG CTG VQQ OCP[ QDLGEVU HQT KV VQ DG
RQUUKDNG HQT UWEJ C UVCVGOGPV VQ DG FGHKPKVKXG QH JQY OCP[ VJGTG CTG VJGTG YKNN PGEGUUCTKN[
DG PQV OGTGN[ CU OCP[ CU KU UCKF DWV OQTG CNUQ 9JCVGXGT QPG UC[U VJCV EQWNF UVKNN DG
VTWG KH KV YGTG UCKF PQV CDQWV CNN QDLGEVU DWV CDQWV LWUV UQOG QDLGEVU HGYGT VJCP CNN
TGOCKPU VTWG YJGP UCKF CDQWV LWUV UQOG QDLGEVU HGYGT VJCP CNN
6JKU NQQMU NKMG C RTQOKUKPI RTKPEKRNG HQT QPG ECP KOCIKPG CRRN[KPI KV CU HQNNQYU
URGCMKPI PQV QH CNN QDLGEVU DWV LWUV QH UQOG QDLGEVU HGYGT VJCP CNN KP QVJGT YQTFU KV KU CP
WPFGTUVCVGOGPV YJKEJ OGCPU VJCV VJGTG OWUV DG CV NGCUV VYQ QDLGEVU $[ VJGP
CICKP
VJCV KU CP WPFGTUVCVGOGPV UQ VJGTG CTG CV NGCUV VJTGG QDLGEVU %QPVKPWKPI KP VJKU YC[ VJGTG
RCTCFQZKECN
%NGCTN[ VJG PQVKQP TGSWKTGF JGTG KU VJCV QH TGNCVKXK\CVKQP QH SWCPVKHKGTU 1WT IGPGTCN
PQVCVKQP HQT TGNCVKXK\KPI VJG SWCPVKHKGTU KP C HQTOWNC φ VQ C HQTOWNC θ
Z TGRNCEKPI ∀Z
W
D[ ∀Z
θ
Z → W CPF UKOKNCTN[ HQT ∃ JCU DGGP φθ 9JGP θ
Z KU Z ∈ V UQ YG CTG
TGRNCEKPI ∀Z
W D[ ∀Z
Z ∈ V → W CPF UKOKNCTN[ HQT ∃ YG LWUV YTKVG φ 5KPEG YG CTG
V
φ → ∃V φV
URGEKCN RTQRGTV[ ψ
V VJGP YG IGV φ → ∃V
ψ
V φ +H VJG TGNCVKXK\CVKQP QH C VJGQTGO VQ
V
TGSWKTG V VQ JCXG VJKU URGEKCN RTQRGTV[ 5KPEG VJG EQPLWPEVKQP QH CP[ PWODGT QH VJGQTGOU
KU UVKNN C VJGQTGO VJG VJGQTGOTGNCVKXK\CVKQP RTKPEKRNG ECP DG WUGF QXGT CPF QXGT VQ IGV
OQTG CPF OQTG URGEKCN RTQRGTVKGU IKXKPI OQTG CPF OQTG VJGQTGOU IKXKPI OQTG CPF OQTG
URGEKCN RTQRGTVKGU C HGCVWTG KP EQPPGEV YKVJ YJKEJ $GTPC[U WUGU VJG GZRTGUUKQP
QUGNHTGKPHQTEKPIR
.GV WU HKTUV CRRN[ VJKU KFGC VCMKPI CU QWT θ VJG UWDQTFKPCVKQP CZKQO
+VU
TGNCVKXK\CVKQP TGCFU CU HQNNQYU
∀Z
Z ∈ V →
²Z ↔ ∃: ⊆ V e Z:
6JG WUGHWN RCTV QH VJG DKEQPFKVKQPCN KU VJG KORNKECVKQP HTQO NGHV VQ TKIJV (QT UWRRQUG Z ∈ V
CPF [ ∈ Z 6JGP VJKU FKTGEVKQP QH VJG DKEQPFKVKQPCN VGNNU WU VJGTG KU CP : ⊆ V UWEJ VJCV e Z:
6JG UWDQTFKPCVKQP CZKQO
VGNNU WU VJCV UKPEG [ ∈ Z YG JCXG :[ CPF VJKU VQIGVJGT YKVJ
: ⊆ V VGNNU WU YG JCXG [ ∈ V #P[ GNGOGPV QH CP GNGOGPV QH V KU CP GNGOGPV QH V #U YCU
OGPVKQPGF KP VJG FKUEWUUKQP QH NCTIG ECTFKPCNU KP %JCRVGT C UGV YKVJ VJKU URGEKCN
RTQRGTV[ KU ECNNGF VTCPUKVKXG 6JG URGEKCN RTQRGTV[ QH VTCPUKVKXKV[ KU VJG QGZVTC VGEJPKECN
EQPFKVKQPR KP VJG $GTPC[U TGHNGEVKQP RTKPEKRNG YJKEJ COQWPVU VQ YJCV YG JCXG LWUV
RTQXGF PCOGN[
φ → ∃V
V VTCPUKVKXG φV
.GV OG ECNN VJG UGV VJGQT[ KP VJG OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NCPIWCIG YKVJ LWUV ² CPF ∈
CPF VJG CZKQOU QH GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ UGRCTCVKQP
KP C UKPINGCZKQO UGEQPFQTFGT XGTUKQP
CPF TGHNGEVKQP KP VJG UVTQPIGT HQTO
$GTPC[U UGV VJGQT[ $ (QT VJQWIJ PQV RTGEKUGN[ VJG
U[UVGO YKVJ YJKEJ $GTPC[U YQTMGF KV KU PGCTN[ GPQWIJ UQ HQT RTGUGPV RWTRQUGU #PF NGV
OG ECNN VJG UGV VJGQT[ VJCV CFFU e CPF VJG UWDQTFKPCVKQP CZKQOU CPF UWDUVKVWVGU TGHNGEVKQP
KP VJG YGCMGT HQTO
(TGIGCPK\GF $GTPC[U UGV VJGQT[ ($
$GTPC[U KP GHHGEV RTQXGF VJCV CNN VJG TGOCKPKPI GZKUVGPEG CZKQOU QH UGEQPFQTFGT
<GTOGNQ(TCPMGN UGV VJGQT[ <( CU YGNN CU UGXGTCN NCTIG ECTFKPCN CZKQOU
PCOGN[ RCKTKPI
WPKQP RQYGT KPHKPKV[ TGRNCEGOGPV KPCEEGUUKDNGU J[RGTKPCEEGUUKDNGU W ECP DG FGFWEGF
KP $ #U CP KOOGFKCVG EQTQNNCT[ QH QWT FGFWEVKQP QH
HTQO
CPF VJG UWDQTFKPCVKQP
CZKQOU YG JCXG VJG HQNNQYKPI
(TGIGCPK\CVKQP QH VJG 6JGQTGO QH $GTPC[U #NN VJG GZKUVGPEG CZKQOU QH UGEQPFQTFGT
<GTOGNQ(TCPMGN UGV VJGQT[ CU YGNN CU KPCEEGUUKDNGU J[RGTKPCEEGUUKDNGU W CTG FGFWEKDNG
KP (TGIGCPK\GF $GTPC[U UGV VJGQT[
+V JCU IGPGTCNN[ DGGP O[ RQNKE[ PQV VQ TGRTQFWEG RTQQHU CNTGCF[ TGCFKN[ CXCKNCDNG
KP VJG NKVGTCVWTG GZEGRV YJGTG KV KU PGEGUUCT[ VQ TGXKGY VJG RTQQH KP QTFGT VQ QDVCKP
TGHKPGOGPVU 6JG QPN[ TGHKPGOGPV + JCXG VQ QHHGT VQ VJG VJGQTGO QH $GTPC[U CRCTV HTQO
VJG KPKVKCN JGWTKUVKE OQVKXCVKQP HQT VJG TGHNGEVKQP RTKPEKRNG KU VJG QDUGTXCVKQP VJCV VJG GZVTC
VGEJPKECN EQPFKVKQP QH VTCPUKVKXKV[ FQGU PQV PGGF VQ DG CUUWOGF DWV ECP DG FGFWEGF WUKPI
VJG (TGIGCP UWDQTFKPCVKQP CZKQOU CPF VJKU TGHKPGOGPV JCU CNTGCF[ DGGP RTGUGPVGF 6JG
$GTPC[U RTQQH KU UQ DGCWVKHWN JQYGXGT VJCV KV KU FKHHKEWNV VQ TGHTCKP HTQO RTGUGPVKPI CV
NGCUV RCTV QH KV CPF VQ FQ UQ OC[ HCEKNKVCVG WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH YJCV JCU IQPG DGHQTG
9G IQV C TGHKPGOGPV QH TGHNGEVKQP WUKPI VJG UWDQTFKPCVKQP CZKQOU CPF
GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ DWV JCXG PQV [GV VTKGF TGHNGEVKPI VJG UGRCTCVKQP CZKQO *GTG QUGRCTCVKQPR
OC[ DG CP[ EQPXGPKGPV UKPINGCZKQO HQTOWNCVKQP QH VJG RTKPEKRNG UKPEG CNN VJG XCTKQWU
HQTOWNCVKQPU CTG VJGQTGOU 6JG OQUV EQPXGPKGPV VQ EQPUKFGT IKXGU VJG HQNNQYKPI CU KVU
TGNCVKXK\CVKQP
∀Z ∈ V ∀: ⊆ V ∃[ ∈ V ∀\ ∈ V
\ ∈ [ ↔ \ ∈ Z :\
∀\ ∈ V
\ ∈ [ ↔ \ ∈ Z :\
∀\
\ ∈ [ ↔ \ ∈ Z :\
$WV TGECNNKPI VJCV : n\ \ ∈ Y CPF Y ⊆ Z VJG EQPLWPEVKQP \ ∈ Z :\ QP VJG TKIJV UKFG
QH VJG DKEQPFKVKQPCN KP
KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ \ ∈ Y CPF UQ YG JCXG Y [ ∈ V +P QVJGT
YQTFU GXGT[ UWDUGV Y QH CP GNGOGPV Z QH V KU CP GNGOGPV QH V #U YCU UCKF KP VJG
FKUEWUUKQP QH NCTIG ECTFKPCNU KP %JCRVGT C VTCPUKVKXG UGV YKVJ VJKU URGEKCN RTQRGTV[ KU
ECNNGF UWRGTVTCPUKVKXG 5Q YG JCXG GUVCDNKUJGF VJG HQNNQYKPI UWRGT$GTPC[U XGTUKQP QH
TGHNGEVKQP
φ → ∃V
V UWRGTVTCPUKVKXG φV
6Q FGTKXG RCKTKPI YG QPN[ PGGF VJG QTKIKPCN XGTUKQP QH TGHNGEVKQP )KXGP W CPF X
YG TGHNGEV VJG HQNNQYKPI NQIKECN VTWVJ
∃Z
Z W ∃[
[ X
∃Z ∈ V
Z W ∃[ ∈ V
[ X
$WV
KU LWUV C NQPIYKPFGF YC[ QH UC[KPI W ∈ V CPF X ∈ V 9G OC[ PQY CRRN[
UGRCTCVKQP VQ UGRCTCVG QWV HTQO V LWUV VJQUG QH KVU GNGOGPVU VJCV CTG GKVJGT KFGPVKECN YKVJ W
QT KFGPVKECN YKVJ X CPF UQ QDVCKP VJG RCKT ]W X_
(QT WPKQP YG WUG VJG $GTPC[U XGTUKQP YKVJ VTCPUKVKXKV[ VQ UJQY VJCV HQT GXGT[ W
VJGTG KU C VTCPUKVKXG UGV VQ YJKEJ KV DGNQPIU 5WEJ C V YKNN EQPVCKP CNN VJG GNGOGPVU QH W CPF
CNN VJG GNGOGPVU QH VJQUG GNGOGPVU CPF YG ECP UGRCTCVG QWV VJG GNGOGPVU QH GNGOGPVU VQ
IGV VJG WPKQP ∪W
(QT RQYGT YG WUG VJG XGTUKQP YKVJ UWRGTVTCPUKVKX[ VQ UJQY VJCV HQT GXGT[ W VJGTG
KU C UWRGTVTCPUKVKXG CPF VTCPUKVKXG UGV V YKVJ W ∈ V 5WEJ C V YKNN EQPVCKP CNN VJG UWDUGVU QH W
CPF YG ECP UGRCTCVG QWV VJQUG UWDUGVU VQ IGV VJG RQYGT UGV ℘
W
(QT KPHKPKV[ CPF TGRNCEGOGPV + TGHGT VJG TGCFGT VQ VJG YQTM QH $GTPC[U JKOUGNH (QT
KPCEEGUUKDNGU NGV OG LWUV UC[ VJCV QPG QH VJG OCP[ MPQYP GSWKXCNGPV HQTOWNCVKQPU QH VJG
CZKQO KU VJG GZKUVGPEG QH C UWRGTVTCPUKVKXG CPF VTCPUKVKXG UGV V UWEJ VJCV CNN VJG GZKUVGPEG
CZKQOU
YKVJ UGRCTCVKQP CPF TGRNCEGOGPV KP VJGKT UGEQPFQTFGT UKPINGCZKQO HQTOU JQNF
TGNCVKXK\GF VQ V $WV VJKU YG IGV KOOGFKCVGN[ D[ TGHNGEVKQP CU UQQP CU YG JCXG IQV VJG
GZKUVGPEG CZKQOU VJGOUGNXGU
6JGTG TGOCKP QPG CZKQO QH <(% VJCV YG JCXG PQV IQV KP KVU WUWCN HQTO CPF VYQ
VJCV YG JCXG PQV IQV CV CNN CPF UQOGVJKPI OWUV DG UCKF CDQWV VJGUG CPF JQY VQ IGV VJGO
6JG QPG YG FQPOV JCXG KP KVU WUWCN HQTO KU GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ VJG QVJGT VYQ CTG HQWPFCVKQP QT
TGIWNCTKV[ CPF EJQKEG
#U HQT GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ HQTO KP YJKEJ YG JCXG KV CPF VJG WUWCN HQTO CTG CU HQNNQYU
²Z ²[ ∀\
\ ∈ Z ↔ \ ∈ [ → Z [
∀\
\ ∈ Z ↔ \ ∈ [ → Z [
1WT HQTO
KU VJG QPN[ TGCUQPCDNG HQTO KH QPG CUUWOGU CU (TGIG JKOUGNH CNYC[U FKF
VJCV VJG QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU TCPIG QXGT CDUQNWVGN[ CNN QDLGEVU 6JG WUWCN CFQRVKQP QH HQTO
KU PQV CP GZRTGUUKQP QH VJG WPTGCUQPCDNG DGNKGH VJCV CDUQNWVGN[ GXGT[ QDLGEV KU C UGV
DWV TCVJGT QH CP KPVGPVKQP VQ KORQUG CP WP(TGIGCP TGUVTKEVKQP QP VJG TCPIG QH VJG QDLGEV
XCTKCDNGU 6JG[ CTG VQ DG TGUVTKEVGF VQ UGVU CPF PQV LWUV VQ UGVU DWV VQ UGVU QH YJKEJ VJG
GNGOGPVU CTG CNN QH VJGO UGVU CPF CTG PQV LWUV UGVU DWV CTG UGVU YJQUG GNGOGPVU CTG CNN QH
VJGO UGVU CPF CTG PQV LWUVW +P UJQTV VJG TGUVTKEVKQP KU VQ UGVU Z UWEJ VJCV GXGT[ QDLGEV
UVCPFKPI KP VJG CPEGUVTCN QH VJG GNGOGPVJQQF TGNCVKQP VQ Z KU C UGV 5WEJ CTG ECNNGF RWTG
UGVU
6JG QDXKQWU UVTCVGI[ HQT IGVVKPI VJG WUWCN XGTUKQP
QH GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ YQWNF DG
VQ TGNCVKXK\G SWCPVKHKGTU VQ RWTG UGVU 6Q FQ VJKU YG OWUV HKTUV HKPF C HQTOWNC θ
Z
GZRTGUUKPI VJCV Z KU RWTG 6JKU KU PQ RTQDNGO WUKPI UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE YJGTG YG JCXG
(TGIGOU FGHKPKVKQP QH VJG CPEGUVTCN $WV KP HCEV VJGTG KU CP GSWKXCNGPV HKTUVQTFGT θ
Z
YJKEJ UKORN[ UC[U VJCV VJGTG KU C VTCPUKVKXG V UWEJ VJCV Z ∈ V CPF GXGT[ GNGOGPV QH V KU C
UGV 5KPEG C VTCPUKVKXG V UWEJ VJCV Z ∈ V YKNN JCXG CNN QDLGEVU UVCPFKPI KP VJG CPEGUVTCN QH VJG
GNGOGPVJQQF TGNCVKQP VQ Z CU GNGOGPVU KH CNN GNGOGPVU QH V CTG UGVU Z KU EGTVCKPN[ RWTG
%QPXGTUGN[ YG MPQY VJCV GXGT[ Z KU CP GNGOGPV QH UQOG VTCPUKVKXG UGV V CPF YG ECP
UGRCTCVG QWV HTQO V LWUV Z CPF VJG QDLGEVU VJCV UVCPF KP VJG CPEGUVTCN QH VJG GNGOGPVJQQF
TGNCVKQP VQ Z VQ HQTO C UGV W VJCV YKNN DG VTCPUKVKXG CPF YKNN JCXG Z ∈ W CPF VJCV KH Z KU RWTG
YKNN JCXG QPN[ UGVU CU GNGOGPVU
9G PGGF VQ EJGEM VJCV KP IGVVKPI GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ KP XGTUKQP
YG JCXG PQV NQUV
CP[VJKPI GNUG 9G PGGF VQ EJGEM HQT KPUVCPEG VJCV VJG CZKQO QH RCKTKPI UVKNN JQNFU YJGP
SWCPVKHKGTU CTG TGNCVKXK\GF VQ RWTG UGVU +H VJGTG GZKUV VTCPUKVKXG V CPF U EQPVCKPKPI W CPF X
TGURGEVKXGN[ CPF DQVJ JCXKPI QPN[ UGVU CU GNGOGPVU YG PGGF VQ UJQY VJGTG KU C VTCPUKVKXG
T EQPVCKPKPI Y ]W X_ CPF JCXKPI QPN[ UGVU CU GNGOGPVU 6JKU ECP DG FQPG D[ XGTKH[KPI
VJCV T U ∪ V ∪ ]Y_ YKNN FQ DWV VJGP VJG UCOG JCU VQ DG FQPG HQT GXGT[ QVJGT UGVGZKUVGPEG
CZKQO /QTGQXGT VQ IGV VJG CZKQO QH HQWPFCVKQP QPG PGGFU VQ FQ UQOGVJKPI UKOKNCT
YKVJ C UGEQPF TQWPF QH XGTKHKECVKQPU (QTVWPCVGN[ VJG FGVCKNU CTG IKXGP KP KPVTQFWEVQT[
VGZVDQQMU CPF PGGF PQV EQPEGTP WU JGTG
#U HQT EJQKEG YJKEJ JCU OCP[ GSWKXCNGPVU UWEJ CU VJG RTKPEKRNG VJCV GXGT[ UGV
ECP DG YGNNQTFGTGF VJGTG CTG UGXGTCN QRVKQPU 6JG HKTUV QRVKQP KU VQ QDVCKP EJQKEG D[
TGNCVKXK\CVKQP VQ )ÑFGNOU EQPUVTWEVKDNG UGVU M VJKU KU JQY )ÑFGN UJQYGF <(% ECP DG
KPVGTRTGVGF KP <( 6JG RTQEGFWTG KU CTVKHKEKCN UKPEG KP EQPVTCUV VQ VJG ECUG QH
GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ VJQUG CFQRVKPI #% CTG PQV GZRTGUUKPI CP KPVGPVKQP VQ NKOKV VJG TCPIG QH VJG
QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU VQ EQPUVTWEVKDNG UGVU $WV CTVKHKEKCNKV[ KU PQV CNYC[U CP QDLGEVKQP 1PG
UJQWNF DG CYCTG VJQWIJ VJCV KH QPG KU RTGRCTGF VQ IGV CZKQOU D[ TGNCVKXK\CVKQP VJGP CP
QUVGPUKDN[ OWEJ OQTG QOKPKOCNKUVKER UVCTVKPI RQKPV VJCP ($ YKNN IGV WU VQ VJG UCOG IQCN
6JKU JCU DGGP GUVCDNKUJGF KP TGEGPV YQTM QH (TKGFOCP
! YJKEJ + YKNN FKITGUU VQ
FGUETKDG DTKGHN[ (TKGFOCP HKTUV EQPUKFGTU C NCPIWCIG YKVJ QPN[ QDLGEV XCTKCDNGU CPF QPN[
∈ PQ UGEQPFQTFGT CRRCTCVWU CV CNN CPF PQV GXGP *G EQPUKFGTU C HKTUV VJGQT[ + YKNN ECNN
*(4 HQT *CTXG[ (TKGFOCP TGHNGEVKXG UGV VJGQT[ HKTUV XGTUKQP JCXKPI PQ CZKQOU GZEGRV
VJG HQNNQYKPI UEJGOG
φθ → ∃V
∀Z
Z ∈ V → θ
Z φV
+H φ JQNFU TGNCVKXK\GF VQ θ VJGP VJGTG KU CP V UWEJ VJCV θ JQNFU HQT CNN GNGOGPVU QH V CPF φ
JQNFU TGNCVKXK\GF VQ V *G EQPUKFGTU CNUQ VJTGG UWEEGUUKXGN[ UVTQPIGT VJGQTKGU + YKNN ECNN
*(4 HQT K GCEJ CICKP JCXKPI C UKPING CZKQO UEJGOG KP VJG HQTO QH C TGHNGEVKQP
K
RTKPEKRNG *G UJQYU VJCV *(4 KU GSWKEQPUKUVGPV YKVJ CPCN[UKU 2 QT <( *(4 YKVJ <(%
*(4 YKVJ $ QT ($ CPF *(4 YKVJ C UVKNN UVTQPI VJGQT[ JCXKPI UVKNN NCTIGT NCTIG
ECTFKPCNU 6JG RTQQHU CTG VGEJPKECN VQWTU FG HQTEG CPF DG[QPF VJG UEQRG QH VJKU
OQPQITCRJ
# UGEQPF QRVKQP KU PQY VJCV YG JCXG RCKTKPI VQ
TGKPVTQFWEKPI F[CFKE
UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE EQFKPI VYQRNCEG TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU D[ QPGRNCEG EQPEGRVU YKVJ
QTFGTGF RCKTU HCNNKPI WPFGT VJGO CPF VJGP CFQRV XQP 0GWOCPPOU CZKQO YJKEJ ECP DG
OQVKXCVGF CU CPQVJGT GZRTGUUKQP QH VJG UCOG WPFGTN[KPI RTKPEKRNG QH NKOKVCVKQP QH UK\G VJCV
OQVKXCVGU UGRCTCVKQP CPF TGHNGEVKQP %JQKEG VJGP HQNNQYU D[ C ENGXGT CTIWOGPV QH XQP
0GWOCPP
*G FGXGNQRU C VJGQT[ QH QTFKPCNU KP VJG YC[ VJCV KU PQY UVCPFCTF KP CZKQOCVKE
UGV VJGQT[ JG WUGU VJG $WTCNK(QTVK RCTCFQZ VQ EQPENWFG VJCV VJG QTFKPCNU FQ PQV HQTO C
UGV JG WUGU JKU CZKQO VQ EQPENWFG VJCV VJGTG KU C QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG DGVYGGP CNN
QDLGEVU CPF VJG QTFKPCNU CPF NCUVN[ JG WUGU VJG QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG CPF VJG HCEV
VJCV VJG QTFKPCNU CTG YGNNQTFGTGF VQ GUVCDNKUJ VJCV CP[ UGV ECP DG YGNNQTFGTGF
# VJKTF QRVKQP KU VQ FQ YJCV $GTPC[U JKOUGNH FKF CPF CFQRV *KNDGTVOU εU[ODQN
YJKEJ KP GHHGEV DWKNFU #% KPVQ HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE 6Q FGUETKDG VJKU QRVKQP KP FGVCKN YQWNF
VCMG WU VQQ HCT CHKGNF # HQWTVJ QRVKQP KU VQ FQ YJCV KU FQPG KP OQUV EQPXGPVKQPCN
CZKQOCVK\CVKQPU CPF UKORN[ CFQRV #% CU CP CZKQO VJCV JCU VQ DG KPFGRGPFGPVN[
OQVKXCVGF
5GEQPF1TFGT.QIKE4GEQPUKFGTGF
4CVJGT VJCP GNCDQTCVG HWTVJGT QP VJG UGVVJGQTGVKE OCVGTKCN + JCXG CNNWFGF VQ OQUV
QH YJKEJ KU TGCFKN[ CXCKNCDNG GNUGYJGTG CPF XGT[ NKVVNG QH YJKEJ JCU OWEJ UCXQTKPI QH
(TGIG CDQWV KV + YKNN WUG VJG TGOCKPKPI URCEG CXCKNCDNG VQ OG VQ ECUV C OQTG ETKVKECN G[G
WRQP VJG VQQN GORNQ[GF KP QPG YC[ QT CPQVJGT KP CNN PGQ(TGIGCP RTQLGEVU UGEQPFQTFGT
NQIKE KVUGNH
9KVJ HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE YG JCXG C U[PVCEVKE QT RTQQHVJGQTGVKE PQVKQP QH C
EQPENWUKQP RGTJCRU C EQPLGEVWTGF VJGQTGO DGKPI FGFWEKDNG HTQO C RTGOKUU RGTJCRU C
EQPLWPEVKQP QH CZKQOU QH UQOG VJGQT[ 5RGEKCN QT FGIGPGTCVG ECUGU IKXG WU VJG PQVKQPU QH
KPEQPUKUVGPE[ CPF FGOQPUVTCDKNKV[ C RTGOKUU KU KPEQPUKUVGPV KH CPF QPN[ KH CP[ EQPENWUKQP
KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO KV CPF C EQPENWUKQP KU FGOQPUVTCDNG KH KV KU FGFWEKDNG HTQO CP[ RTGOKUU
+H YG UVCTV YKVJ VJG PQVKQP QH KPEQPUKUVGPE[ YG ECP CNVGTPCVKXGN[ FGHKPG FGFWEKDKNKV[ QH ψ
HTQO φ CU VJG KPEQPUKUVGPE[ QH `ψ φ CPF FGOQPUVTCDKNKV[ QH ψ CU VJG KPEQPUKUVGPE[ QH
` ψ
9G CNUQ JCXG C UGOCPVKE QT OQFGNVJGQTGVKE PQVKQP QH C EQPENWUKQP DGKPI C
EQPUGSWGPEG QH C RTGOKUU ψ KU C EQPUGSWGPEG QH φ KH CPF QPN[ KH GXGT[ OQFGN VJCV OCMGU
φ VTWG OCMGU ψ VTWG 9G CNUQ JCXG TGNCVGF PQVKQPU QH WPUCVKUHKCDKNKV[ CPF XCNKFKV[ C
RTGOKUU KU WPUCVKUHKCDNG KH VTWG KP PQ OQFGN CPF C EQPENWUKQP KU XCNKF KH VTWG KP CNN OQFGNU
+H YG UVCTV YG VJG PQVKQP QH WPUCVKUHKCDKNKV[ YG ECP CNVGTPCVKXGN[ FGHKPG ψ DGKPI C
EQPUGSWGPEG QH φ CU VJG WPUCVKUHKCDKNKV[ QH `ψ φ CPF XCNKFKV[ QH ψ CU VJG
WPUCVKUHKCDKNKV[ QH `ψ
6JG VYQ VTKRNGU QH PQVKQPU EQKPEKFG D[
VJG UQWPFPGUU VJGQTGO CPF VJG )ÑFGN
EQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGO θ KU UCVKUHKCDNG KH
CPF QPN[ KH θ KU EQPUKUVGPV (TQO VJKU KV HQNNQYU
CNUQ VJCV FGFWEKDKNKV[ EQKPEKFGU YKVJ EQPUGSWGPEG CPF FGOQPUVTCDKNKV[ YKVJ XCNKFKV[ 6JG
EQPPGEVKQP DGVYGGP VJG U[PVCEVKE CPF UGOCPVKE PQVKQPU OGCPU VJCV OQFGNVJGQTGVKE TGUWNVU
ECP DG WUGF VQ FGTKXG RTQQHVJGQTGVKE EQTQNNCTKGU CPF XKEG XGTUC
6JWU HCT + JCXG EQPUKFGTGF QPN[ U[PVCEVKE PQVKQPU KP EQPPGEVKQP YKVJ UGEQPFQTFGT
VJGQTKGU CPF JCXG GORJCUK\GF VJCV UQ HCT CU EQPUKUVGPE[ FGFWEKDKNKV[ CPF
FGOQPUVTCDKNKV[ CTG EQPEGTPGF UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE KU LWUV OCP[UQTVGF HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE
CPF CNN VJG VQQNU WUGF KP EQPPGEVKQP HQT VJG NCVVGT ECP DG WUGF HQT VJG HQTOGT 6JKU KPENWFGU
VJG WUG QH OQFGNU KP VJG UGPUG QH HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE VQ GUVCDNKUJ EQPUKUVGPE[
5QOGVKOGU
VJGTG CTG CFXCPVCIGU VQ GUVCDNKUJKPI EQPUKUVGPE[ RTQQHVJGQTGVKECNN[ TCVJGT VJCP
OQFGNVJGQTGVKECNN[ DGECWUG C RTQQHVJGQTGVKE CTIWOGPV HQT EQPUKUVGPE[ V[RKECNN[ IKXGU
CFFKVKQPCN KPHQTOCVKQP DG[QPF OGTG EQPUKUVGPE[ KP C YC[ C OQFGNVJGQTGVKE CTIWOGPV
V[RKECNN[ FQGU PQV $WV C OQFGNVJGQTGVKE RTQQH QH EQPUKUVGPE[ FQGU RTQXG EQPUKUVGPE[
CPF C VJGQT[ FQGUPOV DGEQOG CP[ OQTG EQPUKUVGPV VJCP KV CNTGCF[ YCU YJGP C
OQFGNVJGQTGVKE RTQQH KU TGRNCEGF D[ C RTQQHVJGQTGVKE RTQQH
+P YQTMKPI YKVJ OQFGNU HQT UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE KV KU CNYC[U UWHHKEKGPV VQ EQPUKFGT
QPN[ ∈OQFGNU QT OQFGNU YJGTG VJG FQOCKP QH VJG UGEQPFQTFGT XCTKCDNGU EQPUKUVU QH
UWDUGVU QH VJG FQOCKP QH VJG HKTUVQTFGT XCTKCDNGU
UKPEG KV KU CP GCU[ VJGQTGO VJCV CP
CTDKVTCT[ OQFGN KU KUQOQTRJKE VQ CP ∈OQFGN UQ NQPI CU QPG KU CUUWOKPI GZVGPUKQPCNKV[
CU + CNYC[U JCXG DGGP 5QOGVKOGU VJG FQOCKP QH VJG UGEQPFQTFGT XCTKCDNGU EQPUKUVU QH
CNN UWDUGVU QH VJG FQOCKP QH VJG HKTUVQTFGT XCTKCDNGU QHVGP KV FQGU PQV +P VJG HQTOGT ECUG
YG JCXG C UVCPFCTF QT 6CTUMK OQFGN KP VJG NCVVGT ECUG C IGPGTCN QT *GPMKP OQFGN
)GPGTCN OQFGNU CTG LWUV CU IQQF CU UVCPFCTF OQFGNU HQT GUVCDNKUJKPI HCEVU CDQWV U[PVCEVKE
EQPUKUVGPE[ FGFWEKDKNKV[ QT FGOQPUVTCDKNKV[
6JGTG KU CNUQ JQYGXGT C PQVKQP QH UVCPFCTF UGOCPVKE EQPUGSWGPEG QH YJKEJ +
JCXG UCKF PQVJKPI UQ HCT CEEQTFKPI VQ YJKEJ ψ KU C UVCPFCTF EQPUGSWGPEG QH φ KH CPF QPN[
KH ψ KU VTWG KP GXGT[ UVCPFCTF OQFGN KP YJKEJ φ KU VTWG 9KVJ VJKU PQVKQP EQOG CUUQEKCVGF
PQVKQPU QH UVCPFCTF WPUCVKUHKCDKNKV[ QT UCVKUHKCDKNKV[ CPF UVCPFCTF XCNKFKV[ QT KPXCNKFKV[
#PF KP
CITGGOGPV YKVJ VJG UQWPFPGUU VJGQTGO CPF KP EQPVTCUV VQ VJG )ÑFGN
KPEQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGO HQT HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE KV KU MPQYP VJCV UVCPFCTF EQPUGSWGPEG KU C
PGEGUUCT[ DWV PQV C UWHHKEKGPV EQPFKVKQP HQT FGFWEKDKNKV[ CPF UKOKNCTN[ HQT UVCPFCTF
WPUCVKUHKCDKNKV[ CPF KPEQPUKUVGPE[ CPF UVCPFCTF XCNKFKV[ CPF FGOQPUVTCDKNKV[ 6JKU KU
DGECWUG HQTOWNC θ OC[ JCXG QPN[ IGPGTCN OQFGNU CPF PQ UVCPFCTF OQFGNU KP YJKEJ KV KU
VTWG
6JKU KU UQ HQT CP[ U[UVGO QH TWNGU QH FGFWEKDKNKV[ KP YJCVGXGT HQTOCV UQ NQPI CU KV
KU TGSWKTGF VJCV VJG TWNGU DG TGEWTUKXG
YJKEJ D[ %JWTEJOU VJGUKU KU C PGEGUUCT[ EQPFKVKQP
HQT KVU DGKPI GHHGEVKXGN[ FGEKFCDNG YJGVJGT QPG JCU HQNNQYGF VJG TWNGU QT PQV KP CP[ IKXGP
ECUG YJKEJ OWUV DG UQ HQT CP[ TWNGU YQTVJ[ QH VJG PCOG (QT VJGP VJG UGV QH KPEQPUKUVGPV
HQTOWNCU YKNN DG TGEWTUKXGN[ GPWOGTCDNG YJKNG VJG UGV QH UVCPFCTFN[ WPUCVKUHKCDNG
HQTOWNCU KU MPQYP PQV VQ DG CPF VJG OKUOCVEJ DGVYGGP
KPEQPUKUVGPE[ CPF UVCPFCTF
6JTGG SWGUVKQPU CTG TCKUGF D[ VJKU TGUWNV YJKEJ KU C MKPF QH EQTQNNCT[ VQ VJG )ÑFGN
KPEQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGOU VJQWIJ VJG TQWVG HTQO VJG QPG VQ VJG QVJGT PGGF PQV EQPEGTP WU
JGTG (KTUV YJCV FQGU UVCPFCTF UCVKUHKCDKNKV[ JCXG VQ FQ YKVJ KPVWKVKXG UCVKUHKCDKNKV[ YJKEJ
KU VQ UC[ YKVJ UCVKUHKCDKNKV[ KP VJG KPVWKVKXG UGPUG QH EQOKPI QWV VTWG WPFGT UQOG
KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH YJCV QDLGEVU VJG QDLGEVXCTKCDNGU CTG UWRRQUGF VQ TCPIG QXGT CPF YJCV
TGNCVKQPU VJG TGNCVKQPU[ODQNU QH VJG NCPIWCIG CTG UWRRQUGF VQ FGPQVG! 5GEQPF KH
UVCPFCTF UCVKUHKCDKNKV[ FQGU EQKPEKFG YKVJ KPVWKVKXG UCVKUHKCDKNKV[ UQ VJCV VJG
KPEQORNGVGPGUU QH UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE OGCPU VJCV KPVWKVKXG UCVKUHKCDKNKV[ FQGU PQV EQKPEKFG
YKVJ U[PVCEVKE FGFWEKDKNKV[ KU VJKU C EQIGPV ITQWPF HQT QDLGEVKPI VQ VJG WUG QH
UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE! 6JKTF KH PQV KU UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE GURGEKCNN[ CU EQPEGKXGF D[
(TGIGCPU CPF PGQ(TGIGCPU QRGP VQ CP[ QVJGT EQIGPV QDLGEVKQP! +P VJKU UGEVKQP + YKNN
VCMG WR VJG VJTGG SWGUVKQPU KP VJG QTFGT NKUVGF
+P IGPGTCN YJGP FQKPI OCVJGOCVKEU QH CP[ MKPF KPENWFKPI OGVCOCVJGOCVKEU
RTQQH VJGQT[ CPF OQFGN VJGQT[ QPG KU KPHQTOCNN[ YQTMKPI KP UQOG MKPF QH DCEMITQWPF
OCVJGOCVKECN OGVCVJGQT[ #PF YJGP FQKPI OQFGN VJGQT[ IGPGTCNN[ VJKU OGVCVJGQT[ KU
UQOG MKPF QH UGV VJGQT[
VJQWIJ YJGP FQKPI QPN[ RTQQH VJGQT[ KV OC[ DG UQOGVJKPI
OWEJ YGCMGT GXGP CU YGCM CU 3 +∆
UWRGTGZR QT YGCMGT 6JG FGHCWNV CUUWORVKQP
YJGP PQ OGVCVJGQT[ KU GZRNKEKVN[ KPFKECVGF KU VJCV QPG KU EQPHQTOKPI VQ IGPGTCNN[
CEEGRVGF UVCPFCTFU KP EQPVGORQTCT[ OCVJGOCVKEU YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ VJCV QPG KU YQTMKPI
YKVJKP VJG IGPGTCNN[ CEEGRVGF UGV VJGQT[ QH EQPVGORQTCT[ OCVJGOCVKEU <(%
VJQWIJ
QHVGP QPG KU TGCNN[ WUKPI HCT NGUU VJCP VJG HWNN UVTGPIVJ VJGTGQH +V VWTPU QWV VJCV KV OCMGU C
TGCN FKHHGTGPEG VQ VJG SWGUVKQP QH VJG TGNCVKQPUJKR DGVYGGP UVCPFCTF UCVKUHKCDKNKV[
CPF
EQPUGSWGPEG CPF XCNKFKV[ CPF KPVWKVKXG UCVKUHKCDKNKV[
CPF EQPUGSWGPEG CPF XCNKFKV[ LWUV
YJCV UGV VJGQT[ QPG KU YQTMKPI KP CPF VJG UGV VJGQT[ ($ KU GZCEVN[ YJCV KU PGGFGF VQ DG
CDNG VQ IKXG C FGEKUKXG CPUYGT VQ VJG SWGUVKQP QH VJG TGNCVKQP QH UVCPFCTF VQ KPVWKVKXG
XCNKFKV[ 6JKU HCEV UJQWNF EGTVCKPN[ DG C RQKPV KP HCXQT QH VJCV UGV VJGQT[ HQT PGQ(TGIGCPU
CPF QVJGTU EQOOKVVGF VQ YQTMKPI YKVJ UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE 6JKU RQKPV JCU KP GHHGEV DGGP
PQVGF D[ $QQNQU
C KP C UNKIJVN[ FKHHGTGPV EQPVGZV DWV FGUGTXGU TGKVGTCVKQP CPF
GNCDQTCVKQP
(QT UKORNKEKV[ NGV OG EQPUKFGT LWUV C OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NCPIWCIG YKVJ C
UKPING PQPNQIKECN U[ODQN UC[ C VYQRNCEG TGNCVKQP U[ODQN s CRRN[KPI VQ
QDLGEVXCTKCDNGU .GV OG TGXKGY KP C NKVVNG OQTG FGVCKN YJCV KU OGCPV D[ JCXKPI C UVCPFCTF
OQFGN KP VJKU EQPVGZV DGHQTG EQORCTKPI VJCV PQVKQP QH UVCPFCTF UCVKUHKCDKNKV[ YKVJ VJG
KPVWKVKXG PQVKQP
9G DGIKP YKVJ 6CTUMKOU PQVKQP QH C OQFGN HQT VJG HKTUVQTFGT RCTV QH VJG NCPIWCIG
5WEJ C OQFGN EQPUKUVU QH C PQPGORV[ UGV ^M^ VJG WPKXGTUG QH VJG OQFGN VJG TCPIG QH VJG
QDLGEVXCTKCDNGU CPF C UGV sM QH QTFGTGF RCKTU QH GNGOGPVU QH ^M^ VJG TGNCVKQP QH VJG
OQFGN +P QTFGT VQ FGHKPG YJCV KV KU HQT C ENQUGF HQTOWNC YKVJ PQ HTGG XCTKCDNGU VQ DG VTWG
KP VJG OQFGN QPG OWUV FGHKPG YJCV KV KU HQT C HQTOWNC YKVJ QT YKVJQWV HTGG XCTKCDNGU VQ DG
UCVKUHKGF QT VTWG TGNCVKXG VQ CP CUUKIPOGPV QH GNGOGPVU QH VJG WPKXGTUG QH VJG OQFGN VQ CP[
HTGG XCTKCDNGU 6JG FGVCKNU QH VJG FGHKPKVKQP YJKEJ RTQEGGFU D[ KPFWEVKQP QP VJG
EQORNGZKV[ QH VJG HQTOWNC YKNN PQV DG TGECNNGF GZEGRV VQ OGPVKQP VJCV CV VJG DCUG UVGR
sWX KU VTWG HQT VJG CUUKIPOGPV QH O CPF P VQ W CPF X KH CPF QPN[ KH VJG QTFGTGF RCKT 〈O P〉
DGNQPIU VQ VJG UGV sM YJKNG CV VJG KPFWEVKQP UVGR HQT VJG WPKXGTUCN SWCPVKHKGT ∀Wψ
W KU
VTWG KH CPF QPN[ KH ψ
W KU VTWG YJCVGXGT GNGOGPV O QH ^M^ KU CUUKIPGF VQ W +P
QPG XGTUKQP
QH VJG WUWCN U[ODQNKUO
M À ∀Wψ
W KHH M O À ψ
W HQT CNN O ∈ ^M^
(QT OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE VJG 6CTUMK FGHKPKVKQP QH UVCPFCTF OQFGN KU GZCEVN[ VJG
UCOG C UGV YKVJ C UGV QH QTFGTGF RCKTU QH KVU GNGOGPVU 5GEQPFQTFGT XCTKCDNGU CTG VCMGP VQ
TCPIG QXGT UWDUGVU QH ^M^ CPF PGY ENCWUGU JCXG VQ DG CFFGF VQ VJG FGHKPKVKQP QH VTWVJ HQT
VJG PGY CVQOKE HQTOWNCU QH VJG HQTO 7W CPF HQT VJG UGEQPFQTFGT SWCPVKHKGTU 6JG[ TGCF
CU HQNNQYU
M / O À 7W KHH O ∈/
M À ∀7ψ
: KHH M / À ψ
7 HQT CNN / ⊆ ^M^
∀7∃X
7X sXX W
9JCV KV OGCPU KPVWKVKXGN[ VQ UC[ VJCV
KU UCVKUHKCDNG KU VJGTG CTG UQOG QDLGEVU CPF UQOG
TGNCVKQP QP VJGO UWEJ VJCV
EQOGU QWV VTWG KH VJG QDLGEVXCTKCDNGU W CTG VCMGP VQ TCPIG
QXGT CNN CPF QPN[ VJQUG QDLGEVU VJG EQPEGRVXCTKCDNGU 7 VQ TCPIG QXGT CNN CPF QPN[ VJQUG
EQPEGRVU WPFGT YJKEJ UWEJ QDLGEVU HCNN CPF VJG U[ODQN s KU VCMGP VQ UVCPF HQT VJG TGNCVKQP
KP SWGUVKQP 6JCV KU VQ UC[
KU KPVWKVKXGN[ UCVKUHKCDNG KH CPF QPN[ KH VJG HQNNQYKPI HQTOWNC
KU VTWG
∃: ∃4 ∀7 ⊆ : ∃X
:X 7X 4XX W
6JG UVCPFCTF FGHKPKVKQP FKHHGTU HTQO VJKU KPVWKVKXG FGHKPKVKQP KP VYQ TGURGEVU (KTUV KV
KPUKUVU VJCV VJG TCPIG QH VJG HKTUVQTFGT XCTKCDNGU OWUV DG C UGV CPF UGEQPF KV VCMGU VJG
EQPEGRVXCTKCDNGU VQ TCPIG QXGT UWDUGVU TCVJGT VJCP UWDEQPEGRVU QH VJCV UGV 6JWU
KU
UVCPFCTFN[ UCVKUHKCDNG KH CPF QPN[ KH VJG HQNNQYKPI KU VTWG
∃Z ∃T ∀W ⊆ Z ∃X
X ∈ Z X ∈ W 〈X X〉 ∈ T W
6JG UGEQPF QH VJG VYQ RQKPVU QH FKHHGTGPEG PQVGF DGVYGGP VJG KPVWKVKXG CPF VJG
UVCPFCTF PQVKQP KU PQV XGT[ KORQTVCPV +H VJG TCPIG QH VJG HKTUVQTFGT XCTKCDNGU KU C UGV Z
VCNMKPI CDQWV UWDUGVU VJGTGQH KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ VCNMKPI CDQWV UWDEQPEGRVU VJGTGQH (QT QP
VJG QPG JCPF GXGT[ W ⊆ Z FGVGTOKPGU C 7 ⊆ Z PCOGN[ nX X ∈ W CPF EQPXGTUGN[ GXGT[
7 ⊆ Z FGVGTOKPGU C W ⊆ Z PCOGN[ ]X ∈ Z 7X_ 6JKU NCUV RQKPV FQGU JQYGXGT CUUWOG VJG
CZKQO QH UGRCTCVKQP KU CXCKNCDNG KP VJG DCEMITQWPF UGV VJGQT[ KP YJKEJ YG CTG EQPFWEVKPI
VJG EWTTGPV FKUEWUUKQP $WV CUUWOKPI UGRCTCVKQP VCNM QH UWDUGVU CPF VCNM QH UWDEQPEGRVU
CTG GSWKXCNGPV CPF UKOKNCT TGOCTM CRRNKGU VQ TGNCVKQPU UQ
KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ VJG
HQNNQYKPI
∃Z ∃4 ∀7 ⊆ Z ∃X ∈ Z
7Z 4XX W
6JG HKTUV QH VJG VYQ RQKPVU QH FKHHGTGPEG PQVGF DGVYGGP VJG KPVWKVKXG CPF VJG
UVCPFCTF PQVKQP KU VJG KORQTVCPV QPG 6JG KPVWKVKXG TGSWKTGOGPV KU VJCV
UJQWNF DG VTWG
YJKNG VJG UVCPFCTF TGSWKTGOGPV KU VJCV
UJQWNF DG VTWG YJKEJ C NKVVNG VJQWIJV UJQYU
COQWPVU KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ VJG TGSWKTGOGPV VJCV
UJQWNF DG VTWG TGNCVKXK\GF VQ UQOG UGV Z
0QY VJG NCVVGT TGSWKTGOGPV EGTVCKPN[ KORNKGU VJG HQTOGT UKPEG KH YG JCXG VJG UGV Z QH
YG ECP UKORN[ VCMG nX X ∈ Z CU VJG : KP
+V KU VJG EQPXGTUG KORNKECVKQP VJCV KU
RTQDNGOCVKE $WV KH YG CUUWOG VJG CZKQO QH TGHNGEVKQP KU CXCKNCDNG KP VJG DCEMITQWPF UGV
VJGQT[ KP YJKEJ YG CTG EQPFWEVKPI VJG EWTTGPV FKUEWUUKQP VJGP VJGUG VYQ TGSWKTGOGPVU CTG
VJG UCOG CPF VJG KPVWKVKXG CPF UVCPFCTF PQVKQPU EQKPEKFG CHVGT CNN (QT KH θ KU VJG HQTOWNC
FKURNC[GF KP
TGHNGEVKQP VGNNU WU RTGEKUGN[ VJCV θ → ∃Z θ
Z
6JKU KU YJCV + OGCPV D[ UC[KPI GCTNKGT VJCV VJG UGV VJGQT[ ($ KU GZCEVN[ YJCV KU
PGGFGF VQ DG CDNG VQ IKXG C FGEKUKXG CPUYGT VQ HKTUV QH QWT VJTGG SWGUVKQPU CDQWV VJG UVCVWU
QH UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE VJCV QH VJG TGNCVKQP DGVYGGP UVCPFCTF UCVKUHKCDKNKV[ CPF KPVWKVKXG
UCVKUHKCDKNKV[ 6JG VYQ UGVGZKUVGPEG CZKQOU QH ($ UGRCTCVKQP CPF TGRNCEGOGPV CTG
GZCEVN[ YJCV KU PGGFGF VQ IGV VJG GSWKXCNGPEG QH
.GV WU VWTP PQY VQ VJG UGEQPF QH VJG VJTGG SWGUVKQPU CDQWV VJG UVCVWU QH
UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE YKVJ YJKEJ YG DGICP +U VJG HCEV VJCV UVCPFCTF
WPUCVKUHKCDKNKV[ CPF
U[PVCEVKE
KPEQPUKUVGPE[ CPF JGPEG UVCPFCTF EQPUGSWGPEG CPF U[PVCEVKE FGFWEKDKNKV[ CPF
UVCPFCTF
KPXCNKFKV[ CPF U[PVCEVKE
WPFGOQPUVTCDKNKV[ FKXGTIG C RQKPV CICKPUV
UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE!
+V OKIJV DG VJQWIJV VQ DG UQ HQT VJG HQNNQYKPI TGCUQP 9G OKIJV EQOG VQ JCXG
YJCV YG TGICTF CU IQQF TGCUQP HQT VJKPMKPI UQOG HQTOWNC QH UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE KU
KPVWKVKXGN[ XCNKF GXGP VJQWIJ KV KU PQV FGFWEKDNG HTQO QWT NQIKECN CZKQOU QH
EQORTGJGPUKQP
CPF GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ D[ VJG QTFKPCT[ TWNGU QH FGFWEVKQP HQT UGEQPFQTFGT
NQIKE
YJKEJ CTG LWUV VJQUG QH OCP[UQTVGF HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE +P VJCV ECUG RTGUWOCDN[ YG
YQWNF YCPV VQ CFF VJG HQTOWNC CU C PGY NQIKECN CZKQO VJCV UJQWNF JCXG DGGP CUUWOGF
HTQO VJG DGIKPPKPI JCF YG DGGP CYCTG QH KV CV VJG VKOG
6Q IKXG EQPETGVGPGUU VQ VJKU CDUVTCEV RQUUKDKNKV[ EQPUKFGT VJG NQIKECN QT UQECNNGF
INQDCN HQTO QH VJG CZKQO QH EJQKEG YJKEJ WUKPI VJG GSWKXCNGPV YGNNQTFGTKPI XGTUKQP
∀:∃4
4 YGNNQTFGTU :
6JG INQDCN CZKQO QH EJQKEG OC[ YGNN DG UQOGVJKPI YG EQPXKPEG QWTUGNXGU KU KPVWKVKXGN[
XCNKF
RGTJCRU D[ UQOGVJKPI NKMG CP KPHQTOCN EQWPVGTRCTV QH XQP 0GWOCPPOU CTIWOGPV
#PF KH YG FQ UQ KV YQWNF UGGO VJCV YG QWIJV VQ CFF INQDCN EJQKEG CU C PGY NQIKECN
CZKQO KP CFFKVKQP VQ EQORTGJGPUKQP
CPF GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ 6JCV YQWNF COQWPV VQ
EJCPIKPI VJG TWNGU QH FGFWEVKQP KP VJG OKFFNG QH QWT QPIQKPI VJGQTGORTQXKPI CEVKXKV[
YJKEJ OC[ UGGO QDLGEVKQPCDNG KP VJG YC[ VJCV EJCPIKPI VJG TWNGU QH ICOG KP VJG OKFFNG
QH RNC[ KU QDLGEVKQPCDNG
0QY YG MPQY HTQO VJG )ÑFGN KPEQORNGVGPGUU VJGQTGOU VJCV GXGP MGGRKPI NQIKE
HKZGF CPF GXGP YQTMKPI QPN[ YKVJ HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE CU YJGP YQTMKPI KP C UGV VJGQT[ NKMG
<( YG OKIJV EQOG VQ JCXG IQQF TGCUQP VQ VJKPM UQOG HQTOWNC QH VJG NCPIWCIG QH UGV
VJGQT[ KU KPVWKVKXGN[ VTWG GXGP VJQWIJ KV KU PQV FGFWEKDNG HTQO VJG UGVVJGQTGVKE CZKQOU QH
<( 6JG )ÑFGN VJGQTGOU UWIIGUV VJG UGVVJGQTGVKE UVCVGOGPV EQFKPI VJG UVCVGOGPV VJCV <(
KU EQPUKUVGPV CU CP GZCORNG DWV JKUVQTKECNN[ CP GZCORNG YCU VJG UGVVJGQTGVKE QT NQECN
XGTUKQP QH VJG CZKQO QH EJQKEG YJKEJ KP KVU GSWKXCNGPV YGNNQTFGTKPI XGTUKQP TGCFU CU
HQNNQYU
∃Z∃T
T YGNNQTFGTU Z
6JG NQECN CZKQO QH EJQKEG KU UQOGVJKPI VJCV UGVVJGQTKUVU KPKVKCNN[ FKUVTWUVGF VJGP
EQPXKPEGF VJGOUGNXGU KU KPVWKVKXGN[ VTWG
UQOG QH VJGO D[ CP KPHQTOCN EQWPVGTRCTV QH XQP
0GWOCPPOU CTIWOGPV #PF YJGP VJG[ FKF UQ VJG[ CFFGF CU KV YQWNF UGGO VJG[ QWIJV VQ
JCXG FQPG NQECN EJQKEG #% CU C PGY UGVVJGQTGVKE CZKQO KP CFFKVKQP VQ VJG CZKQOU QH <(
UQ QDVCKPKPI <(% &QGU PQV VJKU COQWPV VQ EJCPIKPI VJG TWNGU CDQWV YJCV RTGOKUUGU ECP
DG VCMGP HQT ITCPVGF KP C FGFWEVKQP KP VJG OKFFNG QH VJGKT QPIQKPI VJGQTGORTQXKPI
CEVKXKV[! #PF YJ[ YQWNF CFQRVKPI INQDCN EJQKEG DG OQTG QDLGEVKQPCDNG VJCP VJCV!
0QPGVJGNGUU VJGTG KU KP UQOG QH WU C UVWDDQTP HGGNKPI VJCV EJCPIKPI VJG NQIKECN
CZKQOU KU OQTG WPFGUKTCDNG VJCP EJCPIKPI VJG UGVVJGQTGVKE CZKQOU YJKEJ UKPEG )ÑFGN YG
JCXG EQOG VQ CEEGRV CU UQOGVJKPI KPGXKVCDNG CPF GXGP UQOGVJKPI FGUKTCDNG HQT VJQUG
YJQ VJKPM UGVVJGQTKUVU CTG KP VJG RTQEGUU QH ICKPKPI C FGGRGT CPF FGGRGT KPVWKVKXG
WPFGTUVCPFKPI VJCV OC[ OQVKXCVG UVTQPIGT CPF UVTQPIGT CZKQOU
6Q VJQUG YJQ UJCTG VJKU UVWDDQTP HGGNKPI VJG PGYU OC[ DG YGNEQOG VJCV VJG UGV
VJGQT[ ($ KU GZCEVN[ YJCV KU PGGFGF VQ OCMG CP[ HWVWTG CFQRVKQP QH PGY NQIKECN CZKQOU
WPPGEGUUCT[ GXGP KH YG DGEQOG EQPXKPEGF VJCV EGTVCKP HQTOWNCU PQV RTGXKQWUN[ CEEGRVGF
CU CZKQOU CTG KPVWKVKXGN[ VTWG (QT VJG TGHNGEVKQP RTKPEKRNG KORNKGU VJCV CFQRVKPI UQOGVJKPI
NKMG
CU C NQIKECN CZKQO KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ CFQRVKPI UQOGVJKPI NKMG
CU C
UGVVJGQTGVKE CZKQO #P[ XKQNCVKQP QH INQDCN EJQKEG YQWNF D[ TGHNGEVKQP [KGNF C XKQNCVKQP
QH NQECN EJQKEG 6JKU KU LWUV C RCTVKEWNCT ECUG QH YJCV YG UCY KP VJG RTGEGFKPI UGEVKQP VJCV
CP[ SWGUVKQP QH KPVWKVKXG XCNKFKV[ TGFWEGU VQ C SWGUVKQP QH UVCPFCTF XCNKFKV[ YJKEJ KU C
SWGUVKQP CDQWV VJG VTWVJ QH C EGTVCKP HKTUVQTFGT UGVVJGQTGVKE HQTOWNC
6JWU QPEG QPG JCU CEEGRVGF VJG UGVVJGQTGVKE CZKQOU QH ($ VJGTG YKNN PGXGT DG
QEECUKQP VQ CUUWOG PGY NQIKECN CU QRRQUGF VQ UGVVJGQTGVKE CZKQOU PQ OCVVGT YJCV OQTG
YG DGEQOG EQPXKPEGF QH DGECWUG CFQRVKPI C PGY NQIKECN CZKQO YQWNF CNYC[U DG
GSWKXCNGPV VQ CFQRVKPI C EQTTGURQPFKPI PGY UGVVJGQTGVKE CZKQO CPF YG ECP FQ VJG NCVVGT
TCVJGT VJCP VJG HQTOGT +P C UGPUG VJG UGVVJGQTGVKE CZKQOU QH ($ KORN[ VJCV VJG TWNGU QH
FGFWEVKQP HQT UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE VJCV YG CNTGCF[ JCXG CTG CU EQORNGVG CU VJG[ PGGF VQ
DG
6Q TGCFGTU YJQ JCXG RTGXKQWU CESWCKPVCPEG YKVJ VJG EQPVTQXGTUKGU QXGT VJG UVCVWU
QH UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE + UWRRQUG + UJQWNF QHHGT CRQNQIKGU HQT PQV CFFTGUUKPI YGNNMPQYP
QDLGEVKQPU UQQPGT $WV VJG TGCUQP HQT O[ FGNC[KPI FQKPI UQ WPVKN CHVGT VJG KPVTQFWEVKQP QH
VJG UGV VJGQT[ ($ UJQWNF PQY DG RNCKP
6JGTG TGOCKPU CP QDLGEVKQP FKTGEVGF URGEKHKECNN[ CICKPUV C (TGIGCP WPFGTUVCPFKPI
QH UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE VJCV + JCXG FGNC[GF TCKUKPI WPVKN VJG YKFG TCPIG QH PGQ(TGIGCP
VJGQTKGU YCU DGHQTG WU GPCDNKPI WU VQ LWFIG VJG GHHGEV QH VJG QDLGEVKQP QP XCTKQWU QPGU QH
VJGO 6JG QDLGEVKQP KU QPG VJCV OCP[ UGOK(TGIGCPU SWCUK(TGIGCPU PGQ(TGIGCPU CPF
VJG NKMG EQPUKFGT KV DCF HQTO VQ OGPVKQP DWV OGPVKQP KV + OWUV DGECWUG WPNKMG
RTGHKZ(TGIGCPU + CO EQPXKPEGF VJCV KV KU EQIGPV CPF JCU C FGXCUVCVKPI GHHGEV QP OCP[ QH
VJG VJGQTKGU + JCXG UWTXG[GF 6JG QDLGEVKQP KU C UKORNG ITCOOCVKECN QPG VJCV JCU DGGP
TGRGCVGFN[ WTIGF KP UNKIJVN[ FKHHGTGPV HQTO D[ 3WKPG CPF TGRGCVGFN[ KIPQTGF
6JG DCEMITQWPF KU CU HQNNQYU +V KU ETWEKCN VQ UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE VJCV VJG KVGOU
QXGT YJKEJ VJG UGEQPFQTFGT XCTKCDNGU TCPIG CTG PQV KP VJG TCPIG QH VJG HKTUVQTFGT
XCTKCDNGU 6JG WPTGUVTKEVGF CUUWORVKQP QH GZVGPUKQPU YJKEJ GXGP FQGU PQV SWKVG RWV VJGO
VJGTG DWV LWUV RWVU TGRTGUGPVCVKXGU QH VJGO VJGTG NGCFU VQ 4WUUGNNOU RCTCFQZ CHVGT CNN
0QY HQT (TGIG CP[VJKPI VJCV ECP DG FGPQVGF D[ C UKPIWNCT PQWP RJTCUG KU CP QDLGEV CPF
VJGTGHQTG KP VJG TCPIG QH VJG HKTUVQTFGT XCTKCDNGU 5Q HQT (TGIG KV KU ETWEKCN VJCV EQPEGRVU
YJKEJ CTG VJG FGPQVCVKQPU QH RTGFKECVGU QT XGTD RJTCUGU TGSWKTKPI C UKPIWNCT PQWP RJTCUG
VQ OCMG C EQORNGVG UGPVGPEG ECPPQV DG FGPQVGF D[ PQWP RJTCUGU 6JWU VJG EQPEGRV
FGPQVGF D[ QKU C JQTUGR ECPPQV DG FGPQVGF D[ CP[ PQWP RJTCUG M PQV GXGP VJKU QPG
VJG EQPEGRV FGPQVGF D[ QKU C JQTUGR
6JKU KU CP GODCTTCUUOGPV (TGIG CUMGF JKU TGCFGTU PQV VQ DGITWFIG JKO C ITCKP QH
UCNV KP VJKU EQPPGEVKQP CPF OCP[ EQOOGPVCVQTU TGICTF KV CU WPEJCTKVCDNG CPF KNNDTGF VQ
CNNWFG VQ VJKU RTQDNGO + JCXG QH EQWTUG LWUV PQY FQPG OQTG VJCP OGTGN[ CNNWFG VQ KV /[
GZEWUG HQT VJKU FKURNC[ QH NCEM QH EJCTKV[ CPF IQQF DTGGFKPI KU VJCV + DGNKGXG (TGIGOU
GODCTTCUUOGPV QXGT VJG EQPEGRV QH DGKPI C JQTUG VJQWIJ RGTJCRU VTKHNKPI KP KVUGNH KU C
U[ORVQO QH C OWEJ OQTG UGTKQWU RTQDNGO #PF VQ KIPQTG VJKU OQTG UGTKQWU RTQDNGO
YQWNF DG VQ CNNQY (TGIGCPU PQV LWUV VQ JCXG C ITCKP QH UCNV DWV VQ UVGCN C YJQNG UCNV OKPG
6JG RTQDNGO KU VJCV VJGTG KU PQ GZRNCPCVKQP QH VJG OGCPKPI QH ∀: CPF ∃:
KPVGNNKIKDNG VQ QPG YJQ URGCMU QPN[ 'PINKUJ
QT )GTOCP CPF PQV $GITKHHUUEJTKHV
KH QPG
OC[ URGCM QH QURGCMKPIR C PQPNKPGCT PQVCVKQP VJCV KU EQORCVKDNG YKVJ TGICTFKPI : CU
UVCPFKPI UVTKEVN[ HQT C XGTD RJTCUG QT RTGFKECVG CPF PQV C PQWP RJTCUG )GPGTCNN[ QPG KU
VQNF VJCV ∀ CPF ∃ OC[ DG TGCF CU QHQT CNNWR CPF QHQT UQOGWR QT UQOG QVJGT UWEJ
QTFKPCT[ NQEWVKQP $WV VJGUG QTFKPCT[NCPIWCIG NQEWVKQPU CNN FGOCPF VQ DG HQNNQYGF D[
PQWP RJTCUGU
Z [ → ∀:
:Z ↔ :[
#EEQTFKPI CU QPG JCU QT JCU PQV DGGP TCKUGF CU C (TGIGCP QPG KU NKMGN[ VQ EQOG QWV YKVJ
QPG QT VJG QVJGT QH VJG HQNNQYKPI
C +H Z KU VJG UCOG VJKPI CU [
VJGP Z HCNNU WPFGT GXGT[ EQPEGRV VJCV [ FQGU CPF XKEG XGTUC
0 5QETCVGU QDLGEV W
Z [
5
50 5QOGQPG W JKIJGT EQPEGRV :;W
5
50
50 9JQGXGT WM
JKIJGT TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRV 45W
6#$.' $ #ZKQOCVK\CVKQPU QH (TGIGOU 5GV 6JGQT[
'ZKUVGPEG #UUWORVKQP ∃Z e Z:
Q.CY 8 R e Z: e [; →
Z [ ↔ : ≡ ;
&GHKPKVKQP Ue U : ιZe Z:
&GHKPKVKQP ²e ²[ ↔ ∃; e [;
&GHKPKVKQP ∈e Z ∈ [ ↔ ∃;
e [; ;Z
'ZVGPUKQPQH (WPEVKQP5[ODQN U 2TKOKVKXG
Q.CY 8 R U U : ; ↔:≡;
&GHKPKVKQP e U e Z: ↔Z U:
&GHKPKVKQP ² U ²[ ↔ ∃;
[ U ;
&GHKPKVKQP ∈U Z ∈ [ ↔ ∃;
[ U ; ;Z
&GHKPKVKQP ] _ U ]Z φ
Z_ U nZ U
φ
Z ι;∀Z
;Z ↔ φ
Z
5GVJQQF'NGOGPVJQQF 4GNCVKQP5[ODQN ² ∈ 2TKOKVKXG
'ZKUVGPEG #UUWORVKQP ∃[
²[ ∀Z
Z ∈ [ ↔ φ
Z
Q.CY 8 R ∀[∀\
²[ ²\ ∀Z
Z ∈ [ ↔ Z ∈ \ → [ \
&GHKPKVKQP e ²∈ e [: ↔ ²[ ∀Z
Z ∈ [ ↔ :Z
&GHKPKVKQP U²∈ U : ι[
²[ ∀Z
Z ∈ [ ↔ :Z
&GHKPKVKQP ] _²∈ ]Z φ
Z_ ι[
²[ ∀Z
Z ∈ [ ↔ φ
Z
5GVQH 8CTKCDNG$KPFKPI 6GTO(QTOKPI 1RGTCVQT ] _ 2TKOKVKXG
Q.CY 8 R ]Z φ
Z_ ]Z ψ
Z_ ↔ ∀Z
φ
Z ↔ ψ
Z
&GHKPKVKQP e ] _ e Z: ↔ Z ]Y :Y_
&GHKPKVKQP U] _ U : ]Y :Y_
&GHKPKVKQP ²] _ ²[ ↔ ∃;
[ ]Z ;Z_
∴ %QORTGJGPUKQP φ → ²]Z φ
Z_
&GHKPKVKQP ∈] _ Y ∈ [ ↔ ∃;
[ ]Z ;Z_ ;Y
∴ %QORTGJGPUKQP φ →
Y ∈ ]Z φ
Z_ ↔ φ
Y
0COG (QTOWNC
'ZVGPUKQPCNKV[ ∀\
\ ∈ Z ↔ \ ∈ [ → Z [
0WNN 5GV ∃Z∀[
[ ∈ Z ↔ [ l [
2CKTKPI ∃Z∀[
[ ∈ Z ↔ [ W ∨ [ X
7PKQP ∃Z∀[
[ ∈ Z ↔ ∃\
\ ∈ W [ ∈ \
2QYGT 5GV ∃Z∀[
[ ∈ Z ↔ ∀\
\ ∈ [ → \ ∈ W
+PHKPKV[ ∃Z
∅ ∈ Z ∀[
[ ∈ Z → [ ∈ Z
5GRCTCVKQP ∃Z∀[
[ ∈ Z ↔ [ ∈ W φ
[
(QWPFCVKQP ∃Z
Z ∈ W → ∃Z
Z ∈ W `∃[
[ ∈ Z [ ∈ W
4GRNCEGOGPV ∀X∃Yψ
X Y → ∃Z∀[
[ ∈ Z ↔ ∃X
X ∈ W ψ
X [
%JQKEG ∀W
∀Z
Z ∈ W → ∃W
W ∈ Z
∀Z∀[
Z ∈ W [ ∈ W `Z [ → `∃Y
Y ∈ Z Y ∈ [ →
∃\∀Z
Z ∈ W → ∃Y
Y ∈ Z Y ∈ \
3 ≈ 3 +∆ 2(#
3 +∆
GZR '(#
3 +∆
UWRGTGZR 5'(#
W
3ω ≈ 24# ≈ +Σ ( ∆ %# 4%# ≈ ( Π 52 9-.
+Σ
W
2 2# ( Σ %# ∆ %# #%# < i≈ <( i
( Σ
52 #64
( Π
%#
W W
2 2# < ≈ <(
8.
2 2#
FKVVQ
℘
ω
2 2# FKVVQ
℘
ω
W W
2ω 2/
<(% /-
<(% KPCEEGUUKDNGU
<(% J[RGTKPCEEGUUKDNGU
W
<(%
KPFGUETKDCDNGU $
W
<(%
/. ECTFKPCNU
<(% :. ECTFKPCNU
<(% 4GKPJCTFV →←
(QT XGTDCN FGUETKRVKQPU QH U[UVGOU QH UVQTFGT CTKVJOGVKE PFQTFGT CTKVJOGVKE CPF UGV VJGQT[ UGG hhD
0COG (QTOWNC
'ZVGPUKQPCNKV[ ²Z ²[ ∀\
\ ∈ Z ↔ \ ∈ [ → Z [
0WNN 5GV ∃Z
²Z ∀[
[ ∉ Z
5KPINGVQP ∃Z
²Z ∀[
[ ∈ Z ↔ [ W
2CKT ∃Z
²Z ∀[
[ ∈ Z ↔ [ W ∨ [ X
6TKRNG ∃Z
²Z ∀[
[ ∈ Z ↔ [ W ∨ [ X ∨ [ Y
#FLWPEVKQP ²W → ∃Z
²Z ∀Z
[ ∈ Z ↔ [ ∈ W ∨ [ X
&GNGVKQP ²W → ∃Z
²Z ∀Z
[ ∈ Z ↔ [ ∈ W [ l X
7PKQP ²Z ²[ → ∃\
²\ ∀Y
Y ∈ \ ↔ Y ∈ Z ∨ Y ∈ [
+PVGTUGEVKQP ²Z ²[ → ∃\
²\ ∀Y
Y ∈ \ ↔ Y ∈ Z Y ∈ [
&KHHGTGPEG ²Z ²[ → ∃\
²\ ∀Y
Y ∈ \ ↔ Y ∈ Z Y ∉ [
%QORNGOGPV ²Z → ∃[∀\
\ ∈ [ ↔ \ ∉ Z
7PKXGTUCN 5GV ∃Z
²Z ∀[
[ ∈ Z
6#$.' ) 9GCM 5[UVGOU QH 5GV 6JGQT[
0COG #ZKQOU
DGUKFGU 'ZVGPUKQPCNKV[ +PVGTRTGVU
2( 0WNN 5GV 7PKQP %QORNGOGPV 3 ∴ 3
72( 0WNN 5GV 5KPINGVQP 2CKT 6TKRNG W %QORNGOGPV
56 0WNN 5GV #FLWPEVKQP 3 ∴ 3
756 0WNN 5GV 2CKT
7756 0WNN 5GV 5KPINGVQP
3
3
2756 /QPCFKE 2TGFKECVKXG PF1TFGT .QIKE
756 3 ∴ 3
27756 &[CFKE 2TGFKECVKXG PF1TFGT .QIKE
7756 3 ∴ 3
256 /QPCFKE 2TGFKECVKXG PF1TFGT .QIKE
56 3
56< 0WNN 5GV #FLWPEVKQP 5GRCTCVKQP 2
756
(WNN /QPCFKE PF1TFGT .QIKE
56 2
7756
(WNN &[CFKE PF1TFGT .QIKE
56 2
(QT XGTDCN FGUETKRVKQPU UGG h
6#$.' * $CUKE 0QVKQPU QH 2TGFKECVKXG 5GEQPF1TFGT .QIKE
Π (#
Π %#
(# 2#
(#
08 2#
9)6# ≈ 5)6# 2#
(KPG UGV VJGQT[ 2#
$QQNQU UGV VJGQT[ 2#
FKVVQ
i 2#
($ <(
KPFGUETKDCDNGU
0QVGU
*#26'4
%
6JGTG KU CPQVJGT WUCIG QH (TGIGOU HTQO YJKEJ GXGP VJG OQUV HCKVJHWN PGQ(TGIGCPU JCXG
FGRCTVGF CPF HTQO YJKEJ + JCXG VJGTGHQTG HGNV HTGG VQ FGRCTV O[UGNH JKU ITQVGUSWG WUG QH QPCOGU QH
VTWVJXCNWGUR HQT QUGPVGPEGUR 6JKU WUCIG TGHNGEVU C DK\CTTG XKGY VJCV VJG ECVGIQT[ 5 KU KPENWFGF KP VJG
ECVGIQT[ 0 CPF JGPEG VJCV VJG VTWVJXCNWGU CTG KPENWFGF COQPI VJG QDLGEVU CPF VJG EQPEGRVU COQPI VJG
HWPEVKQPU + JCXG CNUQ KIPQTGF (TGIGOU XKGY VJCV QKFGPVKV[R KU NKVGTCNN[ CRRNKECDNG QPN[ VQ QDLGEVU YJKEJ
NGCFU JKO VQ YTKVG QH EQGZVGPUKXGPGUU CU VJG QCPCNQIWGR QH KFGPVKV[ HQT EQPEGRVU
+P $QQNQU $WTIGUU CPF ,GHHTG[
VJGUG VQRKEU CTG VTGCVGF KP %JCRVGT YJKEJ CNUQ
EQPVCKPU HWTVJGT FKUEWUUKQP QH VJG VQRKE QH CDDTGXKCVKQP VQ DG CFFTGUUGF UJQTVN[ KP VJG VGZV
+P $QQNQU $WTIGUU CPF ,GHHTG[
VJKU VQRKE KU VTGCVGF KP %JCRVGT *GTG JQYGXGT QWT
EQPEGTP YKNN DG GZENWUKXGN[ YKVJ CZKQOCVK\CDNG VJGQTKGU
4WUUGNN CNNQYU VJG ιQRGTCVQT VQ DG CRRNKGF GXGP YJGTG CP GZKUVGPEG CPF WPKSWGPGUU
RTGUWRRQUKVKQP FQGU PQV JQNF VJQWIJ KP VJKU ECUG VJG GSWKXCNGPEG QH VJG GZKUVGPVKCN YKVJ VJG WPKXGTUCN
WPRCEMKPIU QH VJG FGHKPKVKQP CPF QH VJG TGUWNV QH HKTUV PGICVKPI CPF VJGP WPRCEMKPI YKVJ VJG TGUWNV QH HKTUV
WPRCEMKPI CPF VJGP PGICVKPI OC[ PQV JQNF CPF QPG FQGU PQV KP IGPGTCN JCXG φ
ι φ
QT Z Z
∀ ψ
ι ψ
+ YKNN PGXGT QIKXG C PCOG VQR CP[VJKPI WPNGUU GZKUVGPEG CPF WPKSWGPGUU JCXG DGGP
[ [ Z [ Z
RTQXGF QT CUUWOGF
1T OQTG RTGEKUGN[ CP KPUVCPEG KU C ECUG QH
YJGTG φ
CPF φ
CTG VJG TGUWNVU QH UWDUVKVWVKPI
Z [
φ
OC[ DG
X CNOQUV CP[ HQTOWNC UKPEG YG OWUV GZENWFG HQTOWNCU NKMG ∀
QT ∃
YJGTG
Z X Z [ X [
UWDUVKVWVKPI QT YQWNF TGUWNV KP VJCV XCTKCDNG DGKPI QECWIJVR D[ C SWCPVKHKGT 6JKU UQTV QH
Z [
OKIJV CNUQ DG EQPUVCPVU W HQT QDLGEVU CPFQT W HQT EQPEGRVU CPFQT W HQT
C D E # $ % ( ) *
TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU CPFQT # $ % W HQT JKIJGT EQPEGRVU CPF UQ QP CPF YJKEJ EQWNF DG UWDUVKVWVGF HQT
XCTKCDNGU QH VJG CRRTQRTKCVG MKPFU IKXKPI PGY MKPFU QH CVQOKE HQTOWNCU
#NUQ VQ CXQKF PQPUGPUG VJG XCTKCDNG KP
OWUV PQV CRRGCT HTGG KP φ
6JKU YKNN DG VCEKVN[
: Z
TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRV WPFGT YJKEJ HCNN CP[ CPF UWEJ VJCV GKVJGT DQVJ CTG NKPGU KP VJG RNCPG CPF VJG[ CTG
Z [
RCTCNNGN QT PGKVJGT KU C NKPG KP VJG RNCPG 9G YKNN VJGP JCXG QPG GZVTC CDUVTCEV YJKEJ OKIJV DG ECNNGFVJG
3
3 CU VJGQTGOU +V KU KP VJKU UGPUG VJCV 3 CPF 3 CTG GSWKXCNGPV
6JG IGPGTCN FGHKPKVKQP QH KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QP VJG QPG JCPF FQGU PQV TGSWKTG
% DWV QP VJG QVJGT
JCPF TGSWKTGU UQOGVJKPI UVTQPIGT VJCP
4 PCOGN[ VJG CUUWORVKQP VJCV CZKQO
3 JQNFU YKVJ
SWCPVKHKGTU TGNCVKXK\GF VQ δ VJWU
δ
→
∨ ∃
δ
Z Z [ [ [ Z Z [
CEEGRVGF CU HQTOCNK\KPI YJCV KU CEEGRVCDNG HTQO C HKPKVKUV UVCPFRQKPV DWV VJKU NCVVGT U[UVGO KU PQV C
FKTGEVN[
HKTUVQTFGT VJGQT[ CPF HQT VJCV TGCUQP YKNN DG NGHV QWV QH CEEQWPV JGTG
/QTG URGEKHKECNN[ KH U[ODQNU HQT RTKOKVKXG TGEWTUKXG HWPEVKQPU CTG CRRTQRTKCVGN[ CFFGF VQ +Σ
YG IGV CP GZVGPUKQP QH 3ω EQPUGTXCVKXG HQT Π UGPVGPEGU QXGT KV CPF HQT VJCV OCVVGT QXGT VJG U[UVGO 24#
VJCV + JCXG QOKVVGF HTQO O[ FKUEWUUKQP 6JKU EQPUGTXCVKXGPGUU TGUWNV YCU QDVCKPGF PQV QPN[ D[ 2CTUQPU DWV
CNUQ KPFGRGPFGPVN[ M VJQWIJ VJG FCVGU QH RWDNKECVKQP CTG NCVGT M D[ )TKIQTK /KPVU CPF D[ )CKUK 6CMGWVK
CNN VJTGG WUKPI FKHHGTGPV OGVJQFU
+P $QQNQU $WTIGUU CPF ,GHHTG[
VJG #EMGTOCPP GZCORNG KU VTGCVGF CV VJG GPF QH
%JCRVGT
'ZEGRV VJCV HQT VGEJPKECN TGCUQPU VJG YGCMGUV QH VJGO YJKEJ YKNN DG QH NKVVNG EQPEGTP JGTG
CUUWOGU Σ KPFWEVKQP CU KP VJG U[UVGO +Σ QH CTKVJOGVKE
6JG YGCMGUV QH VJGO KU RTGEKUGN[ VJG U[UVGO 24# YJKEJ HQTOCNK\GU 6JG
HKPKVKUO
RTGFKECVKXKUO CPF RTGFKECVKXKUO RNWU KPFWEVKXG FGHKPKVKQPU CU HQTOCNK\GF KP U[UVGOU ECNNGF *# +4 CPF
6JG JKUVQT[ QH VJKU TGUWNV KU EQORNKECVGF 6JG HKTUV YTKVGTU QP VJG VQRKE YGTG UQNGN[ QT OCKPN[
EQPEGTPGF YKVJ RTQXKPI VJG UGV VJGQT[ 0$) EQPUGTXCVKXG QXGT VJG UGV VJGQT[ <(% VJQWIJ VJG TGUWNV KU SWKVG
IGPGTCN CPF CRRNKGU HQT KPUVCPEG VQ UJQY VJCV VJG HTCIOGPV QH CPCN[UKU ( Σ %# ∆ %# #%#
KU EQPUGTXCVKXG QXGT VJG CTKVJOGVKE 2 2# /QFGNVJGQTGVKE RTQQHU YGTG QHHGTGF D[ /QUVQYUMK
0QXCM )CN
CPF 4QUUGT CPF 9CPI
5JQGPHKGNF
ICXG C RTQQHVJGQTGVKE RTQQH CPF +
JCXG CRRNKGF JKU PCOG VQ VJG VJGQTGO DGECWUG KV KU JKU XGTUKQP VJCV + CO IQKPI VQ DG WUKPI KP VJG PGZV
+P VJG ECUG QH VJG 4GKPJCTFV ECTFKPCN QPG QH VJG PGY VJGQTGOU KU +P VJG ECUG QH CP[ QH
VJG QVJGT U[UVGOU VJG UVCVGOGPV QH VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH CP[ QH VJG U[UVGOU YGCMGT VJCP KVUGNH KU QT DGEQOGU
YJGP UVCVGOGPVU CDQWV HQTOWNCU CTG EQFGF CU UVCVGOGPVU CDQWV PWODGTU C Π HQTOWNC KORNKGF D[ VJCV
U[UVGO CPF PQV VJG YGCMGT QPG *QYGXGT EQFGF EQPUKUVGPE[ UVCVGOGPVU VJQWIJ VJG GCUKGUV GZCORNG VQ EKVG
YJGP CFFTGUUKPI C PQPURGEKCNKUV CWFKGPEG FQ PQV D[ CP[ OGCPU GZJCWUV VJG QFQYP VQ GCTVJ R EQPUGSWGPEGU
QH NCTIG ECTFKPCNU
6JGTG KU QPG OQTG CURGEV QH VJG EQORNGZ PWODGT ECUG VJCV + CXQKFGF EKVKPI CDQXG DGECWUG KV
JCU PQ RCTCNNGN KP VJG PCVWTCN PWODGT ECUG .KMG /CVJGOCVKEC ` CPF QVJGT U[ODQNKE EQORWVCVKQP RTQITCOU
O
*COKNVQP U FGHKPKVKQP QDNKIGU QPG VQ FKUVKPIWKUJ VJG TGCN PWODGT Z HTQO VJG EQORNGZ PWODGT Z
K
+H VJGUG FKF PQV RTQXG CU WUGHWN HQT CRRNKECVKQPU CU *COKNVQP JQRGF VJG XGEVQTU VJCV YGTG URWP
QHH HTQO VJGO JCXG RTQXGF WUGHWN DG[QPF CP[VJKPI VJCV OKIJV JCXG DGGP KOCIKPGF YJGP VJG[ YGTG HKTUV
KPVTQFWEGF
*#26'4
%
24'&+%#6+8' 6*'14+'5
%GTVCKP TGOCTMU QH 2QKPECTÃ YGTG CNUQ KPHNWGPVKCN DWV OWUV DG NGHV QWV QH CEEQWPV JGTG 5GG
%JKJCTC
%JCRVGT +8
$WTIGUU *C\GP
*C\GP JCU DGUKFGU DGGP VJTQWIJQWV O[ OCKP UQWTEG HQT JKUVQTKECN
+P $QQNQU $WTIGUU CPF ,GHHTG[ VJG VJGQTGO KU EQXGTGF KP %JCRVGT UGEVKQPU CPF
(QT DQWPF XCTKCDNGU CNN VJGTG YKNN DG VQ VJG EQPLWPEVKQP YKNN UVCVGOGPVU QH VJG HKTUV CPF UGEQPF
MKPF (QT HTGG XCTKCDNGU CNN VJGTG YKNN DG VQ VJG EQPLWPEVKQP YKNN DG UVCVGOGPVU QH VJG VJKTF MKPF VQ VJG
GHHGEV VJCV VJGTG CTG GZCEVN[ M QDLGEVU QT CV NGCUV P QDLGEVU X HQT YJKEJ VJG EQODKPCVKQP JQNFU (QT
QPGRNCEG TGNCVKQP U[ODQNU VJGTG YKNN DG UVCVGOGPVU VQ VJG GHHGEV VJCV VJGTG CTG GZCEVN[ M QT CV NGCUV P
6JG UVCVGOGPV VJCV VJGTG CTG GZCEVN[ M QH CV NGCUV P QDLGEVU VQWV EQWTV OC[ DG VCMGP VQ DG
∃MX
X X QT ∃PX
X X 6JGUG CTG PQV VJG UJQTVGUV HQTOWNCU GZRTGUUKPI YJCV KU YCPVGF DWV YKNN FQ
VJCV CNUQ NGCFU VQ HKTUVQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE ECP DG HQWPF KP #PVQPGNNK CPF /C[
!
5GG 7TSWJCTV
# RTQQH YKNN DG IKXGP HQT C XGT[ UKOKNCT TGUWNV KP VJG HKTUV UGEVKQP QH VJG PGZV EJCRVGT
DG KPVGTRTGVGF KP 6 CPF XKEG XGTUC #U + UVCVGF GCTNKGT VJKU KU CEVWCNN[ VTWG HQT 756 CU YGNN
RTGUGPVCVKQP UQOGYJCV QDUEWTGU VJG HCEV VJCV JKU ENCUUGU LWUV Q RHNQCV
+V OC[ OGPVKQPGF YKVJQWV RTQQH JGTG VJCV VJQWIJ ℘8 KU QUVGPUKDN[ UVTQPIGT VJCP 28 KV KU PQV
TGCNN[ UQ (QT YKVJ LWUV KP VJG QTKIKPCN HKTUVQTFGT NCPIWCIG CPF YKVJ QPN[ OQPCFKE EQPEGRVXCTKCDNGU KV
ECP DG UJQYP CU CP GZVGPUKQP QH VJG .ÑYGPJGKO$GJOCPP VJGQTGO VJCV CP[ HQTOWNC YKVJ DQWPF OQPCFKE
JQYGXGT VJCV VJG VJGQT[ ℘8 + CO CDQWV VQ KPVTQFWEG KU PQV LWUV QUVGPUKDN[ DWV TGCNN[ EQPUKFGTCDN[ UVTQPIGT
O
VJCP 28 +PFGGF KV HQNNQYU GCUKN[ HTQO &GFGMKPF U 6JGQTGO 8GTUKQP ++ VJCV KV ECP KPVGTRTGV 2 2TQXKPI
EQPUKUVGPE[ HQT ℘8 YKNN UWHHKEG VQ RTQXG EQPUKUVGPE[ HQT 28 DWV KV YKNN KP C UGPUG DG QXGTMKNN
6JG CTIWOGPV VQ VJKU RQKPV KU CP CFCRVCVKQP QH VJG YGNNMPQYP Q R
5MQNGO RCTCFQZ %QORCTG
+P VJG ECUG QH VJG .ÑYGPJGKO$GJOCPP VJGQTGO VJG QTKIKPCN RTQQH YCU EQORCTCVKXGN[
O
GNGOGPVCT[ CPF HQTOCNK\CDNG KP 3 5JQGPHKGNF WUGF C TGUWNV TGNCVGF VQ )GPV\GP U VJGQTGO YJKEJ TGSWKTGU
O
3 6JG QTKIKPCN RTQQH KP %TCKI
WUGF )GPV\GP U VJGQTGO KVUGNH $QQNQU $WTIGUU CPF ,GHHTG[
#EVWCNN[ HQT VJG XGT[ UKORNG NCPIWCIG . VJG EQPUKUVGPE[ QH 6 EQWNF DG RTQXGF OQTG FKTGEVN[
O
VJCP D[ CRRGCN VQ 5JQGPHKGNF U VJGQTGO DWV VJG RTQQH + CO IKXKPI KU QPG VJCV YKNN YQTM YKVJ QVJGT UVCTVKPI
VJGQTKGU VJCP 6
6JQWIJ KV KU CNUQ VTWG VJCV UQ HCT PQ QPG JCU HQWPF C YC[ VQ GZRNQKV VJG GZVTC EQORNKECVKQP CPF
0QVG VJCV VJGTG KU IGPGTCN PQ YC[ VQ FGHKPG GNGOGPVJQQF KP 6 CPF VJGTG JCF DGVVGT PQV DG
DGECWUG KH VJGTG YGTG YG YQWNF JCXG VQ EQPHTQPV ]Z Z ∉ Z_ 6JG FGHKPKVKQP KP
YQTMU QPN[ DGECWUG YG
CTG TGUVTKEVKPI CVVGPVKQP VQ [ HQT YJKEJ
JQNFU )QNFHCTD
RTQXGU 6 WPFGEKFCDNG CPQVJGT
6JKU UGGOU VQ JQNF HQT VJG WUWCN RTQQHVJGQTGVKE RTQQH CU YGNN YJKEJ YQWNF OCMG RQUUKDNG C
O
HKPKVKUVKE RTQQH QH *GEM U EQPUKUVGPE[ TGUWNV DWV UQ HCT PQ QPG JCU RWDNKUJGF C HWNN[ YQTMGFQWV RTQQH 0QVG
O
VJCV WUWCNN[ VJG EQPENWUKQP QH 5JQGPHKGNF U VJGQTGO KU HQTOWNCVGF CU UVCVKPI VJCV VJG CZKQO UEJGOG
OC[
∀:
∀; M M M
:Z ;Z
O
7PHQTVWPCVGN[ 9GJOGKGT U OGVJQF QH RTQQH DCUGF QP CP GZVGPUKQP QH VJG
.ÑYGPJGKO$GJOCPP VJGQTGO FQGU PQV UGGO VQ GZVGPF VQ 28 YKVJ ∆ EQORTGJGPUKQP
6JGKT OGVJQF QH RTQQH UGGOU VQ GZVGPF VQ 6 HQT
P
P VJQWIJ VJG[ FQ PQV GZRNKEKVN[ FKUEWUU
VJG OCVVGT
(QT VJG EQIPQUEGPVK VJG[ WUG VJG $CTYKUG5EJNKRH CRRCTCVWU QH TGEWTUKXGN[ UCVWTCVGF OQFGNU
*QYGXGT KP QVJGT EQPVGZVU VJGTG KU C RTQQHVJGQTGVKE UWDUVKVWVG GXGP HQT CRRNKECVKQPU QH VJKU CRRCTCVWU DWV
UQ HCT PQ QPG JCU RWDNKUJGF C HWNN[ YQTMGFQWV RTQQH QH UWEJ C UWDUVKVWVG KP VJG (TGIGCP EQPVGZV
*#26'4
%
+/24'&+%#6+8' 6*'14+'5
O
$QQNQU
YCU EQPEGTPGF YKVJ (TGIG U KPHQTOCN QWVNKPG KP VJG )TWPFNCIGP 6JCV VJG UCOG
EQPENWUKQP CRRNKGU VQ VJG HQTOCN FGXGNQROGPV KP VJG )TWPFIGUGV\G KU VJG QWVEQOG QH VJG RCKPUVCMKPI
5GG 6GPPCPV
$QQNQU
PQVG *GEM
C D $GNN
6JGTG CTG VYQ
YC[U C HKPKVWFG TGUVTKEVKQP OKIJV DG KORNGOGPVGF GKVJGT D[ OCMKPI HKPKVWFG QH : C EQPFKVKQP HQT VJG
GZKUVGPEG QH CP CDUVTCEV HQT : YKVJ TGURGEV VQ GSWKPWOGTQUKV[ QT D[ EQPUKFGTKPI CDUVTCEVU YKVJ TGURGEV VQ C
EQCTUGT GSWKXCNGPEG CITGGKPI YKVJ GSWKPWOGTQUKV[ HQT HKPKVG : DWV EQWPVKPI CNN KPHKPKVG : CU GSWKXCNGPV 6JG
NCVVGT KORNGOGPVCVKQP FKHHGTU HTQO VJG HQTOGT QPN[ KP UWRRN[KPI CP QDLGEV YJKEJ OC[ DG ECNNGF KPHKPKV[ i
+V OC[ DG OGPVKQPGF VJCV VJG RTGFKECVKXG CPCNQIWG QH Π 2 YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ F[CFKE
#U C JKPV VJG HKTUV UVGR KU VQ UJQY HQT CP[ : D[ KPFWEVKQP QP \ VJCV VJGTG GZKUVU C PWODGT EQFKPI
C UGSWGPEG VJCV NKUVU VJG Z KP VJG KPVGTUGEVKQP QH : CPF 〈\〉 KP KPETGCUKPI QTFGT
0QVG VJG J[RQVJGUKU QP YJKEJ
QPG KU RGTHQTOKPI KPFWEVKQP KPXQNXGU : CU C RCTCOGVGT DWV KPXQNXGU PQ DQWPF UGEQPFQTFGT XCTKCDNGU +H :
KU DQWPFGF YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ EQPVCKPGF KP UQOG 〈\〉 YG VJGP IGV C UGSWGPEG EQFKPI C QPGVQQPG
EQTTGURQPFGPEG DGVYGGP : CPF UQOG 〈[〉 YKVJ [ m \ YJGTGCU KH : KU WPDQWPFGF KV ECP DG UJQYP VJCV VJG
XCTKQWU UGSWGPEGU ECP DG HKV VQIGVJGT VQ IKXG C QPGVQQPG EQTTGURQPFGPEG DGVYGGP 7 CPF :
4GECNNKPI VJCV
YG JCXG CNTGCF[ TGOCTMGF VJCV VJG TGHNGZKXKV[ U[OOGVT[ CPF VTCPUKVKXKV[ QH GSWKPWOGTQUKV[ ECP DG RTQXGF
WUKPI QPN[ RTGFKECVKXG EQORTGJGPUKQP VJKU UJQYU VJCV CNN WPDQWPFGF : CTG GSWKPWOGTQWU 8CTKQWU
6JCV C PQPVTKXKCN COQWPV QH PWODGT VJGQT[ ECP KP C UGPUG DG FQPG GXGP YKVJQWV VJG GZKUVGPEG
QH PWODGTU KU GORJCUK\GF KP C UGTKGU QH RCRGTU D[ #PFTGY $QWEJGT VJCV JCXG CU QH VJG VKOG QH VJKU YTKVKPI
PQV [GV DGGP RWDNKUJGF CPF VJCV ECOG VQ O[ CVVGPVKQP VQQ NCVG VQ DG OCFG WUG QH JGTG 2TGRTKPVU CTG
CXCKNCDNG CV YYYCPFTGYDQWEJGTEQO
6JKU OCMGU
C UWHHKEKGPV EQPFKVKQP HQT PQPKPHNCVKPI 6JG PCVWTCN HQTOWNCVKQP QH PQPKPHNCVKPI
#V VJG UCOG VKOG + YKNN CFF C IQQF FGCN QH DQQMMGGRKPI VQ (KPG U RTQQH VQ VWTP VJG OQFGN O
EQPUVTWEVKQP KPVQ C RTQQH QH KPVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ C VQRKE (KPG FQGU PQV GZRNKEKVN[ CFFTGUU
O
6JKU EJCTCEVGTK\CVKQP UJQWNF DG SWCNKHKGF D[ C TGEQIPKVKQP VJCV (KPG U CRRTQCEJ FQGU KPFKTGEVN[
OCMG UWTTQICVGU HQT EGTVCKP GZVGPUKQPU CXCKNCDNG CU YG JCXG UGGP 6JG Q(KPG UGV VJGQT[ R VQ DG KPVTQFWEGF
+V KU C YGNN MPQYP VJQWIJ PQV RGTJCRU XGT[ YGNN WPFGTUVQQF RJGPQOGPQP QH OCVJGOCVKECN
RU[EJQNQI[ VJCV QHVGP VJG OGTG CPPQWPEGOGPV VJCV C IGPKWU JCU RTQXGF UQOG TGUWNV YKVJQWV CP[ KPFKECVKQP
VQ GPCDNG QT KPURKTG C PQPIGPKWU VQ RTQFWEG C RTQQH QH C RCTVKCN TGUWNV YKVJ UVTQPIGT J[RQVJGUKU CPFQT
KP VJKU UGEVKQP YCU CU OWEJ CU + YCU CDNG VQ YQTM QWV HQT O[UGNH QP NGCTPKPI QH C UVTQPIGT TGUWNV QH *CTXG[
(TKGFOCP YKVJQWV CEVWCNN[ UGGKPI JKU RTQQHU M CPF YKVJQWV CV VJG VKOG DGKPI CYCTG QH VJG GCTNKGT YQTM QH
$GTPC[U KP YJQUG HQQVUVGRU + JCF DGGP WPYKVVKPIN[ HQNNQYKPI CNN VJG YJKNG + CO ITCVGHWN VQ -CK 9GJOGKGT
O
HQT DTKPIKPI $GTPC[U RCRGT VQ O[ CVVGPVKQP VQ 5VGHCP .GWGPDGTIGT HQT JGNR YJKNG + YCU UVTWIINKPI YKVJ VJG
)GTOCP CPF VQ 5QNQOQP (GHGTOCP HQT RQKPVKPI QWV VJCV VJG UVTWIING YCU WPPGEGUUCT[ UKPEG VJGTG GZKUVU CP
'PINKUJ VTCPUNCVKQP
4GCNN[ KP
4 QWIJV VQ DG TGUVTKEVGF VQ TGNCVKQPU UWEJ VJCV 4WX KORNKGU :W CPF :X HQT CNN W CPF
X DWV VJKU VGEJPKECN RQKPV KU KTTGNGXCPV VQ VJG OCKP EQPEGRVWCN KUUWG CPF YKNN DG KIPQTGF DGNQY
1HHKEKCNN[ YG CTG UVKNN YQTMKPI YKVJ OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE UQ VJG F[CFKE
SWCPVKHKGT CPF OGPVKQP QH QTFGTGF RCKTU DWV VJKU VGEJPKECN RQKPV KU KTTGNGXCPV VQ VJG OCKP EQPEGRVWCN KUUWG
+V OC[ DG OGPVKQPGF RCTGPVJGVKECNN[ VJCV OCP[ DWV PQV CNN PGY UGVVJGQTGVKE CZKQOU YQWNF DG
GSWKXCNGPV VQ PGY NQIKECN CZKQOU 6JG VTWVJ QH CP[ EQPLGEVWTG KP PWODGT VJGQT[ GZRTGUUKDNG CU C HQTOWNC ψ
QH HKTUV QT UGEQPFQTFGT 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKE M VJG CTKVJOGVKECN HQTOWNC EQFKPI VJG UVCVGOGPV VJCV ($ KU
EQPUKUVGPV HQT KPUVCPEG M KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ VJG UVCPFCTF CPF JGPEG KPVWKVKXG XCNKFKV[ QH C EGTVCKP
UGEQPFQTFGT HQTOWNC PCOGN[ φ → ψ YJGTG φ KU VJG EQPLWPEVKQP QH CNN VJG PQPNQIKECN CZKQOU QH 2 QH
YJKEJ VJGTG CTG QPN[ HKPKVGN[ OCP[ EQWPVKPI VJG EQORTGJGPUKQP CZKQOU CU NQIKECN TCVJGT VJCP PQPNQIKECN
6JG VTWVJ QH VJG EQPVKPWWO J[RQVJGUKU KU GSWKXCNGPV VQ VJG XCNKFKV[ QH CPQVJGT UGEQPFQTFGT HQTOWNC $WV
$CT*KNNGN ;GJQUJWC Q1P 5[PVCEVKECN %CVGIQTKGU R ,QWTPCN QH 5[ODQNKE .QIKE
$GJOCPP *GKPTKEJ Q $GKVT¼IG \WT #NIGDTC FGT .QIKM KPUDGUQFGTG \WO 'PVUEJGKFWPIURTQDNGO R
/CVJGOCVKUEJG #PPCNGP
$GPCEGTTCH 2CWN Q9JCV 0WODGTU %QWNF 0QV $G R 2JKNQUQRJKECN 4GXKGY 4GRTKPVGF KP
LLLLLLLLLL Q/CVJGOCVKECN 6TWVJR ,QWTPCN QH 2JKNQUQRJ[ 4GRTKPVGF KP $GPCEGTTCH CPF
2WVPCO
LLLLLLLLLL CPF 2WVPCO *KNCT[ 2JKNQUQRJ[ QH /CVJGOCVKEU 5GNGEVGF 4GCFKPIU PF GF
%CODTKFIG %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
$GTPC[U 2CWN Q<WT (TCIG FGT 7PGPFNKEJMGKVUUEJGOCVC KP FGT CZKQOCVKUEJGP /GPIGPNGJTGR KP
'UUC[U QP VJG (QWPFCVKQPU QH /CVJGOCVKEU 'F ;GJQUJWC $CT*KNNGN GV CN ,GTWUCNGO
/CIPGU 2TGUU 6TCPU , $GNN CPF / 2NCPKV\ Q1P VJG 2TQDNGO QH 5EJGOCVC QH +PHKPKV[ KP
#ZKQOCVKE 5GV 6JGQT[R +P 5GVU CPF %NCUUGU 1P VJG 9QTM D[ 2CWN $GTPC[U 'F )GTV /×NNGT
LLLLLLLLLL Q6JG %QPUKUVGPE[ QH (TGIGOU (QWPFCVKQPU QH #TKVJOGVKER +P 1P $GKPI CPF 5C[KPI
'UUC[U HQT 4KEJCTF %CTVYTKIJV 'F , , 6JQOUQP %CODTKFIG /+6 2TGUU 4GRTKPVGF KP
&GOQRQWNQU
4GRTKPVGF KP $QQNQU
KP &GOQRQWNQU
4GRTKPVGF KP $QQNQU
LLLLLLLLLL Q9JGPEG VJG %QPVTCFKEVKQP!R #TKUVQVGNKCP 5QEKGV[ 5WRRNGOGPV 4GRTKPVGF
KP $QQNQU
LLLLLLLLLL C Q!R +P 4GCFKPI 2WVPCO 'F 2GVGT %NCTM CPF $QD *CNG 1ZHQTF
$NCEMYGNN 4GRTKPVGF KP $QQNQU
LLLLLLLLLL D Q6JG #FXCPVCIG QH *QPGUV 6QKN QXGT 6JGHVR +P /CVJGOCVKEU CPF /KPF 'F
#NGZCPFGT )GQTIG 1ZHQTF 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU 4GRTKPVGF KP $QQNQU
LLLLLLLLLL Q1P VJG 2TQQH QH (TGIGOU 6JGQTGOR +P $GPCEGTTCH CPF *KU %TKVKEU 'F #FCO /QTVQP
1ZHQTF $NCEMYGNN 4GRTKPVGF KP $QQNQU
LLLLLLLLLL .QIKE .QIKE CPF .QIKE %CODTKFIG *CTXCTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
LLLLLLLLLL CPF $WTIGUU ,QJP 2 CPF ,GHHTG[ 4KEJCTF % %QORWVCDKNKV[ CPF .QIKE VJ GFKVKQP
%CODTKFIG %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
LLLLLLLLLL CPF *C\GP # 2 Q#TKVJOGVKE CPF 2TGFKECVKXG .QIKER 0QVTG &COG ,QWTPCN QH (QTOCN
.QIKE
LLLLLLLLLL CPF 4QUGP )KFGQP # 5WDLGEV YKVJ 0Q 1DLGEV 5VTCVGIKGU HQT 0QOKPCNKUVKE
+PVGTRTGVCVKQP QH /CVJGOCVKEU 1ZHQTF 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
%JKJCTC %JCTNGU 1PVQNQI[ CPF VJG 8KEKQWU %KTENG 2TKPEKRNG +VJCEC %QTPGNN 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
%QNNKPU )GQTIG ( CPF *CNRGTP , & Q1P VJG +PVGTRTGVCDKNKV[ QH #TKVJOGVKE KP 5GV 6JGQT[R 0QVTG
&COG ,QWTPCN QH (QTOCN .QIKE
%TCKI 9KNNKCO Q6JTGG 7UGU QH VJG *GTDTCPF)GPV\GP 6JGQTGO KP 4GNCVKPI /QFGN 6JGQT[ CPF 2TQQH
6JGQT[R ,QWTPCN QH 5[ODQNKE .QIKE
&GFGMKPF 4KEJCTF 9CU UKPF WPF YCU UQNNGP FKG <CJNGP! $TWPUEJYGKI 8KGYGI 6TCPU 9QQUVGT
9QQFTWHH $GOCP Q6JG 0CVWTG CPF /GCPKPI QH 0WODGTUR +P 'UUC[U QP VJG 6JGQT[ QH
0WODGTU %JKECIQ 1RGP %QWTV
&GOQRQWNQU 9KNNKCO GF (TGIGOU 2JKNQUQRJ[ QH /CVJGOCVKEU %CODTKFIG *CTXCTF 7PKXGTUKV[
2TGUU
&WOOGVV /KEJCGN (TGIG 2JKNQUQRJ[ QH /CVJGOCVKEU %CODTKFIG *CTXCTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
(GHGTOCP 5QNQOQP CPF *GNNOCP )GQHHTG[ Q2TGFKECVKXG (QWPFCVKQPU QH #TKVJOGVKER ,QWTPCN QH
2JKNQUQRJKECN .QIKE
(GTTGKTC (GTPCPFQ ! Q#OGPFKPI (TGIGOU )TWPFIGUGV\G FGT /CVJGOCVKMR 7PRWDNKUJGF /5
LLLLLLLLLL CPF 9GJOGKGT -CK Q1P VJG %QPUKUVGPE[ QH VJG ∆ %# (TCIOGPV QH (TGIGOU
(TGIG )QVVNQD $GITKHHUUEJTKHV GKPG FGT CTKVJOGVKUEJGP PCEJIGDKNFGVG (QTOGNURTCEJG FGU TGKPGP
1ZHQTF $NCEMYGNN
LLLLLLLLLL Q¯DGT 5KPP WPF $GFGWVWPIR <GKVUEJTKHV H×T 2JKNQUQRJKG WPF RJKNQUQRJKUEJG -TKVKM
6TCPU /CZ $NCEM Q1P 5GPUG CPF 4GHGTGPEGR +P )GCEJ CPF $NCEM
LLLLLLLLLL )TWPFIGUGV\G FGT #TKVJOGVKM DGITKHHUUEJTKHVNKEJ CDIGNGKVGV XQNU ,GPC 2QJNG
4GRTKPVGF *KNFGUJGKO 1NOU 2CTVKCN VTCPU 2'$ ,QWTFCKP CPF , 5VCEJGNTQVJ $CUKE .CYU
(TKGFOCP *CTXG[ ! Q5GPVGPVKCN 4GHNGEVKQP CPF 'NGOGPVCN 5GPVGPVKCN 4GHNGEVKQPR 7PRWDNKUJGF /5
)GCEJ 2GVGT 4GXKGY QH / &WOOGVV (TGIG 2JKNQUQRJ[ QH .CPIWCIG /KPF
LLLLLLLLLL CPF $NCEM /CZ GFU 6TCPUNCVKQPU HTQO VJG 9TKVKPIU QH )QVVNQD (TGIG 1ZHQTF
$NCEMYGNN
)QNFHCTD 9CTTGP Q(KTUV1TFGT (TGCIGCP 6JGQT[ KU 7PFGEKFCDNGR ,QWTPCN QH 2JKNQUQRJKECN .QIKE
*CNNGVV /KEJCGN %CPVQTKCP 5GV 6JGQT[ CPF .KOKVCVKQP QH 5K\G 1ZHQTF 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
*CTTKPIVQP .GQ GV CN GFU *CTXG[ (TKGFOCPOU 4GUGCTEJ QP VJG (QWPFCVKQPU QH /CVJGOCVKEU
*GEM ,T 4KEJCTF ) Q1P VJG %QPUKUVGPE[ QH 5GEQPF1TFGT %QPVGZVWCN &GHKPKVKQPUR 0QÖU
LLLLLLLLLL Q6JG &GXGNQROGPV QH #TKVJOGVKE KP (TGIGOU )TWPFIGUGV\G FGT #TKVJOGVKMR ,QWTPCN QH
5[ODQNKE .QIKE 4GRTKPVGF YKVJ C RQUVUETKRV KP &GOQRQWNQU
LLLLLLLLLL Q1P VJG %QPUKUVGPE[ QH 2TGFKECVKXG (TCIOGPVU QH (TGIGOU )TWPFIGUGV\G FGT
#TKVJOGVKM R *KUVQT[ CPF 2JKNQUQRJ[ QH .QIKE
LLLLLLLLLL C Q6JG (KPKVG CPF VJG +PHKPKVG KP (TGIGR +P 2JKNQUQRJ[ QH /CVJGOCVKEU 6QFC[
LLLLLLLLLL D Q(KPKVWFG CPF *WOGOU 2TKPEKRNGR ,QWTPCN QH 2JKNQUQRJKECN .QIKE
*QFGU *CTQNF Q.QIKEKUO CPF VJG 1PVQNQIKECN %QOOKVOGPVU QH #TKVJOGVKER ,QWTPCN QH 2JKNQUQRJ[
*TDCEGM -CTGN CPF ,GEJ 6JQOCU +PVTQFWEVKQP VQ 5GV 6JGQT[ TF GF 0GY ;QTM /CTEGN &GMMGT
-CPCOQTK #MKJKTQ 6JG *KIJGT +PHKPKVG EQTTGEVGF RTKPVKPI $GTNKP 5RTKPIGT
/QPVCIPC (TCPEQ CPF /CPEKPK #PVQPGNNC Q# /KPKOCN 2TGFKECVKXG 5GV 6JGQT[R 0QVTG &COG
,QWTPCN QH (QTOCN .QIKE
/QUVQYUMK #PFT\GL Q5QOG +ORTGFKECVKXG &GHKPKVKQPU KP VJG #ZKQOCVKE 5GV 6JGQT[R (WPFCOGPVC
/CVJGOCVKE¿
0QXCM )CN +NUG Q# %QPUVTWEVKQP QH /QFGNU QH %QPUKUVGPV 5[UVGOUR (WPFCOGPVC /CVJGOCVKE¿
2CTUQPU %JCTNGU Q(TGIGOU 6JGQT[ QH 0WODGTR +P 2JKNQUQRJ[ KP #OGTKEC 'F /CZ $NCEM
+VJCEC %QTPGNN 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU 4GRTKPVGF KP &GOQRQWNQU
2CTUQPU 6GTGPEG Q1P VJG %QPUKUVGPE[ QH VJG (KTUV1TFGT 2QTVKQP QH (TGIGOU .QIKECN 5[UVGOR 0QVTG
&COG ,QWTPCN QH (QTOCN .QIKE 4GRTKPVGF KP &GOQRQWNQU
3WKPG 9 8 Q1P (TGIGOU 9C[ 1WVR /KPF 4GRTKPVGF KP 5GNGEVGF .QIKE 2CRGTU
0GY ;QTM 4CPFQO *QWUG
LLLLLLLLLL /CVJGOCVKECN .QIKE TGXKUGF GF %CODTKFIG *CTXCTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
LLLLLLLLLL Q# $CUKU HQT 0WODGT 6JGQT[ KP (KPKVG %NCUUGUR $WNNGVKP QH VJG #OGTKECP /CVJGOCVKECN
5QEKGV[
4COUG[ ( 2 Q6JG (QWPFCVKQPU QH /CVJGOCVKEUR 2TQEGGFKPIU QH VJG .QPFQP /CVJGOCVKECN 5QEKGV[
4GRTKPVGF KP 6JG (QWPFCVKQPU QH /CVJGOCVKEU 'F 4 $ $TCKVJYCKVG
4QUUGT , $CTMNG[ Q6JG $WTCNK(QTVK 2CTCFQZR ,QWTPCN QH 5[ODQNKE .QIKE
LLLLLLLLLL CPF 9CPI *CQ Q0QP5VCPFCTF /QFGNU HQT (QTOCN .QIKEUR ,QWTPCN QH 5[ODQNKE .QIKE
4WUUGNN $GTVTCPF .GVVGT VQ (TGIG 6TCPU $GXGTN[ 9QQFYCTF +P XCP *GKLGPQQTV
LLLLLLLLLL Q/CVJGOCVKECN .QIKE CU $CUGF QP VJG 6JGQT[ QH 6[RGUR #OGTKECP ,QWTPCN QH
/CVJGOCVKEU 4GRTKPVGF KP XCP *GKLGPQQTV
6GPPCPV 0GKN #PVK4GCNKUO KP .QIKE 6TWVJ CU 'VGTPCN 1ZHQTF 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
7TSWJCTV #NCUFCKT 'FKVQTKCN KPVTQFWEVKQPU VQ %QNNGEVGF 2CRGTU QH $GTVTCPF 4WUUGNN (QWPFCVKQPU
8CP *GKLGPQQTV ,GCP GF (TQO (TGIG VQ )ÑFGN # 5QWTEGDQQM KP /CVJGOCVKECN .QIKE
9CPI *CQ Q6TWVJ &GHKPKVKQPU CPF %QPUKUVGPE[ 2TQQHUR 6TCPUCEVKQPU QH VJG #OGTKECP
/CVJGOCVKECN 5QEKGV[
9GJOGKGT -CK Q%QPUKUVGPV (TCIOGPVU QH VJG )TWPFIGUGV\G CPF VJG 'ZKUVGPEG QH 0QP.QIKECN
1DLGEVUR 5[PVJGUG
9TKIJV %TKURKP (TGIGOU %QPEGRVKQP QH 0WODGTU CU 1DLGEVU #DGTFGGP 5EQVU 2JKNQUQRJKECN
/QPQITCRJU
LLLLLLLLLL CPF *CNG $QD 6JG 4GCUQPOU 2TQRGT 5VWF[ 'UUC[U VQYCTFU C 0GQ(TGIGCP 2JKNQUQRJ[
QH /CVJGOCVKEU 1ZHQTF 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
+PFGZ
)GPGTCNN[ QPN[ VJG HKTUV QEEWTTGPEGU QH VGEJPKECN VGTOU
QT VJG HKTUV KP GCEJ UGPUG YJGTG VJG VGTO
JCU UGXGTCN UGPUGU CTG KPFGZGF DGNQY +VGOU KPFGZGF KP VJG 6#$.'5 CTG PQV KPENWFGF
CDDTGXKCVKQPU UVCVWU QH $GTPC[U UGV VJGQT[ $ (TGIGCPK\GF
CDUVTCEVKQP IGPGTCN VJGQT[ QH $GTPC[U 2CWN P JKU
CDUVTCEVU
HQT CP GSWKXCNGPEG PQVCVKQP " DKEQPFKVKQPCN ↔
CPF h HQT $QODGNNK 4CHCGN
CPF EQOOWVCVKXG NCYU QH $QQNQU $WTIGUU CPF ,GHHTG[ P P
CFFKVKXG EQPEGRV HQTOWNC MGTPGN P P P P
QDLGEV P
CNGRJ\GTQ ℵ
CNGRJQPG ℵ
$QQNQU )GQTIG
HCKNU HQT GZRQPGPVKCVKQP DQWPFGF HQTOWNC 5GG ∆ HQTOWNC
WPFGT EJQKEG KPHKPKV[ TGFWEKDKNKV[ $WTCNK(QTVK %GUCTG JKU RCTCFQZ
DCFEQORCP[ QDLGEVKQP $WTIGUU ,QJP 2
$GJOCPP *GKPTKEJ %CPVQT )GQTI JKU
$GPCEGTTCH 2CWN KZ ECTFKPCNU CPF QTFKPCNU
%CTFCPQ )KTQNCOQ P EQPUVTWEVKDKNKV[ CZKQO QH 8 .
EJQKEG CZKQO QH #% EWVGNKOKPCVKQP VJGQTGO P
P
ENCUUGU &GFGMKPFOU VJGQTGO XGTUKQP ++
EQHKPKVG EQUOCNN &GFGMKPF 4KEJCTF P
CPF WPKQP ∆
EQORTGJGPUKQP P
EQORNGZ XU UKORNG 5GG \KI\CI VJGQT[ FGUETKRVKQPU 4WUUGNNOU VJGQT[ CPF PQVCVKQP ι
EQORTGJGPUKQP HQT UGVU KP FKTGEVKQPU (TGIGOU GZCORNG
GZKUVGPVKCN SWCPVKHKGT ∃ 5GG WPFGT SWCPVKHKGT (TGIG CTKVJOGVKE (# Π
XGTUKQP
GZRQPGPVKCVKQP ↑ FGHKPKVKQP QH KP (TGIGOU VJGQTGO (KPGOU TGHKPGOGPV CPF
GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ HQT EQPEGRVU .KPPGDQ TGHKPGOGPV
GZVGPUKQPU PQVCVKQPU e CPF U CPF ] _ HQT (TGIGOU YC[ QWV
HCKT IQQF XGT[ IQQF GZEGNNGPV P P P JKU
(GTTGKTC (GTPCPFQ P (TGIGCPK\GF $GTPC[U UGV VJGQT[ ($ 5GG WPFGT
(KPG -KV KZ JKU IGPGTCN (TKGFOCP *CTXG[ KZ
HKPKVKUO P HKPKVKUVKE XU KPHKPKVKUVKE )GCEJ 2GVGT P
)TWPFIGUGV\G KPCEEGUUKDNG ECTFKPCNU
*COKNVQP 9KNNKCO P KPFWEVKQP OCVJGOCVKECN CZKQO +
*C\GP # 2 KZ P SWCPVKHKGTHTGG Σ Σ
*GEM 4KEJCTF KZ KPFWEVKXG EQPEGRV HQTOWNC UGV
NQIKE KPLGEVKQP
KPXCTKCPEG FQWDNG PGCT CPF XGT[ .ÑYGPJGKO .GQRQNF
PGCT YKVJ TGURGEV VQ .ÑYGPJGKO$GJOCPP VJGQTGO
UK\G
-TKRMG 5CWN KZ OQFGNU HQT OCP[UQTVGF HKTUVQTFGT CPF HQT
.CY 8 PWOGTKECN 08 ∈OQFGNU *GPMKP OQFGNU
.GKDPK\ ) 9 UVCPFCTF OQFGNU 6CTUMK
.KPPGDQ «[UVGKP KZ JKU /QUVQYUMK #PFT\GL P
NQECN XU INQDCN CZKQO QH EJQKEG CPF EQOOWVCVKXG NCYU QH
NQIKE 5GG HKTUVQTFGT UGEQPFQTFGT JKIJGTQTFGT OWNVKRNKECVKXG EQPEGRV HQTOWNC MGTPGN
KPXCTKCPEG
PCOGU 5GG ECVGIQT[ 0 2GCPQ CTKVJOGVKEU HKTUVQTFGT Π
PCVWTCN
ECPFKFCVG OQFGN QH UGV VJGQT[ XGTUKQP UGEQPFQTFGT
0(
Q0GY (QWPFCVKQPUR RTQFWEV Π EQORTGJGPUKQP
PWOGTKECN SWCPVKHKGTU ∃M 5GG SWCPVKHKGT RQYGT UGV CZKQO NKOKVGF HQTOU ℘P
ω UGV
RTGUGTXCVKQP QH RTGFKECVKXKV[ HKTUV CPF
V[RGU CPF QTFKPCN PWODGTU UGEQPFTQWPF CPF *WOGOU
QTFGTN[ EQPEGRV HQTOWNC MGTPGN UGEQPF FKOGPUKQP QH
RTGUWRRQUKVKQP
TGRTGUGPVCDKNKV[
WPKSWG GZKUVGPEG ∃ 4WUUGNN EQPEGRV HKPKVWFG P
SWCPVKVCVKXG CPF PQP XGTUKQPU QH NKOKVCVKQP QH 4WUUGNN $GTVTCPF
TCPM QH UGV VGTOU ] _ UEJGOG 5GG CZKQO UEJGOG
TGCN PWODGTU R GZVGPFGF P 5EQVVKUJ UEJQQN 5GG 9TKIJV %TKURKP CPF *CNG
UKORNG RTGFKECVKXG 5GG WPFGT RTGFKECVKXG 6GPPCPV 0GKN KZ
5MQNGO RCTCFQZ P VTCPUHKPKVG ECTFKPCNU CPF QTFKPCNU
UWKVCDKNKV[ UVTQPI YGCM WPKXGTUCN SWCPVKHKGT ∀ 5GG WPFGT SWCPVKHKGT
UWO 5GG CFFKVKQP WPUCVWTCVGF 5GG UCVWTCVGF XU WPUCVWTCVGF
YGNNQTFGT
9JKVGJGCF # 0
\GTQRNCEG U[ODQNU