Digestion is the breaking down of chemicals in the body, into a form that can be absorbed.

It is
also the process by which the body breaks down chemicals into smaller components that can be
absorbed by the blood stream. In mammals, preparation for digestion begins with the cephalic
phase in which saliva is produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the
stomach. Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth where food is chewed, and
mixed with saliva to break down starches. The stomach continues to break food down
mechanically and chemically through the churning of the stomach and mixing with enzymes.
Absorption occurs in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract, and the process finishes with
defecation.[1] In a healthy human adult this process can take between 24 and 72 hours.

Contents
[hide]

 1 Overview
 2 Human digestion process
o 2.1 Phases of gastric secretion
o 2.2 Oral cavity
o 2.3 Esophagus
o 2.4 Stomach
o 2.5 Small intestine
o 2.6 Large intestine
o 2.7 Fat digestion
o 2.8 Digestive hormones
o 2.9 Significance of pH in digestion
 3 Specialized organs and behaviors in non-human animals
 4 See also
 5 Footnotes
 6 References
 7 External links

[edit] Overview
In most vertebrates, digestion is a multi-stage process in the digestive system, starting from
ingestion of raw materials, most often other organisms. The process of ingestion usually involves
some type of mechanical and chemical processing. Digestion is separated into four steps:

1. Ingestion: placing food into the mouth(entry of food in the digestive system)
2. Mechanical and chemical breakdown: mastication and the mixing of the resulting food
bolus with water, acids, bile and enzymes in the stomach and intestine to break down
complex molecules into simple structures
3. Absorption: of nutrients from the digestive system to the circulatory and lymphatic
capillaries through osmosis, active transport, and diffusion
 4. Egestion: Removal of undigested materials from the digestive tract through defecation

Underlying the process is muscle movement throughout the system through swallowing and
peristalsis.

The major part of the digestive process takes place in the small intestine.

The whole digestive system is around 9 metres long.

[edit] Human digestion process

[edit] Phases of gastric secretion

 Cephalic phase - This phase occurs before food enters the stomach and involves
preparation of the body for eating and digestion. Sight and thought stimulate the cerebral
cortex. Taste and smell stimulus is sent to the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata.
After this it is routed through the vagus nerve and release of acetylcholine. Gastric
secretion at this phase rises to 40% of maximum rate. Acidity in the stomach is not
buffered by food at this point and thus acts to inhibit parietal (secretes acid) and G cell
(secretes gastrin) activity via D cell secretion of somatostatin.
 Gastric phase - This phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distention of the
stomach, presence of food in stomach and increase in pH. Distention activates long and
myentric reflexes. This activates the release of acetylcholine which stimulates the release
of more gastric juices. As protein enters the stomach, it binds to hydrogen ions, which
raises the pH of the stomach to around pH 6. Inhibition of gastrin and HCl secretion is
lifted. This triggers G cells to release gastrin, which in turn stimulates parietal cells to
secrete HCl. HCl release is also triggered by acetylcholine and histamine.
 Intestinal phase - This phase has 2 parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially-
digested food fills the duodenum. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released.
Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activating sympathetic fibers causing the
pyloric sphincter to tighten to prevent more food from entering, and inhibits local
reflexes.

[edit] Oral cavity

Main article: Mouth (human)

In humans, digestion begins in the oral cavity where food is chewed. Saliva is secreted in large
amounts (1-1.5 litres/day) by three pairs of exocrine salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and
sublingual) in the oral cavity, and is mixed with the chewed food by the tongue. There are two
types of saliva. One is a thin, watery secretion, and its purpose is to wet the food. The other is a
thick, mucous secretion, and it acts as a lubricant and causes food particles to stick together and
form a bolus. The saliva serves to clean the oral cavity and moisten the food, and contains
digestive enzymes such as salivary amylase, which aids in the chemical breakdown of
polysaccharides such as starch into disaccharides such as maltose. It also contains mucin, a
glycoprotein which helps soften the food into a bolus.

Swallowing transports the chewed food into the esophagus, passing through the oropharynx and
hypopharynx. The mechanism for swallowing is coordinated by the swallowing center in the
medulla oblongata and pons. The reflex is initiated by touch receptors in the pharynx as the bolus
of food is pushed to the back of the mouth.

[edit] Esophagus

Main article: Esophagus

The esophagus is a narrow muscular tube about 25 centimeters long which starts at pharynx at
the back of the mouth, passes through the thoracic diaphragm, and ends at the cardiac orifice of
the stomach. The wall of the esophagus is made up of two layers of smooth muscles, which form
a continuous layer from the esophagus to the open and contract slowly, over long periods of
time. The inner layer of muscles is arranged circularly in a series of descending rings, while the
outer layer is arranged longitudinally. At the top of the esophagus, is a flap of tissue called the
epiglottis that closes during swallowing to prevent food from entering the trachea (windpipe).
The chewed food is pushed down the esophagus to the stomach through peristaltic contraction of
these muscles. It takes only about seven seconds for food to pass through the esophagus and no
digestion takes place.

[edit] Stomach

Main article: Stomach

The stomach is a small,'C'-shaped pouch with walls made of thick, elastic muscles, which stores
and helps break down food. Food enters the stomach through the cardiac orifice where it is
further broken apart and thoroughly mixed with gastric acid, pepsin and other digestive enzymes
to break down proteins. The acid itself does not break down food molecules, rather it provides an
optimum pH for the reaction of the enzyme pepsin and kills many microorganisms that are
ingested with the food. The parietal cells of the stomach also secrete a glycoprotein called
intrinsic factor which enables the absorption of vitamin B-12. Other small molecules such as
alcohol are absorbed in the stomach, passing through the membrane of the stomach and entering
the circulatory system directly. Food in the stomach is in semi-liquid form, which upon
completion is known as chyme.

The transverse section of the alimentary canal reveals four distinct and well developed layers
within the stomach:

 Serous membrane, a thin layer of mesothelial cells that is the outermost wall of the
stomach.
 Muscular coat, a well-developed layer of muscles used to mix ingested food, composed
of three sets running in three different alignments. The outermost layer runs parallel to
the vertical axis of the stomach (from top to bottom), the middle is concentric to the axis
 (horizontally circling the stomach cavity) and the innermost oblique layer, which is
responsible for mixing and breaking down ingested food, runs diagonal to the
longitudinal axis. The inner layer is unique to the stomach, all other parts of the digestive
tract have only the first two layers.
 Submucosa, composed of connective tissue that links the inner muscular layer to the
mucosa and contains the nerves, blood and lymph vessels.
 Mucosa is the extensively folded innermost layer filled with connective tissue and
covered in gastric glands that may be simple or branched tubular, and secret mucus,
hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen and renin. The mucus lubricates the food and also prevents
hydrochloric acid from acting on the walls of the stomach.

[edit] Small intestine

Main article: Small intestine

After being processed in the stomach, food is passed to the small intestine via the pyloric
sphincter. The majority of digestion and absorption occurs here after the milky chyme enters the
duodenum. Here it is further mixed with three different liquids:

 Bile, which emulsifies fats to allow absorption, neutralizes the chyme and is used to
excrete waste products such as bilin and bile acids.
 Pancreatic juice made by the pancreas.
 Intestinal enzymes of the alkaline mucosal membranes. The enzymes include maltase,
lactase and sucrase (all three of which process only sugars), trypsin and chymotrypsin.

As the pH level changes in the small intestines and gradually becomes basic, more enzymes are
activated further that chemically break down various nutrients into smaller molecules to allow
absorption into the circulatory or lymphatic systems. Small, finger-like structures called villi,
each of which is covered with even smaller hair-like structures called microvilli improve the
absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area of the intestine and enhancing speed at
which nutrients are absorbed. Blood containing the absorbed nutrients is carried away from the
small intestine via the hepatic portal vein and goes to the liver for filtering, removal of toxins,
and nutrient processing.

The small intestine and remainder of the digestive tract undergoes peristalsis to transport food
from the stomach to the rectum and allow food to be mixed with the digestive juices and
absorbed. The circular muscles and longitudinal muscles are antagonistic muscles, with one
contracting as the other relaxes. When the circular muscles contract, the lumen becomes
narrower and longer and the food is squeezed and pushed forward. When the longitudinal
muscles contract, the circular muscles relax and the gut dilates to become wider and shorter to
allow food to enter.

[edit] Large intestine

Main article: Large intestine

After the food has been passed through the small intestine, the food enters the large intestine.
The large intestine is roughly 1.5 meters long, with three parts: the cecum at the junction with the
small intestine, the colon, and the rectum. The colon itself has four parts: the ascending colon,
the transverse colon, the descending colon, and the sigmoid colon. The large intestine absorbs
water from the bolus and stores feces until it can be egested. Food products that cannot go
through the villi, such as cellulose (dietary fiber), are mixed with other waste products from the
body and become hard and concentrated feces. The feces is stored in the rectum for a certain
period and then the stored feces is egested due to the contraction and relaxation through the anus.
The exit of this waste material is regulated by the anal sphincter.

[edit] Fat digestion

The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones which stimulate the release of
lipase from the pancreas and bile from the gallbladder. The lipase (activated by acid) breaks
down the fat into monoglycerides and fatty acids. The bile emulsifies the fatty acids so they may
be easily absorbed.

Short- and some medium chain fatty acids are absorbed directly into the blood via intestine
capillaries and travel through the portal vein just as other absorbed nutrients do. However, long
chain fatty acids and some medium chain fatty acids are too large to be directly released into the
tiny intestinal capillaries. Instead they are absorbed into the fatty walls of the intestine villi and
reassembled again into triglycerides. The triglycerides are coated with cholesterol and protein
(protein coat) into a compound called a chylomicron.

Within the villi, the chylomicron enters a lymphatic capillary called a lacteal, which merges into
larger lymphatic vessels. It is transported via the lymphatic system and the thoracic duct up to a
location near the heart (where the arteries and veins are larger). The thoracic duct empties the
chylomicrons into the bloodstream via the left subclavian vein. At this point the chylomicrons
can transport the triglycerides to where they are needed.

[edit] Digestive hormones

There are at least four hormones that aid and regulate the digestive system:

 Gastrin - is in the stomach and stimulates the gastric glands to secrete pepsinogen(an
inactive form of the enzyme pepsin) and hydrochloric acid. Secretion of gastrin is
stimulated by food arriving in stomach. The secretion is inhibited by low pH .
 Secretin - is in the duodenum and signals the secretion of sodium bicarbonate in the
pancreas and it stimulates the bile secretion in the liver. This hormone responds to the
acidity of the chyme.
 Cholecystokinin (CCK) - is in the duodenum and stimulates the release of digestive
enzymes in the pancreas and stimulates the emptying of bile in the gall bladder. This
hormone is secreted in response to fat in chyme.
 Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) - is in the duodenum and decreases the stomach churning
in turn slowing the emptying in the stomach. Another function is to induce insulin
secretion.
[edit] Significance of pH in digestion

Digestion is a complex process which is controlled by several factors. pH plays a crucial role in a
normally functioning digestive tract. In the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus, pH is typically about
6.8, very weakly acidic. Saliva controls pH in this region of the digestive tract. Salivary amylase
is contained in saliva and starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into monosaccharides. Most
digestive enzymes are sensitive to pH and will not function in a low-pH environment like the
stomach. A pH below 7 indicates an acid, while a pH above 7 indicates a base; the concentration
of the acid or base, however, does also play a role.

pH in the stomach is very acidic and inhibits the breakdown of carbohydrates while there. The
strong acid content of the stomach provides two benefits, both serving to denature proteins for
further digestion in the small intestines, as well as providing non-specific immunity, retarding or
eliminating various pathogens.

In the small intestines, the duodenum provides critical pH balancing to activate digestive
enzymes. The liver secretes bile into the duodenum to neutralise the acidic conditions from the
stomach. Also the pancreatic duct empties into the duodenum, adding bicarbonate to neutralize
the acidic chyme, thus creating a neutral environment. The mucosal tissue of the small intestines
is alkaline, creating a pH of about 8.5, thus enabling absorption in a mild alkaline in the
environment.

[edit] Specialized organs and behaviors in non-human

animals
Organisms have evolved specialized organs to aid in the digestion of their food, modifying
tongues, teeth, and other organs to assist in digestion. Certain insects may have a crop or
enlarged esophagus, while birds and cockroaches have developed gizzards to assist in the
digestion of tough materials. Herbivores have evolved cecums (or an abomasum in the case of
ruminants) to break down cellulose in plants.

Other animals, such as rabbits and rodents, practice coprophagia behaviors - eating specialized
feces in order to re-digest food, especially in the case of roughage.

The enzymes in the stomach also have an optimum, meaning that they work at a specific PH and
temperature better than any others.

Human Digestive System Human Anatomy

 The human digestive system is
a complex series of organs and
glands that processes food. In
order to use the food we eat,
our body has to break the food
down into smaller molecules
that it can process; it also has
to excrete waste.

Most of the digestive organs

(like the stomach and
intestines) are tube-like and
contain the food as it makes its
way through the body. The
digestive system is essentially
a long, twisting tube that runs
from the mouth to the anus,
plus a few other organs (like
the liver and pancreas) that
produce or store digestive chemicals.

The Digestive Process:

The start of the process - the mouth: The digestive process begins in the mouth.
Food is partly broken down by the process of chewing and by the chemical action of
salivary enzymes (these enzymes are produced by the salivary glands and break down
starches into smaller molecules).

On the way to the stomach: the esophagus - After being chewed and swallowed, the
food enters the esophagus. The esophagus is a long tube that runs from the mouth to
the stomach. It uses rhythmic, wave-like muscle movements (called peristalsis) to
force food from the throat into the stomach. This muscle movement gives us the
ability to eat or drink even when we're upside-down.

In the stomach - The stomach is a large, sack-like organ that churns the food and
batheS it in a very strong acid (gastric acid). Food in the stomach that is partly
digested and mixed with stomach acids is called chyme.

In the small intestine - After being in the stomach, food enters the duodenum, the
first part of the small intestine. It then enters the jejunum and then the ileum (the final
part of the small intestine). In the small intestine, bile (produced in the liver and stored
in the gall bladder), pancreatic enzymes, and other digestive enzymes produced by the
inner wall of the small intestine help in the breakdown of food.

In the large intestine - After passing through the small intestine, food passes into the
large intestine. In the large intestine, some of the water and electrolytes (chemicals
like sodium) are removed from the food. Many microbes (bacteria like Bacteroides,
Lactobacillus acidophilus, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella) in the large intestine help
in the digestion process. The first part of the large intestine is called the cecum (the
appendix is connected to the cecum). Food then travels upward in the ascending
colon. The food travels across the abdomen in the transverse colon, goes back down
the other side of the body in the descending colon, and then through the sigmoid
colon.

The end of the process - Solid waste is then stored in the rectum until it is excreted
via the anus.

Digestive System Glossary:

anus - the opening at the end of the digestive system from which feces (waste) exits
the body.
appendix - a small sac located on the cecum.
ascending colon - the part of the large intestine that run upwards; it is located after
the cecum.
bile - a digestive chemical that is produced in the liver, stored in the gall bladder, and
secreted into the small intestine.
cecum - the first part of the large intestine; the appendix is connected to the cecum.
chyme - food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids.
Chyme goes on to the small intestine for further digestion.
descending colon - the part of the large intestine that run downwards after the
transverse colon and before the sigmoid colon.
duodenum - the first part of the small intestine; it is C-shaped and runs from the
stomach to the jejunum.
epiglottis - the flap at the back of the tongue that keeps chewed food from going
down the windpipe to the lungs. When you swallow, the epiglottis automatically
closes. When you breathe, the epiglottis opens so that air can go in and out of the
windpipe.
esophagus - the long tube between the mouth and the stomach. It uses rhythmic
muscle movements (called peristalsis) to force food from the throat into the stomach.
gall bladder - a small, sac-like organ located by the duodenum. It stores and releases
bile (a digestive chemical which is produced in the liver) into the small intestine.
ileum - the last part of the small intestine before the large intestine begins.
jejunum - the long, coiled mid-section of the small intestine; it is between the
duodenum and the ileum.
liver - a large organ located above and in front of the stomach. It filters toxins from
the blood, and makes bile (which breaks down fats) and some blood proteins.
mouth - the first part of the digestive system, where food enters the body. Chewing
and salivary enzymes in the mouth are the beginning of the digestive process
(breaking down the food).
pancreas - an enzyme-producing gland located below the stomach and above the
intestines. Enzymes from the pancreas help in the digestion of carbohydrates, fats and
proteins in the small intestine.
peristalsis - rhythmic muscle movements that force food in the esophagus from the
throat into the stomach. Peristalsis is involuntary - you cannot control it. It is also
what allows you to eat and drink while upside-down.
rectum - the lower part of the large intestine, where feces are stored before they are
excreted.
salivary glands - glands located in the mouth that produce saliva. Saliva contains
enzymes that break down carbohydrates (starch) into smaller molecules.
sigmoid colon - the part of the large intestine between the descending colon and the
rectum.
stomach - a sack-like, muscular organ that is attached to the esophagus. Both
chemical and mechanical digestion takes place in the stomach. When food enters the
stomach, it is churned in a bath of acids and enzymes.
transverse colon - the part of the large intestine that runs horizontally across the
abdomen.

How is the digestive process controlled?

Hormone Regulators

The major hormones that control the functions of the digestive system are produced and released
by cells in the mucosa of the stomach and small intestine. These hormones are released into the
blood of the digestive tract, travel back to the heart and through the arteries, and return to the
digestive system where they stimulate digestive juices and cause organ movement.

The main hormones that control digestion are gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin (CCK):

 Gastrin causes the stomach to produce an acid for dissolving and digesting some foods. Gastrin
is also necessary for normal cell growth in the lining of the stomach, small intestine, and colon.
 Secretin causes the pancreas to send out a digestive juice that is rich in bicarbonate. The
bicarbonate helps neutralize the acidic stomach contents as they enter the small intestine.
Secretin also stimulates the stomach to produce pepsin, an enzyme that digests protein, and
stimulates the liver to produce bile.
 CCK causes the pancreas to produce the enzymes of pancreatic juice, and causes the gallbladder
to empty. It also promotes normal cell growth of the pancreas.
Additional hormones in the digestive system regulate appetite:

 Ghrelin is produced in the stomach and upper intestine in the absence of food in the digestive
system and stimulates appetite.
 Peptide YY is produced in the digestive tract in response to a meal in the system and inhibits
appetite.

Both of these hormones work on the brain to help regulate the intake of food for energy.
Researchers are studying other hormones that may play a part in inhibiting appetite, including
glucagon-like peptide-1 (GPL-1), oxyntomodulin (+ ), and pancreatic polypeptide.