Running head: EFFECT OF SMARTPHONES ON EDUCATION AND THINKING

The Effect of Smartphones on Adolescent Education and Thinking

Rebecca A. Schwartz

ETD 624 – Fall 2019

Saginaw Valley State University

EFFECT OF SMARTPHONES ON EDUCATION AND THINKING 2

Abstract

At the end of the second decade of the 21st century, no one object changed the developed world

more than the internet and smartphones. As more and more adolescents became smartphone

owners and imersed themselves in the interment and digital life, startling themes became

apparent. A body of research had been conducted about the question: What effect does the use of

smartphones have changing modern education and on thinking? In that research, multiple themes

emerged: changes in education both positive and negative, sleep disruption, cognitive

distraction/multitasking and changes in thinking, mental health/anxiety, and addiction.

Additionally, conclusions and suggestions were made about going forward.

Keywords: Smartphones, adolescents, education, anxiety, classrooms, thinking, and mental

health
EFFECT OF SMARTPHONES ON EDUCATION AND THINKING 3

Table of Contents

Abstract .....................................................................................................................................2

Introduction ...............................................................................................................................4

Changes in Education Both Positive and Negative ......................................................................5

Sleep Disruption ....................................................................................................................... 10

Cognitive Distraction and Changes in Thinking ........................................................................ 11

Mental health/Anxiety .............................................................................................................. 13

Addiction .................................................................................................................................. 15

Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 16

References ............................................................................................................................... 17
EFFECT OF SMARTPHONES ON EDUCATION AND THINKING 4

Introduction

In human history, there always had been objects and inventions that changed the world as

those people had known it. Inventions that so profoundly integrated into human exitances that

future generations would never again appreciate the gravity of what those objects were or how

those inventions altered life as it was known at that time. By the end of the second decade of the

21st century, no one object changed the developed world more than the internet and smartphones.

Anshari, Almunawar, Shahrill, Wicaksono, and Huda (2017) defined a smartphone as “a mobile

phone that can perform many asks and computations like a personal computer” (p.3064). In

2019, adolescents had become defined by those two inventions. In no previous decade, had any

invention become so interwoven into the lives of the most impressionable group.

In 2019 it marked a point where 95% of teens (ages 13 to 17) had access to smartphones

and 45% of them described themselves as almost constantly on the internet (Schaeffer, 2019).

When surveyed, the teens responded with the following being their top reasons for being on their

smartphones: “just passing time, connecting with other people, learning new things, and avoiding

interaction with people” (Schaeffer, 2019). The 21st century teenager had unevenly arrived at a

crossroad. One where experts did not have answers, but only continued to study the results of

what smartphones had been doing to adolescents and how they had changed modern education.

A body of research had been conducted about the question: What effect did the use of

smartphones have changing modern education and on thinking? In that research, multiple themes

emerged: changes in education both positive and negative, sleep disruption, cognitive

distraction/multitasking and changes in thinking, mental health/anxiety, and addiction. Each

theme that had appeared in the research was examined in more detail in this paper. Though the

research often created more questions than supplied answers, it had become clear by 2019, that
EFFECT OF SMARTPHONES ON EDUCATION AND THINKING 5

smartphones had forever changed the way adolescents (who had always grown up with them) in

their education system and the way they thought forever.

Changes in Education Both Positive and Negative

One reason smartphones had become such a powerful force in the world of education was

students, “use the technology that is native to them – the phones, the apps, and the mobile

operating system they use day in, and day out” (Heick, 2018). Readily affordable by most

homes, these devices became teenagers primary learning tool in the classroom. Heick (2018)

stated, “Learners can access other learners, information, experts, and mentors at any time—their

own pace, through their own chosen social media platforms, in a way that is comfortable and

useful to them” and anytime they are unsure where to start, they have a powerful tool to create a

“base of prior knowledge” (Heick, 2018). That shift had created an unknown world in education.

Teachers were no longer the gateway to knowledge. What was once a respected craft of dolling

out information as the instructor, needed to change, because students already had access to most

prior knowledge by a few taps and swipes. However, when the incorporation of smartphones in

classroom settings and in education began, powerful opportunities for engagement had become

apparent.

For example, the subject of science began to receive a face-lift as the result of

smartphones. Student engagement with the science subjects had been on a decline (Gordon,

Georgiou, Cornish, & Sharma, 2019). For a long time, science had been viewed in education as

collection of facts and vocabulary, however, what was being left out were the inquiry based ideas

and spirits that drove science as a field (Gordon, Georgiou, Cornish, & Sharma, 2019). By

choosing to incorporate smartphones educators had found that it created opportunities for
EFFECT OF SMARTPHONES ON EDUCATION AND THINKING 6

students to create their own data collection systems and measurement tools which had sparked

new interest and relevance in the investigation aspect of science (Gordon, Georgiou, Cornish, &

Sharma, 2019). As a result of the learning opportunities like the one documented above, and the

fact that smartphones were in almost every students’ hands, schools were faced with the

challenge of what to do with them. However, the decisions made were hardly unanimous and a

push/pull paradox with smartphones had begun.

As helpful as smartphones had proven to be, they also proved to be a great distraction as

well, which created a divide in student attentions. Dodson (2019) was a study that had collected

data from Kentucky principals, reported that:

More than half (58%) of respondents said that their students are allowed to bring

and use smart phones at school. Almost all Kentucky principals (94%) said that

schools should have strictly enforced guidelines for student use of smart phones

during school hours. Nearly 9 out of 10 (89%) said their school has strictly

enforced guidelines for student use of smart phones during school hours.

Principals were asked what current guidelines are used for student use of smart

phones during school hours. The most common response (131) was that smart

phones are allowed in class if the teacher permits them. Comments included:

“Teacher discretion in class;” “Teacher discretion - if a teacher says they can use

it - then they can;” and “Off during school hours unless directed to use by a

teacher.” However, only 71 of these responses include getting teacher permission

for educational or instructional purposes. (p. 35)

And the second most common response had been that smartphones were only allowed during

breaks or lunch, but of sight any other times (Dodson, 2019). Some of the principals in the study
EFFECT OF SMARTPHONES ON EDUCATION AND THINKING 7

also cited smartphones as a major distraction or that they wanted students to only use them for

research (Dodson, 2019). The Dodson (2019) study brought up a large concern the education

world had with smartphones. The education world had been ill equipped to handle this new

device/invention in the world.

Still the promise of what devices could have brought to classrooms pushed schools to

create bring your own device (BYOD) policies or provide devices for students in an attempt at

equity and control over the technologies that were being brought into the buildings in a 1-to-1

policy. This was not a phenomenon at was isolated to the United States and the challenges of

such policies were plentiful. In the Selwyn, Nemorin, Bulfin, and Johnson (2017) study

researchers collected data from three Australian high schools and one of the reoccurring issues

with tis prevalence of technology and an environment where technology is actively encourages

was:

Of course, no teacher is able to enforce complete compliance and full productivity

across a class of 25 students. As noted above, students’ in-class device use was

not a guarantee of immersion in their work. This is not to say that students were

constantly using devices to disengage from classwork. Instead, students’ off-task

use of devices in lessons was more complex than simply ‘working’ or ‘not

working’. For example, devices were often used by students in ancillary roles.

These practices were not disruptive or disengaged per se but part of a multi-

tasking mode of working. Laptop-using students would work in class with an

array of open windows that were work-related and non-work-related. These

different windows would be flicked between from tab to tab. Similarly, students

using smartphones and tablets would swipe between a variety of different apps
EFFECT OF SMARTPHONES ON EDUCATION AND THINKING 8

that often included work-related applications such as online dictionaries,

translators, calculators, Wikipedia, and messaging tools. (p 8-9).

The role of this “multitasking” was examined later in this paper. However, this

distracted/multitasking work did not stop schools from using smart phones. Even universities

began understanding the role smartphones could play in their classes, “Some discussions or idea

generations can be enhanced using a social network, which are accessible using smartphones, in

a class to attract more participation from the students” (Anshari, Almunawar, Shahrill,

Wicaksono, & Huda, 2017). The Anshari, Almunawar, Shahrill, Wicaksono, and Huda (2017)

study also noted that students found it easy to have documents to pull up on their smartphones if

they had forgotten them or how convenient and quick taking note on them had become (p. 3072).

And flipped learning had become more popular because studies examining it, like Abumaid and

Abu-Kalifed (2019), claimed that it, “left a positive impact on learners and the educator as well.

Learners showed a high level of motivation and enthusiasm while experiencing this mode of

learning” (p. 778). Flipped learning was defined as, “learning by which learners are introduced to

learning material online five days before the class time that is devoted for learners to apply

gained knowledge, find answers for questions and inquiries they have, and have solutions for

application problems they face” (Abuhmaid & Abu-Khalifeh, 2019). Positives like higher

engagement, convince, and the multitude of tools were the rewards given to schools, students,

and educators were smartphones were used.

However, despite being powerful aides for the educational process, negatives came up as

well. Issues such as social media drama, cyberbullying, and privacy became major flaws in

smartphone and technology policies all over the world (Heick, 2018). The distractibility of

having a device that could literally preform hundreds of tasks at once had become the greatest
EFFECT OF SMARTPHONES ON EDUCATION AND THINKING 9

blessing and curse of educators. Additionally, the idea of collecting data on apps or software on

mobile devices had at one time been called into question as a valid assessment format or means

of data collection (Tuncer, 2017). Teachers had to start weighing in on the issue. Again, the

response was not cut and dry. While some banned phones, organizations like the National

Education Association (NEA) were looking to veteran teachers on how they had handled

smartphones (Graham, n.d.). Graham interviewed veteran teacher Ken Halla who handed over

the advice of ensuring academic processes with smartphones, using them as assessment tools and

engagers, and allow fun to naturally move towards productivity (Graham, n.d.).

Though banning smartphones proved to be the easier cut and dry option when it came to

classroom/school discipline, experts disagreed with that policy. Stanford professor, Antero

Garcia, had been interviewed by Carrie Spector (2018) argued we should have trained/taught

adolescents to be like adults, and banning smartphones for them was wrong, “as adults, our

relationship with technology isn’t going to be that way.” Though Garcia acknowledged the

difficult nature that was classroom management, it is about shared control of the learning and

education for mindful practices with technology were needed rather than forced avoidance

(Spector 2018).

The complex changes the education system had faced from smartphone’s role in the

classroom was only just beginning. Several more themes that would affect adolescent education

emerged in the examination of research related to this topic. More problems emerged and the

question of just how much smartphones were affecting all people’s, and not just adolescent’s,

ability to think became a concern.

EFFECT OF SMARTPHONES ON EDUCATION AND THINKING 10

Sleep Disruption

It had become knowledge for some time that if human beings did not get enough sleep,

they cannot perform at peak cognitive functions. Human brains needed sleep in order to engaged

effectively in school and the many other tasks that adolescents need to do. Smartphone had

begun to effect adolescents’ ability to sleep, which in turn effects their ability to think and

preform at peak capacity during e school day. Two studies, Lemola, Perkson-Gloor, Brand,

Dewald-Kaufmann, and Grob (2015) and Schweizer, Berctold Barrense-Dias, Akre, and Suris

(2017) found data to support that teenagers with smartphones are getting less sleep. Schweizer,

Berctold Barrense-Dias, Akre, and Suris (2017) explained that

Two main mechanisms have been described to explain media use impact on sleep

disturbance. First, media use in the evenings may increase mental, emotional, or

physiological arousal associated with playing computer games or social

interactions (through texting, Facebook, etc.) making it more difficult to fall

asleep. Second, exposure to the bright light from screens may suppress melatonin

and consequently delay the circadian rhythm. (p. 135)

That same study also reported that new-owners of smartphones the most, and adolescents often

fell into that category (Schweizer, Berctold Barrense-Dias, Akre, and Suris, 2017). Though teens

with parent who had set their bedtimes were affected the least. (Schweizer, Berctold Barrense-

Dias, Akre, and Suris, 2017). Lemola, Perkson-Gloor, Brand, Dewald-Kaufmann, and Grob’s

(2015) study, found similar results two years earlier, however, found a more disturbing factor,

“Sleep disturbance in turn appears to be a partial mediator of the relationship between electronic

media use at night and depressive symptoms” (p. 416). Depressive symptoms had also been
EFFECT OF SMARTPHONES ON EDUCATION AND THINKING 11

established to effect thought patterns and the brain’s ability to function. Though the data used in

both studies had been self-reported, it still provided results that showed concerning results.

Cognitive Distraction/Multitasking and Changes in Thinking

Ultimately, “cognitive capacity is critical for helping us learn, reason, and develop

creative ideas” (Duke, Ward, Gneezy, and Bos, 2018). Those were all factors needed to be

successful in school. In Duke, Ward, Gzeezy, and Bos (2018) study that look at how participants

preformed in cognitively complex tasks while either having their cell phones face down in front

of them, in their pockets or bags, or in another room (all phones ad been silenced) found that the

group that preformed the best, were those whose phone had been placed in a different room.

Smartphones had the ability to distract participants just by being close by (Duke, Ward, Gneezy,

& and Bos, 2018).

Despite what popular culture believed, people cannot multi-task (Brueck, 2019). Though

our smartphones, which were computers could switch seamlessly from task-to-task, the human

brain could only focus on one task at a time. In fact, “every time we pause to answer a new

notification or get an alert from a different app on our phone, we're being interrupted, and with

that interruption we pay a price: something called a ‘switch cost’” (Brueck, 2019). It had been

estimated that switching tasks back and forth could have used to 40% of our productive brain

time and each time we switched, we also flooded out brain full of cortisol, a stress hormone

(Brueck, 2019). Adolescents were particularly at risk because they often already had trouble

focusing and now had an object that could seamlessly do many asks at once.

Additionally, smartphones had caused a massive change in how humans think. We had

stopped relying on our brains for simple functions and let out smartphones replace that. For
EFFECT OF SMARTPHONES ON EDUCATION AND THINKING 12

example, research found that people who had relied on GPS to get around had less activity and

gray matter volume in the hippocampus region of their brain —an area important for

memory consolidation” and that people tended to have worse memory recall when they knew

information was stored online or their computer (Heid, 2017). Teens no longer saw certain

knowledge or tasks as relevant since their smartphones can do it for them, allowing parts of the

brain to not develop properly or develop differently than what society had seen to that point.

This of course led to a dangerous dynamic. Humans wanted to use their smartphones and

technology to help with busy lives, but of course were going further down that rabbit hole.

Adolescents especially were not ready for this false multitasking ability and change in how our

brains were functioning. The fact that smartphones were small and portable, humans started

using them during down times, not giving their brains any chance to wander, which was a

problem. When human brains wander, they can reflect and think about things because the brain

as freedom to roam. This meant human’s brains became, “more inclined to look for stuff in

our environment to entertain us, instead of thinking about the longer -term and broader

and ethical and deeper considerations we would otherwise be having” and people began

to deprive their brains of the ability to create and develop rich talents and skills (Heid,

2017).

Smartphones also changed the way adolescents, and really all people socialized.

Adolescents were connecting with others virtually instead of talking with them face-to-face,

something our brains thrive from. Data from a United States research and survey group called,

PEW, already reported that teens were using phones to avoid social interactions (Schaeffer,

2019). While there were good social interaction, brains became flooded with dopamine, a

chemical in our brain that made us feel good (Haynes, 2018). As a result, the free social media
EFFECT OF SMARTPHONES ON EDUCATION AND THINKING 13

platforms became very popular and addicting to the human brain; especially, adolescents who

had less self-control. However, because these apps were free, there was no cost in checking

them on your phone, so there was only reward in theory, which created a dopamine feedback

system similar to gambling or drug addiction (Haynes, 2018). Social media apps understood this

of course and would sometimes hold notifications and send them in bursts to create stronger

dopamine responses which created the strong urge to check these apps (Haynes, 2018). With

adolescents having brains that were still underdeveloped these finding were particularly scary to

consider.

That constant need to check smartphones created a phenomenon, experts called a

“phantom buzz” where people were checking their phones thinking they felt it buzz when it did

not, which was further distracting (Duke, Ward, Gneezy, & and Bos, 2018). All of this created

pressure from our brains and from society to constantly be checking the material on phones,

which had 86% of Americans reporting feeling stressed by the very object that was designed to

make life easier because they were constantly checking it (Brueck, 2019). People were checking

their phones so often that 95% of smartphone owners reported checking their phone during their

most recent social opportunity (Kushlev, Dwyer, & Dunn, 2019). One of the reasons teens had

prefer smartphone interaction was “a smartphone can both provide a source of distraction and

reduce the need to engage with unfriendly people,” and many teens would have describe the

social structure of their high school as unfriendly; consequently miss out on possibly good and

rewarding social interaction (Kushlev, Dwyer, & Dunn, 2019).

EFFECT OF SMARTPHONES ON EDUCATION AND THINKING 14

Mental Health/Anxiety

However, smartphones had for some time been considered a catalyst for many teen

mental health and anxiety issues. More and more people were reporting stress at the hands of

their phones and technologies. Teenagers who did not have fully developed coping skills were at

a high risk for this always on pressure stress. In fact, the “‘always on’ culture has created

unreasonable expectations that users’ time, attention, and mental energy constantly be attuned to

digital connections. There was almost a presumption that rapid responses to texts, messages,

social media posts are a customary norm” (Cain, 2018). Many teens were overwhelmed and dealt

with Fear of Missing Out (FoMO), which is often cited for the reason for addiction to

smartphones (Tunc-Aksan & Akbay, 2019). Though addiction is the next theme that is discussed

in this paper, it had strong links with the research done on mental health and anxiety related to

smartphones.

FoMO drove adolescents need to have their phone nearby and be available at any

moment despite the additional stresses it placed on being distracted and missing out in other

situations, which furthered the feelings of stress. It became bad enough that in experiments done

about adolescents giving up their phones for a day it was found that:

Most of the students, who could plan what day they’d give up their phones, felt

some degree of anxiety. They didn’t know what to do with the extra time, from

eating breakfast to riding on public transportation. They also noted how often

people who did have phones checked their phones—one student pointed out that

his friend checked his phone four times in a 10 minute period—and that that was

probably what they themselves looked like on a typical day (Walton, 2017).
EFFECT OF SMARTPHONES ON EDUCATION AND THINKING 15

The correlation between social media use age or smartphones and depression was hard to make,

but in a recent study, “ About 48% of those who spent five or more hours a day on their

phones—a lot of time by any measure—had thought about suicide or made plans for it, vs. 28%

of those who spent only one hour per day on their phones” (Walton, 2017). It was difficult to

find another variable to account for that kind of a rise. Though research had not proven

causation, they had proven a relationship between smartphones and mental health concerns in

adolescents.

Addiction

The idea of including smartphones as an addiction had been a complicated debate. Some

argued it was impossible to label smartphones as anything medical or psychological because the

devices role in society was not understood and though it was a good metaphor, it was not an

accurate description (Panova & Carbonell, 2018). Additionally, there was already a disposable

internet addiction considered by medical and psychological professions, and the smartphone

device was merely a way to get to the internet, so internet addiction was still the primary issue

(Panova & Carbonell, 2018). However, smartphone addiction had been considered as, “the

condition leading to uncontrolled smartphone use despite the experience of negative

repercussions on personal and social life” (Noe, et al., 2019). Though time alone on the device

has been eliminated as an indicator for smartphone addiction there are other ways to tell (Noe, et

al., 2019).

A study done in China eliminated gender as a factor of smartphone addiction, even

though female participants in the study seemed more aware of their addiction (Chen, et al.,

2017). Gaming and games played on smartphones were sometimes a factor in the addiction to
EFFECT OF SMARTPHONES ON EDUCATION AND THINKING 16

smartphones, which did also go back to the idea of gambling addiction and dopamine rewards

(Chen, et al., 2017). However, the China study gave positive results that smartphone addiction

might exist (Chen, et al., 2017). Additionally, a diagnostic criterion for smartphone addiction had

been proposed (Yu-Hsuan, et al., 2016). Though relying heavily on self-evaluation

questionnaires, it represented a start of the academic and medical community taking smartphone

addiction as a serious concern for the future.

Conclusions

Due to the large impact smartphones had played on our thinking and changed the entirely

of the 21s century, it may be too early to call these perceived changes and dependence an

addiction. This shift in time may have just been continued friction between the new and old

worlds colliding and a generation caught in the middle. However, smartphone dependence and

distraction were not a problem likely to end soon. What was concerning was though there was

more literature arguing that there was a problem or how bad the problem was, only two sources

could be found about how to combat the issue. Brown University published suggestions in their

March 2019 “Child and Adolescent Behavior Letter” that involved limiting deceive time and

using parent settings/co-viewing and common space areas for device usage (Rocha, 2019). A

much longer technical report was published by the American Academy of Pediatrics which had

very similar suggestions (Reid Chassiakos, Radesky, Christakis, Morreno, & Cross, 2016).

Smartphones were unlikely to leave society. In fact, as described earlier in this paper,

often, their usefulness could not be denied in academic settings. Additionally, in daily life their

use was well document, though not discussed in this paper. A missed opportunity was in schools.

Schools need to take the responsibility to help educate this generation of students who had never
EFFECT OF SMARTPHONES ON EDUCATION AND THINKING 17

known a time before without these smartphones on positive use and coping skills with these

devices. Though still often not fully understood, incorporating a section on smartphones in the

required health and study skill courses in schools would become effective in helping adolescents

understand the costs of using smartphones. If effort can be placed in aiding adolescents to

understand these devices and their brains better, as well as outreach to their parents, adaption to

these 21st century changes might become smoother.

EFFECT OF SMARTPHONES ON EDUCATION AND THINKING 18

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