UNIT

UNIT –I
Introduction
Textile Testing is the application of Engineering knowledge and science to the
measurement of properties and characteristics of and conditioning affecting textile fibres, yarn
and fabrics. It involves the use of techniques, tools, instruments and machines in the laboratory
for evaluation of the properties of different forms of textiles.
Quality control is concerned with the evaluation of test data and its application to the
control of textile process, raw materials, intermediate products and final products. It concerned
not only with quality level but also cost of maintaining this level.
Testing provides back ground and data and quality control applies the results.
1. Objectives & Importance of Textile Testing
Textile Testing has attained important position in the textile industry. It is just as
applicable to the analysis of finished fabrics as it is to the raw materials. It is useful for the
measure of house hold fabric as for army fabrics. It is necessary for the cotton spinner in
controlling the quality of his product as it is to the rayon producer in controlling quality product.
It is valuable tool in the hands of textile manufacturer as it is in the hands of the research
technicians.
Many form of textile all differ in their characteristics just as people differ in personality.
Ex. yarn may be strong, heat resistance, elastic etc. The laboratory equipped for textile testing is
providing ground for the determination, measure and comparison such standards.
It is also necessary to know the other conditions or forces influence the result. For ex.
Cotton yarn being hygroscopic is strengthened by increase in moisture contents. To understand
inter relationship of many properties of textile materials knowledge of individual test methods
and procedures is essential.
Standards are established by an individual organization. For example staple length of raw
cotton, size of rowing, strength of yarn, number of filaments in the rayon etc. Textile testing
helps to establish scientific specification. Textile testing is also playing role in analysing the
market requirements or consumer demand.
2. Sampling techniques
Inspection for acceptance purpose is carried out at many stages in manufacturing. There may be
inspection of incoming materials, process inspection at various points in the manufacturing operation,
final inspection by the manufacturer of its own products and ultimately inspection of finished products by
one or more purchasers. Inspection in the sense of sorting product that conforms to specification from
Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 1

non-confirming products and inspection cannot be relied on to ensure that all accepted product relay
conforms.
Inspection fatigue on repetitive, inspection operations often will limit the effectiveness of 100%
inspection. No sampling procedures eliminate all non-confirming products. It follows the best way to be
sure that accepted products confirm to the specification is to have the product made right to first place.
Purpose of Sampling
Most of the acceptances in inspection are necessarily on a sampling basis. The purposes of
samplings are
 All the acceptance tests that are destructive of items tested must be inevitably done by
sampling.
 In many other instances sampling inspection is used because of the cost of 100% inspection
is prohibitive and
 The influence of inspection is fatigue in 100% inspection.
 Often happen that the striking quality improvements can be caused outright rejection of
entire lots of products on the basis of non- confirming products found in sample. The
rejections of entire lots bring much strong pressure for quality improvement.
Some Weakness in Acceptance Sampling

Inspectors often use a working rule that is influenced by knowledge of past quality
history of the product being sampled. For instance same article purchased from two or more
sources, an inspector may check only one or two items in a lot from source considered reliable
but might give critical examination to a lot from a source considered to be unreliable. Inspector
memories of past quality may be short or inaccurate.
These limitations suggest need of definite working rules regarding size and frequency of
sample and basis for acceptance or rejection.
Defect & Defective
These words are used in their technical sense dealing with lack of conformity to
specification. It is common for specification to contain margin of safety. Therefore some
products does not meet specification can be satisfactory for its intended use.
A defective item is one that does not confirm to specification in some respect; a defect is
a non conformity to some specification.
Factors Governing Sampling

Sampling methods are governed by the following factors.
1. Form of the material: The material could be in the form of fibre, yarn or fabric. It could also
be an intermediate product such as sliver, roving, etc. A sampling method useful for fibre
may not be suitable for a yarn.

2. Amount of material available: If sufficient amount of material is available, we can perform
minimum number of tests required for accuracy of the test.
3. Nature of the test: The nature of test depends upon the characteristic being evaluated. In
some test the test specimen is destroyed, in others it is not. Some test use small sample, while
others use a relatively large sample.
4. Type of testing instrument: To asses a particular characteristic of a material one or more
than one instrument are used. Under such circumstances the sampling methods are different.
5. Information required: the sampling method used for a given textile material will be
influenced by the amount of information required.
6. Degree of accuracy required: the sampling method need not to be elaborate if only
approximate information is required.
Types of Sample
There are two types of sample. These are
1. Random sample
2. Biased sample
Random Sample
The probability assumes that the samples are drawn at random, that is, each item in the
lot is assumed to have an equal chance to be selected in the sample. If the items in a lot is mixed
thoroughly a sample is chosen anywhere in the lot meet the requirements of randomness.
However a common condition is that there is no reason to believe that the items have had a
through mixing. More over it may be impracticable to carry out.
It is practicable to assign a different number to each item in a lot and draw an item from
any place of the lot; a formal scheme for drawing a random sample may be adopted. Such
scheme may use a table of random numbers or some mechanical device for generating random
number needed. Computer generated random numbers may be used
Random digits can be generated in any way that gives each digit from 0 to 9 an equal
chance to be selected. Table No. 1.2.1 contains 2500 random digits reproduced. The table is
prepared by the Random Corporation.
Assume that it is desired to select a sample of 15 from lot of 750 items. Each item of the
lot is identified by a number from 1 to 750. Therefore, it is necessary to select 15 random three
digit numbers from 001 to 750.
First it is necessary to determine the starting point in the table. The table contains 50 rows
and 50 columns digit listed in pairs. Assume the pencil point is placed at random in the table and
the first two digits number to the right from 1 to 50 determines the row to be selected. The
procedure is repeated to determine the starting column. Assume that the 8th row and 39th column

are chosen. Assume the decision was made in advance that the starting point chosen will be the
first digit of three digit numbers read to right and succeeding numbers will be read down the
table. The following numbers are obtained.
471, 098, 443, 335, 015, 106, (932), 682, (864), 531, 379, (909), 225, 233, 404, (812),
392, (820), (934), 183, (929), 592.
Numbers that are not between 001 to 750 must be discarded. These are shown in
brackets. A number that has already occurred must also be discarded. The selections of the
sample between 001 to 750 are rearranged in the increasing size as follows.
015, 098, 106, 183, 225, 233, 335, 379, 392, 404, 443, 471, 531, 592, 682
Biased Sample
It may sometimes happen that the selection of sample is influenced by factors other than
chance. In such cases the sample may not be the representative of the bulk. This kind sample is
called “biased” sample. A few factors influencing sample are
 Bias due to specific physical characteristic of the individual in bulk: The person selecting
the sample may be unconsciously influenced by a specific physical characteristic of the
individual. The sampler has selected knowingly or unknowingly due to ease or convenience
of selection.
 Bias due to position of individuals in the bulk relative to the sample: Some time position
of the individual members of the bulk relative to the person doing the sampling may give the
sample a bias.
 Bias due to some other factor: Occasionally, some other subconscious bias could be
introduced. The person selecting the sample may unconsciously select only the cleaner
portion of the bulk.
Yarn and Fabric Sampling Method
A. Methods used for sampling Fibers

It was mentioned earlier that sampling techniques have to consider the form of the
material available for test e.g. fiber, yarn or fabric. Going a step further, the sampling method
used for selecting a fibre sample for testing depends upon the form in which the fibre is
available. Thus, fibres in bales or sliver or card web or yarn will demand different techniques.
Some sampling techniques used for the determination of fibre properties are discussed in
what follows.
1. The squaring technique:
This technique is used for the selection of a random sample from a sliver. In using this technique,
the sliver is first opened out into the form of a web and placed on a black velvet pad. The end of
the sliver is then ‘squared off. This is achieved by placing a glass plate over the fibres to act as a

control, allowing only a small fringe to project beyond the leading edge of the plate, as shown in
below Figure.
Next, all the protruding fibres are removed and discarded. The plate is moved back a little and a
second fringe is removed. These last two steps eliminate the extent-bias since all the ends of the
fibres have terminated in a given volume of the fibre web.
The above operation is repeated until the final position of the plate edge is at least a distance
equal to the length, from its original position, of the longest fibre present. This step is essential
because whenever a sliver is broken there is a bias of long fibres at each broken fringe.
The plate is then moved back a millimetre or so one last time and all the fibres protruding from
the leading edge of the plate are removed and taken as the numerical or representative sample for
a test, e.g. a length test on a comb sorter.
2. The cut squaring method
When the material is composed of fibres in parallel order, e. g. drawframe sliver, rove and yarn,
a modified squaring technique, called the cut-squaring technique, may be used. First of all any
twists in the material are removed. The material is then gently opened out a little, and laid
parallel on a black velvet pad. A glass plate is placed-over the fibres with its leading edge at right
angles to the strand axis. This arrangement is depicted in below Figure.
The protruding fringe of fibres is cut across with scissors as close to the glass plate as possible
and the fibres whose cut ends project are removed by forceps and discarded. The glass plate is
then shifted back about one millimetre and again the projecting fibres are removed and
discarded. This operation is repeated. Finally, after a third movement of the glass plate, the
whole fringe is pulled out and used as the test sample.

3. Zoning Technique
The selection of representative samples from a large lot of material presents special problems. In
a bale of cotton, for example, the fibres may not form a homogenous mixture and small tufts of
fibre have to be pulled out from as many places in the bale as is practically possible, Further, if
the fibres form a highly heterogeneous mass, a very large number of tufts would need to be
selected from the bale at random so that all its parts have been represented.
In such cases, an elaborate system called the zoning technique is used. This technique too
involves selection of tufts of fibre from all possible parts of the bulk. But it is reliable in that
samples prepared by different persons show results between which the differences are
statistically insignificant. In other words, sampling on a given bulk of material by the zoning
method gives samples that are similar in characteristics, and therefore representative of the bulk.
The zoning technique is thus one recommended first by the British Standards. A brief account of
the use of the technique in preparing a sample for evaluating the length characteristics by means
of a comb sorter it is given in the following.
Below Figure represents a pictorial representation of the method used.
1. A sample of about 50 grams is prepared from the bulk material by selecting about 80 large
tufts chosen, as practicably as is possible, from all portions of the bulk.
2. The sample is then divided into four quarters.
3. Next, 16 small tufts of about 20 mg each are selected at random from each quarter.
4. (a) One of the small tufts is taken and divided in to two nearly equal parts by hand. The right
hand side is discarded and the one in the left is turned through a right angle.

(b) This tufts is than split into two nearly equal parts by hand; the half in the left hand is now
discarded and the and the remaining portion turned through a right angle.
(c) The third halving is then carried out on the portion that remains in the hand. The right
hand portion is discarded this and remaining portion is turned through a right angle.
(d) Now a fourth halving is done on the remaining portion of the fiber. The left hand half is
discarded and small tuft that remains is preserved.
Remaining 15 tufts of step 3 are halved four times in exactly the same manner as above to
give 15 small tufts, or wisps, that are preserved. 16 wisps are similarly separated from each
of other quarters of step 2. Now we have 16 wisps from each quarters of original sample
5. The set of l6 wisps from each quarter is combined into tufts. This gives us four tufts.
6. Each of the four tufts is thoroughly mixed by hand by drawing and doubling between the
fingers.
7. Each of these mixed tufts is then divided into four parts, splitting the tuft in a direction
perpendicular to the fibre length. Splitting in a lengthwise direction could result in two parts
of differing in length characteristics. Hence this precaution is important. Care is also taken to
see that the parts are as nearly equal to each other as possible.
8. Once part is taken respectively from each of the tufts and combined to give a new tuft. This
is repeated with the remaining parts of each tuft. We now have four new tufts, each
containing a part of the previous four tufts (Step 6).
9. Each of the new tufts is thoroughly mixed again by manual drawing and doubling.
10. A quarter portions is then taken from each of the four new tufts to make the final sample,
again taking care to split the tuft in a direction perpendicular to the fibre length.
This sample can now be regarded as a representative sample possessing all the length
characteristics of the bulk material.

B. Method Used For Sampling Yarns
Yarn samples are selected according to the type of test and the form in which the yarn is
available. The yarn could be ring bobbin, a double flanged bobbin, a bundle of hanks and so on.
Some sampling methods for the determination of yarn count, twist and strength are discussed
below.
 Sampling for the determination of count of yarn in package form: 16 packages are
selected from the concerned machine for spun yarn in the form of cops, ring-frame bobbins,
tubes or other forms of primary package. Skeins are then wound form the top portion of eight
packages, next skeins is wound from about the middle portion of the remaining packages.
Large packages such as cones and cheeses, take eight packages. Prepare two skeins from
each; it is preferable to take one skein form the outer portion and another from a part near the
middle. For continuous filament yarn, only one skein is taken from the outside of each of
sixteen cones or cheeses.
 Sampling for the determination of count from the yarn removed from the fabric: From
the conditioned fabric, cut at least two rectangular strips, about 20 inch long containing
different warp threads for determining the count of yarn. Similarly take at least five
rectangular 20 inch strips representing different weft for determining count of weft yarn. The
strip width should be such as t contain at least fifty lengths of either warp or weft yarn.
 Sampling of yarn for the determination of twist in yarn in package form: Take test
specimens in equal numbers form ten packages, taking care that no specimen is taken from
within one yard of the end of the package. Discard a length of about one yard of yarn
between two consecutive specimens.
 Sampling for the determination of lea strength of spun yarn: A lea of yarn is taken from
each of twenty packages. If only a small number of packages, withdraw lea from a smaller
multiple of four packages such that a total of twenty leas are obtained.
 Sample for determination of single strength: If single yarn and two ply yarns of medium
count are being evaluated, not less than 50 test specimens are taken from the available
material. Yarn may be from a package, or from a warp, or from a woven or knitted fabric.
In case two ply yarn and for cabled yarns, the number of test specimens may be reduced to
thirty.
C. Methods Used In Sampling of Fabrics

Sampling for fabrics will vary from one kind of fabric to another. Three different types of
fabric commonly encountered in testing laboratory. They are
 Narrow type of fabrics like brides, laces, ribbons etc.
 Woven fabric of regular width.
 Knitted fabric
The following points are too kept in mind while removing samples from fabrics for test.

 At least two inches near the selvedge should be avoided. This is, because, the fabric
properties of the fabrics at the selvedge differ from those at the body of the fabric.
This is due to extra strain is imposed in the yarn near the selvedge.
 No two samples should contain the same threads.
 The weft wary fabric strips of samples should include fabric from two weft packages.
During weaving weft tension will vary at the top and bottom ends of pirns and give
rise to “cop end effect”, which may affect the fabric strength, and causes changes in
fabric structure and other properties.
3. Elementary Statistics
The term “statistics” refers to both a set of data (information) and methods used to
analyze the data.
In making physical tests on textile sample, we must remember that we are dealing with
variable substances. For example, we make several determinations of strength on a piece of
cloth; we may find no two test give the same result.
Measured quality of the manufactured product is always subject to a certain amount of
variations as result of chance. Some stable system of chance causes is inherent in any particular
scheme of production and inspection. Variation with in this stable pattern is inevitable. The
reason for variation outside this stable pattern may be discovered. This makes possible the
diagnosis and correction of many production troubles and often being substantial improvement in
product quality and reduction in spoilage and rework.
Measurements are seldom, if ever, exact, confusion exists in the mind of many people,
because they associate with the exact number of units or counts with the answer of the

measurements. No number is likely to be exact, but all might be good approximation. This
situation develops data and is collected from these test results.
The attractive and effective presentation of data is essential if the data are to be of utmost
value. Practically all data can be presented in the form of either table or charts and one or both of
these methods are recommended.
Measures of Central Tendency

Most measurements in textile testing consist of a set of repeat measurements that have
been made on a number of identical individuals constituting a sample taken from the bulk of the
material. Certain statistical measures are used to describe the average of the results and their
spread.
A short guide to the terms employed is given below. For a more comprehensive explanation a
textbook of statistics should be consulted.
1. Arithmetic mean or average

The arithmetic mean is the measure most commonly chosen to represent the central value of a
sample. It is obtained by adding together the individual values of the variable x and dividing the
sum by the number of individual’s n.
Where
X= Mean or average.
n = Number of test results.
∑= Sum of test results.
Example:-Calculate the average TPI of a yarn, given the following individual values of the TPI
of 10 test specimens.
33.8, 34.2, 33.5, 33.8, 33.6, 34.7, 34.2, 33.8, 33.5 and 33.6.
33.8 + 34.2 + 33.5 + 33.8 + 33.6 + 34.7 + 34.2 + 33.8 + 33.5 + 33.6
Mean =
10
Mean or Average = 33.87
Advantages of arithmetic mean or average
It is simple to understand, it is easy to calculate, it is the most popular method of locating a
distribution.

2. Median
A second measure of central tendency is the median. The median is defined as the middle value
of series of values arranged in the order of magnitude either in the ascending order or in the
descending order of magnitude. It lies at the centre of the distribution. Fifty percent of the
distributions are above the value and other fifty percent of them are below the value.
Properties of median
 Although the median is not as popular as the arithmetic mean, it does have advantage of
being both easy to determine and easy to explain.
 The number of observations rather than the values of the observations affect the median;
hence it will be less distorted as a representative value than the arithmetic mean.
Advantage and disadvantage of median
 An additional advantage of the median is that it may be computed for an open-end
distribution.
 The major disadvantage of the median is that it is a less familiar measure than the arithmetic
mean. However, since the median a positional average, its value is not determined by each
and every observation. Also, the median is not capable of algebraic treatment.
Example: - The following are the test results of single yarn strength in grams: 210, 220, 218,
216, and 222. Determine the median.
The observations, arranged in ascending order, are 210, 216, 218 220 and 222. The value of the
middle of the observations (the third value in this case is) is the median.
Median = 218.
3. Mode
The mode is a typical or commonly observed value in a set of data. It is defined as the value
occurs most often, or the value with the greatest frequency. The dictionary meaning of the term
mode is ‘most usual’
Example: - Seven threads are tested for TPI, gave the following value 15, 14, 14, 17, 14, 15, 16,
find the mode value.
In the above given problem the TPI value 14 is occurs most frequently. So the mode value is 14
Measures of Dispersion
In order to describe the variability of measured characteristic of the material tested, the
following terms used to indicate the dispersion.
1. Range
2. Mean deviation
3. Standard deviation
4. Co-efficient of variation
5. Standard error

1. Range
As defined earlier, the range is defined as the difference between the highest (numerically
largest) value and the lowest (numerically smallest) value in a set of data. It is rough measures of
dispersion in the data.
In symbols, this may be indicated as,
R=H–L
Where R = Range, H = Highest value and L = Lowest value.
Example: - The single thread strength values in grams of a yarn are given below. Find the range.
115, 100,122,110,120.
Here the highest value is 122 gm and lowest value is 100 gm. Thus
Range =122-100
=22 gm.
2. Mean Deviation
The mean deviation is the more accurate indication of variation in a set of given values than the
range. The ‘deviation’ is difference between each value and arithmetic mean. In other words,
mean deviation is the sum of deviation (taken as positive) values from an average divided by the
number of observations.
Where x – arithmetic mean, x – observed values, n – number of observations.
Percentage mean deviation (PMD)

This is the ratio between the mean deviation and mean, expressed as a percentage. This is used to
compare two samples with different mean values.
3. Standard deviation
The average gives little or no indication as to the amount or type of variation in the quality of the
material nor does it indicate the variation is due to the process or inherent in the product. To find
answer to these questions, it is only necessary to calculate Standard Deviation.

The Standard deviation “is defined as the root of mean square deviation of number from
average”. In other words Standard deviation is the measure of the amount of variation from the
average set of data.
Merits
 The standard deviation is rigorously defined.
 It is based on all observations of a series.
 It is capable for further algebraic treatment.
 It is least affected by fluctuations in sampling and hence stable.
 It is free from the mathematical weakness of ignoring the sign of the deviations.
 It is the most important means of absolute dispersion and is a keystone in sampling and
correlation.
Demerits
 It is difficult to compute as compared to other measures.
 It attaches more weight to extreme values and less to those nearer the mean.
 In a distribution with open classes, its value cannot be calculated without assumptions
regarding the size of the class interval of the open-end classes.
4. Co-efficient of variation
A frequently used relative measure of variation is the coefficient of variation, denoted by CV.
This measure is the ration of standard deviation to the mean expressed as the percentage.
Coefficient of Variation CV = (SD/ x) x 100
Where SD – standard deviation, x - mean
5. Standard Error
The Standard error of the mean by dividing the standard deviation of the sample by the square
root of the number in the sample.
Where SE – Standard error, SD – Standard deviation, n- number of observations.

4. Atmospheric Conditions
Conditioning & Textile Testing

Most of textile materials are hygroscopic in nature. They have ability to absorb or give up
moisture. The moisture is picked up or absorbed by hygroscopic material from atmosphere, if the
relative amount of moisture in the air is greater than in the material. Conveniently, the moisture
will be given up by the material if the relative amount of moisture in the air is less than that in
the material. Equilibrium is said to be established between the material and atmosphere, when
one way of flow is obtained it, that is whatever is given up by the material to the atmosphere the
same thing is taken from the atmosphere, by equilibrium with the atmosphere in which it is
placed known as conditioning.
Humidity
Humidity is defined as the amount of moisture present in the atmosphere.
Absolute Humidity & Relative Humidity

Humidity is the term used to describe moisture existing in the atmosphere. Humidity term
is used to describe the dampness of the atmosphere. The amount of moisture contents in the air
may be expressed namely
1. Absolute humidity (AH)

Absolute humidity is defined as the weight of water vapour in a unit volume of moist
air and is expressed as grains per cubic foot or grams per cubic meter. Absolute humidity is the
actual density of water vapour in the atmosphere.
2. Relative Humidity (RH)

Relative humidity is defined as the ratio between actual vapour pressure and saturated
vapour pressure at the same temperature and this is normally expressed as a percentage. The
ability of air to hold moisture depends upon its temperature. Higher the temperature more
moisture can hold.
Relative humidity can be defined by the following equation.
Standard Testing Atmosphere

Standard atmospheric condition for nearly all textile materials is RH 65% ±2% and
temperature - 20° ± 2° or 68° ± 4° . In tropical and sub-tropical countries, the difficulties of
achieving the temperature 20° are understood and so the higher standard temperature may be
used, say 27° ± 2°. ISI (Indian Standard Institute presently known as Bureau of Indian Standard)
standards are RH 68%±2% and temperature 27° ± 2° .

Recommended optimum conditions for different textile manufacturing process are: 40% to 45%
RH at 72° to 75° Blow room, 65% RH at 75° for carding, 53% RH at 75° for spinning.
During knitting and weaving high RH is helpful to reduce breakages.
Conditioned weight is the weight of the material when it is conditioned.
Measurements of Atmospheric Conditions

Instruments used in determination of Relative Humidity are known as hygrometer. The
following methods may be used to measure the atmospheric conditions.
1. Wet & Dry bulb hygrometer
Principle
If it can be so arranged that a thin film of moisture (water) always surrounds of a
thermometer, the temperature indicated by the thermometer would the humidity of the
surrounding atmosphere. If the surrounding air is not saturated moisture, water evaporates from
the bulb into the air at a rate that is proportional difference between the actual humidity and
100% humidity. Since cooling takes with evaporation, the temperature indicated by the
thermometer will be less than the room temperature.
The drier the atmosphere the greater the amount of moisture evaporating from the bulb
and the greater will be the cooling. The thermometer will thus show a much lower temperature
atmosphere were relatively humid. It is this principle of gauging the humidity of a given
atmosphere that is used in the design and working of a wet and dry bulb hygrometer.
Description
Wet & dry bulb hygrometer is shown in figure. It consists of a frame A on which two
identical thermometers, B & C are mounted. A muslin sleeve D, which is dipped into a container
E containing distilled water F, covers the bulb of thermometer C. This thermometer is therefore
called the ‘wet bulb thermometer’. The bulb of the other thermometer B is left open to the
atmosphere. This thermometer is thus called the ‘dry bulb thermometer’ and the temperature it
shows is referred to as the dry bulb temperature, which is of course the room temperature. The
wet bulb temperature is on most occasions lower than the dry bulb temperature. In an atmosphere
of 100 % RH, both the thermometers would indicate the same temperature.
The instrument comes with an RH table that displays a series of values of the dry bulb
temperatures in the extreme left column and increasing values of the difference between the wet
and dry bulb temperatures along the top row.
Determination of relative humidity
A wet and dry bulb hygrometer is usually mounted on the wall of a testing room or any
place where the relative humidity is to be monitored. The procedure of determining the RH of an
atmosphere is simple. The wet bulb and dry bulb thermometer is placed in the atmosphere until
the mercury levels in both of them attain constant positions. The wet bulb and dry bulb
temperatures are then noted. The difference between these two temperatures is worked out.

The RH table is then used to read out the RH of the atmosphere being evaluated. This is done by
locating the dry bulb temperature in the left-most column and then moving rightward along the
row till the column corresponding to the difference between the dry and wet bulb temperatures is
reached. The RH value at the meeting point is the RH of the atmosphere.
An example
Dry bulb temperature = 30.6°C
Wet bulb temperature = 22.2°C
Difference = 8.4°C
RH% read from the table = 43%
2. Hair Hygrometer
Principle of working
The hair hygrometer, as the name suggests, uses a strand of human hair as an important
element in the instrument. A significant characteristic of human hair is that its length varies with
changes in the humidity of the surrounding air. If the humidity is high it elongates and if it is low
it contracts. In order to utilise this property to good effect it is necessary to connect a thin bundle
of human hair to a suitable lever system, so that the humidity can simple be read off a dial.

Description
A typical arrangement of the components of a hair hygrometer is depicted in Figure. The
principle parts are a circular glass cover A, a graduated RH% scale B and a pointer C. The
pointer is connected to a band of human hair.
Determination of relative humidity
The instrument is normally kept in the testing room itself The RH% of the atmosphere is
indicated on the scale and can be read off easily at any time. The fact that this instrument does
not use distilled water may be an advantage. However the hair hygrometer is rarely used today as
it responds very slowly to changes in the surrounding humidity. This is a major disadvantage and
the hygrometer has therefore to be checked and calibrated often. The RH % indicated by it can
best be taken only as an approximation of the actual value.
3. Thermo hygrograph
A thermo hygrograph is accomplished by hair hygrometer and it has the additional
feature of measuring the room temperature. A helical coil of a bimetallic strip has the distinctive
property of increasing or decreasing in length as the temperature of the surrounding air increases
or decreases. If a bimetallic coil is connected suitably to a lever system, it can be used to measure
the room temperature.

A schematic diagram of a thermal-hygrograph is shown in the figure No. 2.2.2. This
instrument records both temperature and RH% on a graph paper chart. A sensitive bimetallic coil
that is connected to a lever records the temperature while a band of human hair attached to
another lever record the RH%.
The Instrument consists of two-pen A and B, actuated by two levers C and D, and
respectively records the temperature and RH% on a graph sheet or chart E. The graph sheet is
fixed around a cylinder or drum F. A clockwise system connected to a bimetallic coil H and the
other pen B on a band of hair G. The chart is divided into two portions. The upper portion is used
for recording temperature and lower portion is used for recording RH%. The chart is further
divided into seven columns, each column representing a day of 24hours.
This system rotates the cylinder automatically at a definite speed. At the same time the
pens record temperature and RH% on the chart according to the prevailing condition of
atmosphere. The readings are noted at periodic intervals of a time every day. After a week time
the chart is removed and day to day variation in temperature and humidity is noted and analysed.
Advantages:
1. It is a direct reading instrument.
2. It records both temperature and RH%.
3. It records temperature and RH% value and later it is analysed.
4. The use of distilled water is eliminated.

4. Electrolytic hygrometer
In an electrolytic hygrometer, variations in the electrical resistance of lithium chloride
with varying humidity are converted by a suitable arrangement to give a direct reading of the
surrounding humidity.
An electrolytic hygrometer consists essentially of a plastic frame carrying electrodes
covered with platinum. The electrodes are wound with a skein of fine fibres impregnated with
lithium chloride. The electrodes are wound with fine fibres impregnated with lithium chloride.
An electric supply of constant voltage is connected to the electrodes. A graduated circular dial
for RH% and a pointer to indicate the ambient RH are also connected.
When the instrument is switched on, the current flowing through the element is subject to
changes in the humidity in the atmosphere. Variations in the current are translated into
appropriate movements of the pointer, which shows the RH reading on circular scale.

5. Measurement of moisture Regain &Moisture Content
There are two ways of expressing the amount of moisture in the textile material.
 Moisture Content: Moisture content or moisture is the weight of moisture (water vapour)
present in the textile material expressed as a percentage of its total weight.
 Moisture Regain: Moisture regain is defined as the weight of moisture in a textile material is
expressed as a percentage of its oven dry weight.
The moisture content and moisture regain of a fibre can be determined in the laboratory by
means of the following instruments:
1. Moisture Measuring oven- a direct method
2. Shirley Moisture Meter - an indirect method
1. Moisture Measuring Oven

This is a direct method of assessing the amount of moisture in textile materials.
Principle: - A sample of known weight is heated in a special oven at a temperature of 105 ± 3ºC
for 1.5 to 2 hours to constant weight or oven-dry weight. The difference between the original
weight and the oven-dry weight of the sample gives the weight of moisture present in the sample.
The moisture in the sample is expressed as a percentage of its original weight to get the
moisture content of the sample. Similarly, expressing the moisture in the sample as a percentage
of the oven-dry weight of the sample gives its moisture regain.
Description: - below Figure shows a moisture-testing oven. It consists of a double-walled

chamber A, the walls of which are packed with an insulating material like glass wool to
minimise loss of heat. Two portions can be identified with regard to the chamber, the upper
portion C and lower portion D.
The lower portion houses the heating elements, a temperature-set knob E and a
thermostatic control. The thermostat consists of the typical bimetallic rod which senses and
controls the temperature inside the chamber. It is connected both to a red light G and a green
light H. A main switch I is connected to the power supply. A blower fan F is provided inside the
instrument at the right-hand side of the chamber circulating the hot air inside. The middle portion
of the chamber has accommodating a cage J that carries the sample under test.
The upper portion of the chamber has a balance K; the right-hand side pan L of balance
carries a standard weight of 50 grams (M). The left-hand side pan N is connected to the cage.
Weights corresponding to the loss in weight of the sample as it dries can be put in this pan to
counterpoise pan L. This arrangement helps to determine the weight of water inside the chamber
without disturbing the sample.

Procedure to determine fibre moisture content and moisture regain: - 50 grams of the
sample are placed in the cage inside the chamber, so as to balance the 50-g weight in the right
hand pan. The oven is switched on and the heating elements are turned on. A continual How of
air at the correct RH (ideally air at standard RH and temperature) is passed through the oven.
The thermostatic control is set at 105°C.
The air flowing into the chamber starts getting heated and when the temperature is
sufficiently high the moisture in the fibre sample will start evaporating. Care is taken that the
thermostatic arrangement maintains the temperature inside the chamber within ± 2°C of the set
temperature of 105°C.
After about 1.5 hours of heating, the weight of material will have reduced due to the
moisture being evaporated from it. A suitable weight is now placed in the left-hand side pan such
that it exactly balances the other pan. Weighing is done at every 10 minutes until a constant
weight is obtained. This means that all the moisture from the sample has been removed. The total
of the weights in the left-hand pan is the amount of moisture present in 50 grams of the sample.
The oven-dry weight of the sample is calculated as the difference between the original
weight of the sample and the weight of the moisture present in it.

Moisture content & regain can be calculated by using the following formula:
Moisture content (M)

= Weight of moisture in the sample / Original weight of the sample X 100
Moisture Regain (R)
= Weight of moisture in the sample / Oven weight of the sample X 100
The main advantage of a regain-testing oven is that all the, weighing is carried out inside
the oven. This means that the instrument avoids the need to carry the sample to a separate
balance, in which case it could gain in moisture and lead to erroneous results.
Further large samples can be tested. In fact this is by far the most accurate method estimating
regain of a large sample. It serves as a benchmark for accurate testing of fibre regain and other
methods can be checked against it for accuracy.
Conditioning oven
A modified version of the moisture testing oven has also been in use. This has an
additional feature. In this version, the relative humidity of the air in the oven can be set to a
desired value within a given range. This improvement allows both the temperature and the
humidity in the chamber to be set. Known as the ‘conditioning oven’ this equipment permits the
determination of moisture of a given sample at specific values of humidity. The sample is
allowed to ‘condition’ at the set value of RH for a few hours and its weight is determined. Next
its oven-dry weight is determined as explained above. The difference between these weights
expressed as a percentage of the oven-dry weight gives the regain of the RH in which it was
conditioned.
2. Shirley Moisture Meter - an indirect method
This instrument is based on an indirect method of measuring amount of moisture in

textiles. It used the principle of variation in electrical resistance with moisture. When the fibre is
dry, the resistance to flow of electrical current will be at the practical maximum and when it is
wet the resistance will be at maximum level. This property of the textile fibre permits the use on
an electrode by means of which the electrical resistance of a given fibre can be measured and its
moisture regain can be read off a suitably calibrated dial.
Description
The regain indicating unit and a sectional view of the two electrodes are shown
respectively in the below. The Shirley moisture meter consists of an electrode A fixed in a holder
B. the electrode consists of an insulating material in between central and outer conducting
materials. It is connected by means of cable C to the regain indicating unit.

The regain indicating unit has two dials D & E. Dial covers the normal range of regain
values from 7% to 11%. The other dial E, has two ranges, one with a range 9 to 15% regain for
testing damp or wet fibres and other with a range 5% to 9% for testing dry fibres.
Out of two electrodes, one is designed for the use of raw cotton fibre and the other for
yarns. The angular space between the conducting elements in the electrode is greater for yarns
than it is for cotton.
Procedures for the determination of sample regain

 The instrument is switched on
 Depending upon whether loose fibre or cotton yarn is tested, the appropriate electrode us
selected and fitted into holder.
 The scale – select knob, S is set to the required scale depending upon whether the test
sample is wet or dry.
 Then the Zero-set position under the chosen scale is selected using the same knob and the
pointer on the chosen scale is checked to see whether it indicates exactly zero. If not,
Zero adjust knob (F) is turned till the pointer reads Zero.
 Next, knob S is turned to the max-set position and the pointer is checked to whether it
accurately coincides with the maximum reading on the scale.
 Once the selected scale has been calibrated, knob S is turned to the testing mode.
 A sample is pressed by the sensing end of the electrode. A firm pressure is applied to the
holder in order to bring the electrode and sample in close contact.
 The moisture in the sample is noted on the chosen scale.
 The numbers of readings are taken at various parts of the material and the average value
of regain is recorded.
Advantages: 1. this instrument over the moisture testing oven is the speed of the test. 2. It has
easy-to-read scales. 3. The instrument is compact and portable. 4. It is suitable for the routine
test of bleached or undyed fibres or yarn.
6. Effects of Moisture Regain on Fibre Properties
Under the natural condition, the amount of moisture in the atmosphere is continuously changing.
These results in varying amount of moisture contained by the hygroscopic material exposed to
the atmosphere. Many physical properties of textile materials are affected by amount of moisture
contained in it. Fundamentally the weight of the material is depends upon the humidity of the
atmosphere in which it is exposed. The greater the humidity is greater the weight of the material.
The greater the moisture contents greater the loss to the buyer of the material.

So the textile transaction, when the weight is in consideration, like cotton, silk trade etc., it is
very much necessary to standardize the moisture contents.
Apart from the weight, the moisture also affects in dimension, tensile strength, elastic
recovery, electrical resistance, rigidity etc., of textile materials. Cotton absorbs moisture readily
when exposed to high humidity and as results, the weight as well as strength increased and other
properties change. Linen shows substantially increase in strength as the moisture content is
increased. Rayon generally shows reduction in strength with corresponding increase in
elongation as the moisture contents are increased. These changes are high on viscose rayon and
low on nylon & Dacron. Animal fibres show slight decrease in strength with increase in moisture
contents. Practically all textile material show increase pliability and greater immunity to static
electric influence with increase in moisture contents.
Textile manufacturing operations are conducted to large extent in a humidity atmosphere.

Under ideal humidity condition the following advantages realized in.
1. Reduction in generation of static electricity.
2. Materials are more easily workable due to increased pliability.
3. Reduction in amount of dust and fly.
4. Allows for the retention of the moisture already within the material.
5. Permits greater bodily comfort for personnel in cool weather.
Some of the man-made textiles fibres have high relative regain where as other resist the
absorption of water. Fibres that absorb moist readily are classified as “HYDROPHYLIC”
material, ex. Cotton, and that do not are classified as “HYDROPHOBIC” material, ex. Terylene,
nylon.
Effects of Regain on Fibre properties

It has been mentioned in the preceding sections that fibre properties are affected,
sometimes dramatically, by regain. The major effects of regain on fiber properties discussed in
the following.
 Fibre dimensions
Absorption of moisture changes the dimensions of fibres. It is well known that fibres
swell with increasing moisture absorption. Swelling causes a greater increase in the width of the
fibre and a marginal increase in its length.
As the water molecules enter and penetrate the fibre, they break a number of the
intermolecular hydrogen bonds in the fibre, and separate the molecules and thus swell the fibre in
a width-way direction. As the molecules are now in a more relaxed state, they tend to cause some
increase in the length of the fibre. With regard to the effect of moisture on a textile fabric, the net
result of absorbed moisture is a decrease in length i.e. shrinkage

 Mechanical properties
The strength of fibres is affected by moisture. In the case of vegetable fibres such as
cotton and flax, the strength is increased from 8 to 10 per cent. In the case of viscose rayon, the
strength is decreased by about 50 per cent. All other fibres show a drop in strength with
increasing moisture except for polyester and polypropylene fibres, which are unaffected.
Similarly Extensibility, crease recovery, pliability (opposite of stiffness) and the ability
to be set by finishing processes are the other mechanical properties affected by regain. Fabric
handle and drape is associated primarily with the stiffness of the fabric. The drier the fabric the
stiffer it will be and vice versa.
 Electrical properties
The electrical resistance of a fiber varies with different regain values. When the sample
is dry, resistance to the flow of electrical current will be at a practical maximum. When it is wet,
the resistance will be minimum. The dielectric characteristics and the susceptibility to static
troubles are also affected by the amount of moisture in the material.
The hydrophobic synthetic fibres are notorious for their proneness to static problems
on account of their negligibly low moisture regains.
 Thermal effects
When textile materials absorb moisture, heat is generated, i.e. they tend to be
exothermic. This heat is referred to as the ‘heat of absorption’ or sometimes ‘heat of wetting’.
An example of clothing is cited to explain this effect. In a place which normally
experiences severe winter, if a person goes from a warm room with a low RH% into a cold
environment with a higher RH% (i.e. from indoor to outdoor) the clothes worn by the person
absorb more moisture and heat is generated. This heat acts like a warm blanket around the person
and shield her/him body from the sudden large drop in temperature suffered in process. Wool is
ideal in this respect as the heat of moisture absorption it produces is high.
Factors Affecting fiber regain

There are four major factors that can affect the regain of textile fibres. These are
explained below.
1. Relative humidity
The regain of a fibre increases rapidly at low humilities, and then it increases at a low
rate, showing an almost linear portion in the absorption curve. Finally, it rises at more rapid rate
at high humilities. This behaviour can be easily seen in the absorption curves of the fibres shown
in to cite a real life instance; a towel that is dry in normal air would feel moist after some time in
a Turkish (steam) bath, where the humidity is usually very high.
2. Time
A relatively dry fibre placed in a given atmosphere takes a certain amount of time to
reach an equilibrium regain value. Beyond the equilibrium time, the fibre continuously gains and

losses small quantities of moisture such that it maintains equilibrium regain. This result is
obtained so long as the relative humidity of the surrounding atmosphere is maintained constantly
at a given value.
Standard Regain Value of Textile Materials

Standard regain is the regain of the material is obtained under standard test condition
when absorbed from dry side. Standard regain of different textile materials are
1. Cotton - 8.5%
2. Silk - 11.0%
3. Wool (Carbonised) - 17.0%
4. Scoured wool - 16.0%
5. Yarn (woollen/worsted) - 18.25%
6. Cloth (woollen/worsted) -16.0%
7. Viscose – Cupramonium rayon -11.0%
8. Jute -13.25%
9. Flax and Hemp - 12.0%
10. Nylon - 4.5%
11. Orlon - 2.0%
12. Dacron - 0.4%
“Commercial Regain” is the standard adopted for commercial transaction. These are
arbitrary figures and generally very closed to standard conditions.
Corrected Invoice weight

When textile materials are bought and sold by weight, it is necessary for there to be
agreement between buyer and seller on the exact weight that has to be paid for. This value can
vary considerably with the moisture content of the material which in turn varies with type of
material, the atmospheric moisture content at the time and how wet or dry the material was
before it was packed, among other factors. The buyer certainly does not wish to pay for excess
water at the same price per kilogram as the textile material. A 'correct invoice weight' is therefore
determined according to. In this procedure the consignment is considered to contain a percentage
of water known as the standard regain allowance and the weight of the consignment is calculated
as if it contained this amount of water.
When a consignment of textile material is delivered and weighed, a sample is taken from it on
which tests are made which enable the correct invoice weight to be calculated. Samples of at
least 200gm are selected according to adequate sampling procedures and immediately stored in
airtight containers so that no moisture is lost. The samples are weighed and then the oven dry
weight is determined as described above. In some cases other non-textile materials, such as oils,
grease, wax and size, are removed before drying.

If M — mass of consignment at time of sampling, D = oven dry mass of sample, S = original
mass of sample and C = oven dry mass of the consignment:
The regain allowances vary depending on what physical state the material is in, for
example woollen yarn 17%, worsted yarn 18.25% , oil combed tops 19% , wool cloth 16% .
Where R1 is Commercial regains value
If the samples are dried after cleaning a different set of allowances is used for moisture
and oil content, etc:
Where R2 is the moisture regains which may differ from R1, A2 is the allowance for
natural grease and B2 is the allowance for added oil. In most cases an overall allowance is given
which includes the values for moisture and natural and added fatty matter.
In the case of a blend the overall allowance is calculated from the fraction of each
component in the blend multiplied by its regain value, for example: 50/50 wool / viscose (dry
percentages)

Unit II
1. Measurement of linear Density (Yarn Count)

Yarn Fineness or Count In practice, yarn fineness is typically described by terms such as yarn
count, yarn number, or yarn size. The subject of yarn fineness can be treated in a similar manner
to that of fiber fineness in the sense that both the fiber and the yarn may not have perfectly
circular cross sections and they both exhibit thickness variability. Therefore, the linear density or
mass per unit length is commonly used as an alternative measure of actual fineness or thickness.
In general, three yarn count systems are commonly used:

1. The direct system and
2. The indirect system.
3. Universal Count System
Yarn count is an important characteristic. All the purchases and sales are made on the
basis of count of yarn. A type of machinery and also setting of the machinery depend on count of
yarn. A setting is made to spin particular count cannot be employed to spin different count.
Adjustments are to be made at every stage of processing so as to get required count of yarn, so
for manufacturing of the fabric. The setting of the machinery depends upon count of yarn. So
from the point of view of the buyer and seller, technologist’s point of view, and also from point
of view of imitation and quality control, testing of yarn is necessary.
Count denotes size of the yarn, i.e. whether the yarn is thick or thin, heavy or light.
Owing to the fact the material from which is made is highly variable and process also to some
extent imposes further unevenness. The count of yarn is not absolutely constant throughout the
length of yarn. The size of the yarn is a measure of diameter. But measurement of diameter is not
easy for many reasons. Any instrument used to find out the diameter could compress the yarn so
the result obtained depends upon force applied. Therefore, usual methods of measuring the size
of the yarn are either ratio to length and weight or weight to length.
Technically ‘yarn count’ signifies the relationship between length and mass of yarn and it
is from this relationship that the term ‘linear density’ is also much in use. Linear density is the
general term, used more frequently for fibres. Both the terms count and linear density have been
used interchangeably in the textile world, difference exists between the two. While count is a
number indicating “length (of yarn) per unit mass, linear density is a number signifying “the
mass (fibre or yarn) per unit length.
The following methods are used for count determination
1. Wrap reel and weighing balance method
2. Direct reading count balance – Knowles balance, Quadrant balance, Beesley’s Balance, Auto
sorter.

1. Wrap Reel & Weighing Balance Method
Wrap reel (Length measurement): The length of yarn is obtained by the use of wrap reel. A
common type of wrap reel is shown in below figure. It consists of a creel A to hold a yarn
package B, a traverse guide C and a swift D. The perimeter of swift varies from one model to
another and it may be 1 yard or 1½ yard or one meter. The wrap reel also has a length indicator E
and a warning bell F to tell the operator when the set number of revolutions has been obtained.
Wrap reel may be hand driven, by means of handle G, or motor may be used to drive them.
In general, where cotton yarns are to be evaluated, the swift normally has a 54 inch (1½
yard) perimeter so that 80 revolutions of the reel produce a ‘lea’ of 120 yards.
Where the use of metric and Tex system of yarn numbering, a wrap reel with a one meter
perimeter is used and 100 metres or 50 metres skeins are reeled for determination of count.
In order to obtain accurate results, the following three conditions are necessary.
 Yarn must be spread out on the reel so that each revolution will reel off exactly the same
length of yarn.
 Tension must be constant and neither too much or too little.
 The speed of the reel must be constant.

Weight Measurement
Weighing of the yarn may be made by
i. Grain scales at room conditions.
ii. Analytical balance at room conditions
iii. Analytical balance and drying oven.
The grain scales are used in general for determining weight of skeins of yarn at room
conditions. These are calculated in grains and a simple calculation gives the count of the yarn if
standard skein is weighted.
Analytical balance gives more accuracy than is usually necessary and are valuable
principally determining count or denier form small lengths of yarn.
A more accurate method is to weigh the skein, when they are oven dry. So called
conditioning ovens, usually supplied to the Textile industry, consist of an oven with analytical
balance accurate to 1 centigram or to 1/10th of grain mounted on it. These are sufficiently
accurate for count determination.
Calculation of Counts
The formulae for calculating counts and denier from length and weight determination
are as follows
Where, N – Count or Number, L – length in yards, W – Weight at standard regain in grains, H –

length of standard hank in yards
2. Knowles balance (A direct Reading Method)
This is direct-reading yarn count balance. It is only suitable for the test specimen can be
prepared in the form of lea. Yarn Knowles balance uses fixed mass and a fixed length of test
yarn to give a direct reading of yarn count on a special scale. A 120 yard length of yarn is
counterpoised against a standard mass in a modified version of an ordinary two pan balance. The
yarn count is simply read off the scale graduated in Ne.
Description
A Knowles balance is shown in fig. It is an ordinary physical balance with slight
modifications. C is the main beam of the balance and D is the pointer, behind the beam, is a
rectangular board F mounted on pillar G. The board contain seven scales, marked from A to G
and graduated in different ranges of English Cotton count, as shown in the table below. E is a
scale knob connected to the count board and helps the board to move up and down to select any
required count scale.

Table:
Scale NeC Count Range
Designation
A 2s to 8s
B 6s to 24s
C 20s to 40s
D 35s to 65s
E 58s to 88s
F 80s to 110s
G 100s to 130s
Standard Weights and Rider Weights

Seven circular standard weights are a part of the Knowles balance. Each of these weights
are marked respectively A to G, to correspond to the seven count scales A to G. If for example,
Scale C is selected for use, then standard weight C should be used and so on. The balance is so
designed that any chosen weight, corresponding to a particular count scale, has to be used in the
left-hand pan.
Procedure to Determine the Count of Yarn
1. The approximate count of the test yarn is first assumed visually.
2. The scale-select knob is then operated to choose scale corresponding to the visual estimated
count. Ex. If the test yarn is approximately 40s , then the scale D is selected.

3. Standard weight corresponding to the chosen scale is placed in the left hand pan of the
balance.
4. The rider corresponding to the chosen scale is placed on the beam, at its middle.
5. At least 10 leas of the test yarn are prepared on a wrap reel, taking the precaution mentioned
earlier.
6. One of the leas is placed on the right hand pan of the balance. The balance knob is turned
clockwise and the lea is counterpoised against the standard weight in the other pan by sliding
the rider to the left or the right as required, so that the two pans are evenly poised as indicated
by the even swing of the pointer.
7. The count of lea is then read off on the chosen scale at the point coinciding with the position
of the rider on the beam.
8. Remaining leas are tested as above and the mean value of the count is reported as the count
of the test yarn.
Advantages
 This kind of balance is easy to use and requires no special practice in operation.
 The test can be done very quickly, as no calculation is required.
 Knowles balance is a good choice for routine count test in spinning mill.
 The balance can be adapted to other count system by appropriately changing the count scales.
3. Quadrant Balance
Like Knowles balance the quadrant balance too is a direct reading yarn count balance. It
gets the name from the fact that its scale is shaped like the arc of a quadrant. A standard length of
yarn is hung from a hook attached to one end of the main beam of the quadrant balance. The
count is directly read off on the scale that corresponds with the length of the specimen.
The salient feature of the quadrant balance is shown in the below fig. The main beam A,
of the balance has a hook B at one end and a counter weight at the other end. The beam is
pivoted at the end of the horizontal rod fixed to a rigid pillar D, on which is also mounted curved
plate E, referred to quadrant scale. Three scales are engraved on the plate, Pointer F is fixed to
the beam at the point where the beam itself is pivoted. When the sample hook is empty and beam
is at rest, the pointer hangs freely and so lower end coincides with a vertical datum line G on the
curved set of scales.
The graduations on the three scales of the curved plate are as follows.
i. The upper most scale is for reading the mass per square yard of the test fabric in
ounces.
ii. The middle scale is for reading yarn count for 8-yard length of the test yarn.
iii. The bottom scale is for reading of yarn count using 40-yard lengths of yarn.

Procedure to Determine the Count of Yarn
Levelling: Before the start of the test, the instrument is checked to see that it is levelled properly.
This is achieved by ensuring that the pointer coincides with the datum line when the main beam
is at rest and its hook is empty.
Calibration: The instrument is calibrated by using the standard weight H marked 40s and
supplied with the instrument. The weight is hung on the sample hook of the beam. The pointer
should read 40s on 40-yard scale.
For 8-Yard test specimen:
 An 8 – yard test specimen is drawn in one of the two ways.
i. By measuring the yarn against a yard scale
ii. By winding the yarn around a one-yard template.
 Care should be taken uniform tension is maintained. The pointer swings along the scale
and comes to rest. Finally the yarn count is read off and recorded.
For 40-yard test specimen
 A 40 – yard sample is drawn as explained above.
 It is coiled up and hung on the sample hook. This time the count is read off. Nine more
specimens are tested and mean count of yarn is calculated.
Mass per unit Area of fabric
 The upper most scale of the balance is used to determine the mass per unit area of fabric. A
square or circular standard template with an area of one-hundredth of a square yard (12.96
sq. inch) is used to cut off test specimens of the fabric. The specimen is placed on the sample
hook and the reading of the pointer noted on the mass-of-fabric scale in terms ounces per
square yard.

Advantages and disadvantages of the quadrant balance:
1. The quadrant balance is an easy-to-use balance.
2. Tests can be done very quickly, as no calculations are required.
3. The balance can be adapted to the other count systems by appropriately changing the
count scales. Some quadrant balances are available these days in which mass per unit
area of fabric can be read off in grams per square metre.
4. Short lengths of yarn up to 40 yards or so and fabric pieces of about 100 cm2 are enough
for tests on this balance.
5. The accuracy of the balance is definitely lower than the Knowles balance and is limited
to the graduations on the count scale. This is especially so in the larger count range for
both the 8-yard and the 40-yard scales, where the graduations are so close that
intermediate values can be assessed only approximately. It is therefore suitable only for
an approximate estimate of yarn count.
4. Beesley’s Balance
A Beesley’s-type balance is used to find out the count of yarn removed from a small
sample of cloth. It therefore uses much shorter lengths of yarn for a test than the Knowles and
quadrant balances. The special advantage of this kind of balance is that it is available in a compact
size so it is portable.
Principle:
The principle of a Beesley's balance is similar to a common balance, except that no pans
are used here. Standard lengths of warp or weft threads removed from a fabric of specific
dimensions are counterpoised against a standard weight. The number of threads that exactly
balances the standard weight is the count of the yarn under test.
Description:
A typical appearance of this kind of balance is shown in the figure. 'A' is the beam of the
balance pivoted at C on a rigid pillar B. The beam has three features. The first is that there is a
sample hook D attached to its right end; the second is that it has a tapered left end that also
serves as a pointer E; and thirdly, it has a notch F about midway on its left-hand section. The
standard weight, G that comes as a part of the balance is hung on the notch during a test. With no
sample on the hook and no weight in the notch, the pointer E of the beam coincides with an
index mark H on another pillar I.
The instrument also comes with a template K. The edges of the template are the standard
lengths to which the warp or weft threads in a test fabric are cut under different systems of yarn
count. For example, the edge WP of the template represents a "full-cotton" length. If only a very
small piece of the test fabric is available, the edge PQ of the template is used to measure off the
threads. This is the "half-cotton" length. Similarly, the other edges ST, VW, XS and QY
represent the standard lengths meant for woollen, linen, worsted and metric count systems
respectively.

The standard weight G is used for all tests of yarn count determination irrespective of the
system. For the "half-cotton" length alone a smaller standard weight of correspondingly lower
mass than G is used. As the beam is light, air draughts could interfere with accurate testing as it
does in a physical balance. The instrument is therefore always enclosed in a glass casing that can
be temporarily open at the front for operator convenience.
A –Beam
B- Pillar
C- Pivot
D-Hook
E-Pointer
F-Notch K
G-Weight
H-Index Mark
I-Pillar
crew
K- Template

Procedure to determine yarn count
a. Levelling the instrument: When the beam is free of test specimen and the standard weight, its
pointer should be exactly in line with the index mark H. Any deviations can be set right by
adjusting the levelling screw J.
b. Determination of count: First of all, place the standard weight G on the notch of the beam; if
the half-cotton length on the template is to be used, use the smaller standard weight instead. Next,
the test fabric is laid flat and a square of fabric is cut off with a sharp blade. The side of the square
should be about 1 1/2 times longer than the standard yarn length required to be used. The warp and
weft threads are unravelled from the fabric, taking care to keep them separately.
The warp threads are then taken, a few at a time, aligned parallel to each other, and straightened
to just remove crimp. The straightened set of threads is held parallel to the required edge of the
template and cut off using a sharp blade. A number of warps threads are cut off thus from the
unravelled threads.
The warp threads of the required standard length are placed on the hook of the beam, one by one,
until the standard weight on the beam is exactly counterpoised, as indicated by the coincidence of
the pointer with the index mark.
The threads on the sample hook are removed and counted. The total number of threads is equal to
the count of the warp yarn in the test fabric. For example, if there are 20 warp threads, the yarn
count is 20s if the warp consists of single yarn and 2/40s, if it is double yarn. The weft threads
unravelled from the test fabric are tested in exactly the same manner as described for the warp
threads and the weft yarn count determined.
Advantages and disadvantages of the Beesley's balance
 The balance is easy to operate and the counts of the threads in a fabric can be quickly
estimated.
 This instrument is the only alternative if only a small sample of fabric is available for
analysis and speed of test is important.
 The accuracy is not high as the yarn is decrimped manually for cutting it off to standard
length and operator errors could therefore easily occur.

2. Study of twist
Twist is the measure of spiral turn given to the yarn to hold the consequent fibres or
threads together. Twisting refers to operation of laying the fibres of single yarn at one angle to
the axis of yarn itself. The fundamental purpose of twist enables a long and continuous thread
being formed from discontinuous short fibres as they are naturally occurring. It is essential to
give binding force to the fibres so that the yarn which enables to withstand stress and strain
during the process of manufacture. To make continuous yarn there is no other mean except
twisting.
In cotton spinning twisting starts from sliver. In woollen process the condenser webbing
will have no twist actually. Twist is to put in only in the final stage of processing. In the worsted
spinning twist is put inserted in final drawing, where the mule frame has a flyer attached to it
which inserts twist. In jute and spun silk process twist is first inserted at roving frame.
Definition of Twist
Twist may be defined as the number of spiral or helical turns given to a yarn in order to
hold the component fibres or strands together. Twist is also defined as the helical disposition of
the components of a yarn, be they fibre or threads.
Directions of twist
The twist in a yarn may be an S-twist or a Z- twist. To quickly find out whether a yarn
has S-twist or Z-twist, hold it vertically and observe the direction in which its component fibres or
strands lie.
 S-Twist:
The yarn has S-twist if its component fibres or threads
are inclined to the axis of the yarn and are disposed in the
same general direction of the central segment of the letter
S. This is depicted in the figure.
 Z-Twist:
Similarly, the yarn has Z-twist if the constituent fibres
or threads are inclined to the yarn axis and lie in general in
the same direction as the central segment of the letter Z, as
shown in the figure.
In textile practice, it is customary to have Z-twist for warp
yarns and S-twist for weft yarns.
Quantification of Twist (Amount of Twist)

Twist has been defined as the number of spiral or helical turns given to a strand in order
to hold the component fibres or yarns together. Therefore twist may be quantified as the number
of turns per unit length. The length unit is either inch or meter; so twist is expressed in terms of
“turns per inch” (tpi) or "turns per meter" (tpm). Thus a yarn having a twist level of 25 tpi would,
in terms of tpm, have a twist of 25 × 39.37 = 984.25 tpm.

If a yarn is designated as 23 Z 16/5 S11 Cotton, it means that the yarn is a 5-ply cotton yarn
having a doubling twist of 11 tpi in the S-twist direction; the component single yarns are each of
23 S count and have a twist of 16 tpi in the Z-twist direction.
Relationship between Yarn Count and Twist:

One of the important relationships that influence machinery settings in the spun yarn process
is that between yarn count and yarn twist. These two yarn parameters are related by an important
factor known as the ‘twist factor ‘or the ‘twist multiplier‘. The relationship is derived in what
follows.
The figure shows a schematic diagram of a single element or fibre of a spun yarn as it lies on
the surface the yarn. On account of the twist in the yarn, the fibre assumes a helical shape about
the fibre axis. So the full line represents the part of the fibre visible in front and the broken line
that part of the fibre that spirals around on the other side.
The figure shows one unit length l of the yarn. The fibre AB is shown making one
complete turn of the helix around the yarn axis. Let d be the diameter of the yarn and the angle
between a tangent to the fibre and the yarn axis (twist angle or helix angle).
Given this information, imagine now that the yarn surface is slit open along a line passing
through the ends of fibre AB and the yarn is opened out. It will be realised that the opened out
surface layer of the yarn assumes the shape of rectangle ABCD, as shown in the figure.
It will also be clear that the fibre is in fact the hypotenuse AB of the right-angled triangle ABC.
ABC is the helix (or twist) angle and the circumference of the yarn is equal to AC. The yarn
length l is represented by BC.

Let C be the count of yarn, n the twist in the yarn in terms of turns per inch and d the yarn
diameter. In A ABC, tanθ = AC/BC = (circumference of the yarn) / l = πd / l
tanθ = πd/ l ..... .. (1)
As the yarn twist is n turns per inch and the length of the yarn accommodating one turn of
twist is l,
We have nl = 1(inch) or n = 1/ I.
Considering C in terms of Nec, the diameter d of the yarn can be expressed as
d = 1/ (28 \ √C)
Putting these values of n and d in Equation 1, we have,
tan θ = π×n×1/ (28 \ √C)
n = tanθ × 28√C / π…….. (2)
n = m×√C/π, where m = 28tanθ/π
The factor m is called twist multiplier or the twist factor. This is the relationship between the
count and twist in a yarn and the twist multiplier and it can be stated generally as follows.
Twists per inch = Twist Multiplier × √Count in Ne.
Twist Angle:
As illustrated above, the yarn twist angle is the angle between a tangent to the helix
formed by a fibre on the yarn surface and the yarn axis. If the twist multiplier of a cotton yarn is
known, the twist angle can easily be calculated.
Example: Calculate the twist angle of a spun cotton yarn twisted to give a twist factor of 5.
Twist factor = 28 tanθ/π
5= 28 tanθ/π
tanθ = 5π/28
tanθ = 29o18

Significance of the twist multiplier:
The twist multiplier is used to calculate the amount of tpi to be given to the cotton yarn
during spinning. If yarns of soft feel and a pliable behaviour is required twist factors around
3.0 is used while at the other extreme, hard twisted, stiff and twist lively yarns will have
twist factors of around 6.0.
It describes the nature and character of a yarn i.e. characteristics like softness, smoothness,
hardness, etc of yarns. If yarns of different counts were spun with the same twist factor,
their characteristics would be similar. Conversely, if yarns of the same count differed in
twist factor, they would have markedly different characteristics.
Function of twist in yarn structure:

The main function of twist is to bind the fibers together and helps to keep them in their
respective positions. It thus gives coherence to the yarn.
Without twist a strand of fibres has very little strength and in the first instance a yarn must
have sufficient tensile strength to withstand the stresses of preparation and fabric
manufacture.
The main function of twist is to give coherence to the yarn. In order to develop strength in a
twisted strand of discontinuous fibres and so resist breakage, the individual fibres must grip
each other when the strand is stressed. This cohesion arises mainly from the twist, which
presses the fibres together as the stretching force is applied and so developing friction
between adjacent fibres.
Twist is also used to bring about novel effects that are prominently visible when the yarn is
converted to fabric. This is achieved primarily by having a combination of yarns with
different twist levels and twist directions in the fabric.
Twist & Yarn Strength:
The strength of a yarn twisted from staple fibers increases with increasing twist but up to
the certain limit beyond that limit yarn starts loses strength. In the lower portion of the curve
(Fig.), this strength will be due solely to sliding friction, i.e. under tensile loading the fibers slide
apart. Cohesive friction arises only in the middle-to-upper regions of the curve. This is caused by
the high tension, and thus high pressure, and finally becomes so considerable that fewer and
fewer fibers slide past each other and more and more are broken.
This continues up to certain Maximum, i.e. to the optimal exploitation of the strength of
the individual C) - is dependent upon the raw material. Normally, yarns are twisted to levels
below the critical twist region (A – knitting, B – warp); only special yarns such as voile (C) and
crêpe (D) are twisted above this region. Selection of a twist level below maximum strength is
appropriate because higher strengths are mostly unnecessary, cause the handle of the end product
to become too hard, and reduce productivity.

Fig. – Relationship between the number of turns of twist and the strength of a yarn; F, strength;
T/m, turns of twist per meter in the yarn; PES, polyester fibers; Co, cotton fibers.
Optimum twist factor:

The twist factor that gives maximum strength in any given staple yarn is called the
‘optimum twist factor‘. This would naturally be a function of fibre characteristics such as length,
fineness, rigidity, surface and frictional properties, etc. of course yarns not always manufactured
to have maximum strength; when visual or other effects are of more importance, a compromise is
inevitable. Crepe yarns have very high twist factors in the range 6.0 to 9.0 and these yarns when
woven into fabric impart the characteristic crepe surface to the fabric.
Factors Affecting Twist:

The twist introduced in the yarn during spinning depends upon a number of factors.
 The count of yarn to be spun - the twist level in a yarn is proportional to the square root of
the yarn count.
 The quality of cotton used - all other parameters remaining the same, longer fibres require
less twist than the shorter ones.
 The use to which the yarn is put - is the yarn meant to be used as warp yarn, weft yarn,
knitting yarn or any other yarn.
 The fineness of the fibre being spun - the finer and longer staple cottons need a lower twist
for the same count compared to shorter and coarser cottons.
 The kind of machine in which the yarn will subsequently be used - the twist in yarns used for
weaving on power looms and automatic looms will be higher than that used for hosiery.

 The softness of the fabric into which the yarn is to be converted - yarns required for soft-
surfaced fabrics are given only a slack twist.
 The smoothness of the fabric into which the yarn is to be converted - yarns required for
smooth-surfaced fabrics are given many twists per inch. They are hard twisted yarns and they
give strength, smoothness, elasticity and some crease-resistance of fabrics.
 Any other special attribute of the fabric into which the yarn is to be converted - yarns
required for crepe fabrics with rough, pebbly or crinkled surfaces are given a maximum
amount of twist. The crepe yarns also confer enhanced crease resistance to the fabric.
Effects of twist on fabric properties:

The twist in yarns can be caused to affect the properties of the fabric in which the yarns
are included. Major fabric properties that are influenced by yarn twist are listed below.
1. Visual appearance
2. Handle
3. Mechanical characteristics
1. Visual Appearance:
 When yarns are incorporated in a fabric such that adjacent sets of yarn vary in the
direction of twist, different effects like the shade effect, stripe effect etc., can be
produced.
 Prominence of twill lines in a fabric largely depend upon the direction of twist in warp
and weft yarns.
2. Handle: Yarn with higher twist levels is smooth. They are hard yarns that are less hairy and
therefore relatively lustrous. When such yarns are woven into fabric, the fabric feels smooth,
hard and stiff. Very highly twisted yarn will be lively and tend to twist upon itself to produce
snarls. Fabric from such yarns will also lively handle. The handle of yarn with low twist will
be comparatively softer and limp.
3. Mechanical Properties: Properties like tensile strength, abrasion resistance and tearing
strength are affected. When strand of parallel fibres are twisted, fibres get closer to each
other and their movement is becomes difficult as the twist increases. Thus inter fibre friction
increases so too strength. This continues until the maximum strength is reached. The yarn has
optimum twist. Increase in the twist fall in strength as the fibres now have very high twist
angle.
Twist in general, causes an increase in yarn lustre and reduction in yarn hairiness, the
better will be the abrasion resistance. Influence of the twist to yarn strength, the stronger the
yarn better is the tearing strength.
In a highly twisted yarn the fibres at the surface are incapable of sharing a load with those
nearer the core of yarn unless they straighten under the effect of the tensile load. By the time
this happens, many of the fibres at the core have already broken.

The net result is a lower breaking load. All the fibres in the yarn act in a concerted manner when
the yarn approaches the optimum twist and result in optimum strength.
This is not possible when this twist level is exceeded and many of the fibres, especially those at
the yarn surface, are too oblique to the yarn axis. As stated above, twist in general, causes an
increase in yarn lustre and a reduction in the yarn hairiness. The lower the yarn hairiness, the
better will be its abrasion resistance, everything else remaining constant.
Measurement of twist:
The most obvious way to measure the number of twists per unit length of yarn is simply
to untwist a known length of the yarn and check visually to see whether the twist has been
completely removed.
Sampling of yarns for twist testing

With regard to twist testing, as with all physical tests, sampling is very important. This is
so because twist can be found to vary along the length of any given yarn. It can be realised from
common experience that a thicker strand needs to be twisted to a greater extent than a thinner
strand to achieve the same level of twist. Speaking technically, it can be stated that the amount of
twist in a material is inversely proportional to its thickness. Thick places in a strand would have
less twist than thin places, i.e. twist α (1/yarn thickness).
In twisting staple fibre strands, it is impossible to give variable twist along different
portions of a given strand to end up with even twist throughout the strand. The net result is that
the places of normal thickness would have the intended twist level, the thick places would have
lower twist and the thin places would be tightly twisted. The thin places would be hard twisted
and the thick places soft twisted.
Number of tests and general specifications
To obtain representative values of the mean twist in given yarns, standards organisations
always specify that a certain minimum number of tests have to be performed. They also indicate
the precautions to be followed while drawing test specimens from a yarn package. In general, the
following points may be followed.
 In the case of plied and cabled spun yarn and continuous filament yarn, at least ten
specimens are to be tested if the test length is 500 mm according to Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS). The British Standards Institution (BSI) recommends testing up to 20
specimens of 250 mm each.
 In the case of single spun yarn, BIS specifies that a minimum of 100 specimens of 25 mm
length each be tested while using the ‘direct count method’ of twist measurement and 20
tests for specimens of 250-500 mm if the untwist-retwist method is used. BSI recommends
50 specimens of 25 mm each.
 The test yarn package is to be mounted vertically on a peg that permits smooth withdrawal
of the yarn at right angles to the package. The package should be free to rotate about the
peg as the yarn is withdrawn gently from it.

 If the yarn is removed from the top of the package there would tend to be a twisting or
untwisting action on the yarn depending upon whether the yarn is S-twisted or Z-twisted.
This action would therefore certainly alter the twist and the results would not be true.
 The actual test specimen should be handled manually such that the fingers do not touch
the length over which the twist is actually measured.
 The tension in the test specimen must be constant. BSI recommends a yarn tension level
of tex /2 ± 10% grams. To cite an example, a 40s Nec count (i.e. about 15 tex) yarn would
be maintained at a tension in the range 635- 8.25 grams. BSI also specifies the same level
of tension.
Techniques of twist Measurements

Twist testing equipment have not changed radically over the years except that actual test
uses electronic devises to measure the twist. The most common techniques that have been used
for measuring yarn twist are listed below.
 Straightened fibre technique or the direct count method.
 Twist contraction technique or the untwist and retwist method.
 Twist to break technique.
 Microscopic technique.
1. The straightened fibre technique
A. Straightened twist tester
Principle: Used only for testing single spun yarns, this technique involves the untwisting of the
test specimen until all of the twist is removed. The completeness of the untwisting is verified by
visual examination of the straightening of all of the fibres in the strand - this is why the name
‘straightened fibre technique‘. The number of turns required for the untwisting is counted and the
number is divided by the length of the test specimen to arrive at the twist of the test yarn turns
per unit length.
This technique is also known as the ‘direct count method‘, as the twist in the yarn is directly
counted.
Construction: The below figure depicts the salient features of a single yarn twist tester
incorporating the straightened fibre technique. The instrument consists of two pillars, A and B,
mounted on a rigid base C. On pillar A are mounted a fixed jaw D, a guide pulley E, a tensioning
arrangement F, a magnifying lens G and a blackboard H. Pillar B carries a jaw I that can be
rotated manually either way by means of handle K and the number of revolutions is recorded in
the revolution counter J. A length of 25 mm (or one inch), the test length normally used,
separates the faces of the jaws D and I. A test specimen L can be seen mounted between the two
jaws.

Test Procedure:
 The first step is to set the revolution counter to zero.
 Next clamp the test yarn in the rotatable jaw. Open the static jaw and lead the yarn through
it and then over the guide pulley; attach a small weight to the yarn to give it the required
tension and then close the jaw to clamp the yarn.
 Check, by means of lens G if necessary, the twist direction of the test specimen. Then using
the handle, rotate jaw I in a clockwise or anti-clockwise direction so as to untwist the yarn.
 Note the twist in the yarn being removed. When most of the twist has been removed, push a
sharp needle through the middle of the partially untwisted strand so it nearly touches the
static jaw; then, looking through lens G, gently move the needle towards the other jaw.
 Give the handle a final rotation either way until the needle is in the closest possible position
to the rotatable jaw.
 Finally, the number of turns of the rotatable jaw required to untwist the test specimen is
read off the revolution counter and recorded.
 At least 50 tests are conducted in this manner and the mean tpi and CV% are calculated.
Test Results: The mean instrument reading is first calculated and then the twist is expressed
either in terms of turns per inch (tpi) or turns per metre (tpm) as follows.
If the mean instrument reading is 'm' turns and the test length is one inch, then the twist in the
yarn is m tpi or 39.37 m tpm. If the test length is 25 mm, the twist is (25.4m/25) tpi or 40m tpm.

B. Continuous Twist Tester
Principle: This twist tester is a modification of the above instrument and permits the continuous
testing of a number of one-inch test specimens without undue handling of the yarn. This
instrument is therefore capable of giving more reliable results on the short- term variation in
twist in the yarn.
It works on the same principle as the above instrument, viz. the straightened- fibre principle. As
the test specimen has to be static during a twist test, the term 'continuous' simply implies that
one-inch lengths of the test yarn can be evaluated successively and quickly, one after another, on
an extended length of the yarn.
Construction: The figure shows a continuous twist tester. It has a broad base A, on which are
mounted from left to right a peg to support a yarn package C, a thread guide D, a magnifying
lens E, a fixed jaw F, a rotatable jaw G, connected to a revolution counter H that indicates the
reading on a dial, a handle I and a winding drum J. Both the jaws can be moved, in a
translational motion either to the left or to the right, in a slot provided in the base of the
instrument. This arrangement allows specimen lengths of 1", 5" or 10". A test specimen K is
shown mounted between the two jaws. A zero-set knob in the instrument helps to set the pointer
in the dial to zero.

Test Procedure:
1. Using 1-inch test specimens
 The distance between the two jaws is set at one inch by moving the rotatable jaw
appropriately.
 The test yarn sample is drawn from the sample package and passed through the guide, the
fixed jaw and the rotatable jaw, and finally wound on to the take-up drum.
 The jaws are closed to clamp an inch length of the specimen.
 The revolution counter is set to zero by adjusting the zero-set knob.
 The twist direction in the test yarn is identified by means of the magnifying lens. The
rotatable knob is then rotated to untwist the yarn.
 After the major portion of the twist is removed, a sharp needle is inserted into the
untwisted strand as close to the fixed jaw as possible and moved towards the rotatable jaw
while looking through the magnifying lens. Complete untwisting is achieved by rotating
the jaw one way or the other until it is possible to push the needle right up to it.
 The tpi of the test specimen can now be directly read from the dial and recorded as m1.
 The yarn is then twisted back to its original level of twist, as indicated by the zero reading
on the dial. The original twist is thus put back into the test specimen.
 The rotatable jaw is then opened and moved leftward to the fixed jaw until the two jaw
faces touch each other.
 The fixed jaw is now opened and the rotating jaw is closed and pulled back to its original
position. This brings in a new 1-inch specimen in between the jaws. The fixed jaw is now
closed.
 The take-up drum is rotated to take up the slack yarn at its left.
 The new test specimen is then evaluated for twist. Let its reading be m2.
 The above procedure is repeated until the required number of tests is completed.
 The mean tpi value is then calculated from the individual readings ml, m2, m3, m4…mn and
reported.
2. Test lengths greater than one inch

The above general procedure can be used to test yarn for twist using 5-inch and 10 inch
test specimens. The greater the test length the fewer will be the number of test specimens to be
tested.
Advantages of this instrument

 Unnecessary handling of material between successive tests is avoided.
 Shorter variations in tpi values along a continuous length of yarn can be assessed.

2. Twist contraction technique or the untwist and retwist method
Principle: Also known as the twist-and-retwist method, this technique works on the principle
that the twist in a given length of yarn, under specified tension, is removed by untwisting. This
causes the yarn to extend in length. The original level of twist is then inserted into the yarn but in
the opposite direction. As a result, the yarn reverts to its original length. The number of turns
required to untwist and retwist the yarn is noted and the tpi is calculated. The contraction in
length when a strand of parallel fibres is twisted in a given direction will generally be equal to
the contraction it suffers when it is twisted in the opposite direction.
 Twist contraction: The twisting together of two strands causes a contraction effect that
must be known in order to calculate the count of the plied yarn accurately. The twist
contraction principle holds good even when a strand of parallel fibres (or filaments) is
twisted.
In general, if the length of the strand before twisting is L and upon twisting the contracted
length is L1, the twist contraction C is given by C = L - L1.
 Extension on Untwisting: If the above yarn of length L1 were untwisted so that no twist
remains, the resulting strand would have a length equal to L.
 Contraction on Retwisting: Further, if the untwisted strand above were twisted in the
opposite direction of its original twist, such that the same level of twist is attained, the
length of the resulting yarn would again be L1.
Figure: Contraction on Twisting Extension on Untwisting

Tension type Twist tester
A typical tension-type twist tester is shown in the figure. It is specifically designed to apply the
twist contraction principle to single spun yarns. Essentially, it consists of two pillars, mounted on
a solid base. A fixed jaw is mounted on a pillar. This jaw is connected to a tension scale that has
a sliding weight that can be set at any required point on the scale, the lower end of which is a
pointed tip. The whole scale is in effect a small pendulum. At the base of this pillar is a fixed
index mark.
The other pillar carries the rotatable jaw I, which is connected to handle and a revolution counter
through gears. The gear ratio is such as to display the tpi of the test specimen at the end of the
test. The mechanical counter displays four digits. The first two digits represent whole numbers
while the next two indicate two decimal places. A zero setting knob is connected to the counter.
The test specimen mounted in between the fixed and rotatable jaws. The specimen length in this
instrument is a fixed 10". In some testers of this kind there is an arrangement to change the
specimen length by sliding the fixed jaw pillar along a slot in the base.
Test Procedure:-The sliding weight on the tension scale is first set according to the count of the
test yarn and the instrument constant, which will usually be provided by the concerned
instrument manufacturer. For example, a particular manufacturer recommends that the following
formula be used to arrive at the tension setting.
Tension scale reading = 156/English count
 Yarn from the test package is first gripped in the fixed jaw and then led through the
rotatable jaw. It is pulled through the latter jaw until the knife-edge tip of the pendulum
pointer is exactly in line with the fixed index mark at the base. This jaw too is then closed.

At this stage, the test specimen is under recommended tension and has a test length or gauge
length of 10".
 The mechanical counter is now set to zero using the zero-set knob.
 The twist direction of the test specimen is ascertained, if necessary by means of a
magnifying lens and the handle is rotated so as to untwist the yarn.
 As the twist in the 10 inch specimen is removed, the yarn extends and the tension in it falls;
as a result, the pendulum pointer moves away from the index mark and eventually reaches
its position of rest (i.e. the vertical position). At this stage, all the twist has been removed
from the sample.
 The jaw is kept rotating in the same direction until sufficient twist has been inserted to bring
the pointer gradually back to coincide with the index mark.
 Thus, in this method, the twist is first removed by untwisting and then put back by
retwisting -the untwist-and-retwist principle.
 The revolution counter reading is noted and recorded. As stated earlier, this is the value of
the tpi of the test specimen.
3. Twist-to-Break Technique of Twist Measurements

The twist-to-break technique is not a reliable method for everyday tests with yarns and is
therefore not much used these days. Its mention here is merely for historical interest.
Principle
A specific short length of yarn is twisted in a twist tester until it breaks. Another
specimen of the same length is then twisted to break by twisting it in the opposite direction. If NS
are the number of turns required in the first case and N2 those in the second instance, the tpi of
the yarn is given by (NS - N2)/ 2.
4. The microscopic technique

This technique is more suitable for research work on special model yarns rather than for
routine yarn testing. The fact that only a very small portion of the yarn is tested at a time and that
the technique is therefore very slow makes it inconvenient for regular testing. However, the
textile technologist is encouraged to be aware of this technique.
Principle:-A microscope equipped with a graduated rotary sample stage is used to measure the
helical angle of the twist in the yarn. The yarn diameter is also measured. From these two
quantities the twist per unit length is calculated.
The microscopic arrangement:-Line diagrams depicting the principle of the technique are
shown in the figures (a) and (b). Note the circular rotary stage A of the microscope with
graduations in degrees at its periphery.
The rotary microscopic stage can be fixed at any desired position by means of a small screw
catch B. Note also the fixed index mark C close to the circular stage against which the angular

positions of the stage can be read off. The eyepiece used should be a crosswire eyepiece haying a
built-in micrometer scale to measure the yarn diameter. A magnified view of the yarn as seen
through the eyepiece is superimposed at the centre of the diagrams. The two perpendicular cross
wires can be clearly seen in these views.
Test Procedure
 The circular rotary stage is first set so as to have its 'zero' mark coinciding with the index
mark. It is then fixed in this position.
 A length of yarn mounted on a microscopic glass slide is placed on the rotary stage and
held in position by the catches normally available on the stage itself.
 The yarn is brought into sharp focus and the eyepiece is turned one way or another so that
one of the cross wires of the eyepiece is parallel to the yarn axis.
 The stage catch is released and the stage rotated slowly until the crosswire is tangential to
the helix formed by the twisted fibres on the yarn surface. The stage catch is again turned
on to fix the stage in this new position.
 The angle through which the stage is rotated is noted. This is the yarn twist angle.
 Now the eyepiece is rotated so that the micrometer scale is perpendicular to the yarn axis.
The width of the yarn is read off on the scale. The yarn diameter is then calculated in terms
of inches.

Calculations:-Let the yarn angle as determined by the above procedure be θ°. Let the yarn
diameter be d inches. Consider one complete turn of the helical twist on the yarn surface. Let I
in. be the length of this helix measured parallel to the yarn axis.
Referring to the figure, we have
I = π d /tanθ
Since turns per inch = 1/I,
Twist per inch = tan q/ π θ
The values of θ and d are known, so the yarn tpi can be calculated.
Disadvantage
As stated earlier, this method has disadvantages. These are listed below.
 Accurate determination of the yarn twist is not possible as a very small portion of the yarn is
examined at a time. A very large number of readings would have to be taken to have
representative values of the twist.
 The technique is tedious and considering the large number of tests, operator fatigue could
affect the results.
 This technique is therefore unsuitable for routine testing and quality control.
Twist determination in Folded yarns (Doubled & Cabled Yarn)
Doubled yarns containing two or more plies and cabled yarns are evaluated for twist in a slightly
different type of twist tester known as the take-up twist tester. This twister derives its name from
the term ‘twist take-up‘, used frequently in yarn twisting. This term is a further refinement of the
term ‘twist contraction‘, which has been defined earlier.
Definition of ‘twist take-up’

Twist take-up may be defined as the twist contraction suffered by a strand being twisted
expressed as a percentage of the original length of the strand before twisting.
Twist take-up % = 100 × (twist contraction) / (strand length before twisting)
=100 × (strand length before twisting - strand length after twisting)

Strand length before twisting
The twist contraction is a function of the count of the strand and the level of twist inserted. The
take-up twist tester primarily measures the twist in plied or cabled yarns. Indirectly, it permits
the measurement of the twist take-up in such yarns.

The take-up twist tester
Principle:-This twist tester works on a simple principle. A specific length of the plied yarn under
test is untwisted completely to zero twist. The number of turns required to separate the yarn into
its component single yarns is observed. This number divided by the initial test length in inches
gives the tpi of the test yarn. From the final untwisted length of the yarn and its initial twisted
length it is possible to calculate the twist take-up percentage.
Parts of the instrument:-The figure shows the main parts of a take-up twist tester. It consists of
two pillars A and B fixed to a solid base C on which is embedded a scale to measure the distance
between the two jaw faces, i.e. the yarn test length. Pillar A is attached to a rod D in the base of
the instrument by means of pin E. This arrangement permits it to be moved and set in any one of
three positions from the other pillar B. The three positions correspond to yarn test lengths 1", 5"
or 10". Yarn can thus be tested at any of these test lengths. At the top of pillar A is mounted a
non-rotatable jaw F, an extension scale or ‘take-up‘ scale G, a catch H, a guide pulley I, and a
serrated lever J. The lever carries a tension weight K and a guide L. When required, jaw F can
slide on a pair of smooth rods M. The jaw has an index mark N etched on it.
The other pillar B carries a rotatable jaw O. The shaft of this jaw has a worm P activated by
pinion Q, a handle wheel R and a handle S. The jaw can be rotated in any chosen direction,
clockwise or anticlockwise, by rotating the handle appropriately.

The worm combines with two worm wheels (discs T and U) to form a mechanical counter that
counts the number of revolutions of the rotatable jaw. The top disc (worm wheel) of the counter
has 100 teeth that represent 100 divisions or graduations. A pointer is attached to the bottom disc
but it moves over the top disc to indicate the readings on it. As the bottom disc has only 99 teeth,
every revolution it makes causes the pointer also to move across 99 teeth. The pointer therefore
would always lag by one tooth for every revolution of the top dial (which moves through 100
teeth per revolution). The lag of the pointer by one tooth enables readings to be taken beyond
100 revolutions of the rotatable jaw.
The rotating jaw assembly has a spring-loaded knob V, which when pushed causes the two discs
of the counter to be disengaged from the worm. This arrangement helps to set the top dial to zero
reading against an index mark W etched on the frame of the rotatable jaw assembly. At ‘zero-
setting‘, the pointer and the zero mark of the counter should both be in line with this index mark.
X is a test specimen fixed between the two jaws.
Procedure
 The required tension at which the yarn is to be held in between the jaws is calculated on
the basis of the test yarn count. This is usually (tex/2) grams. The tension weight is
adjusted on the serrated lever appropriately.
 The mechanical counter is then set to zero using the spring-loaded jaw as explained above.
 Pillar A is set at the chosen distance from pillar B to give the desired test length of 1, 5 or
10 inches.
 The non-rotatable jaw is adjusted to coincide with the zero mark on the take-up scale and
the catch is released.
 The plied or cabled yarn from the test package is threaded through the guide, the non-
rotatable jaw and then through the rotatable jaw.
 After ensuring that the yarn is at the right tension, both of the jaws are closed so as to grip
the test specimen.
 The twist direction of the test yarn is checked and the handle is rotated in such a direction
as to untwist the yarn.
 The twist in the yarn gets removed gradually and when most of it is removed, the rotation
of the jaw is stopped and a sharp needle is inserted into the yarn so as to separate the plies
and as close to the face of the sliding jaw as possible. The needle is then moved towards
the rotatable jaw to push any residual twist towards it. The jaw is then caused to rotated
again to remove all the twist completely from the yarn.
 Two readings are then noted. One is the reading of the pointer on the dial and the other is
the extension of the yarn on the extension scale. The former denotes the total number of
turns that were required to untwist the test length of the yarn and the latter denotes the
extension of the yarn upon complete removal of the twist.

Calculations
The twist per inch and the take-up per cent of the test yarn are calculated as follows.
1. Twist per inch = Dial reading / test length
2. Take-up % = (Extension scale reading) / (untwisted length of yarn)
Twist determination in individual plies

The twist direction and the twist level in a plied or cabled yarn will not necessarily be the
same as those in the individual plies of the yarn. In most cases the twist direction and the twist
level would be the same in the final singles yarn composing the plied or cabled yarns.
The twist direction in the plied yarns can be easily determined. However, determination
of the twist per inch takes a little more effort.
 Plied Yarn
If it is a two-ply yarn, follow the procedure described above to determine the doubling twist,
using a take-up twist tester and a test length of 10 inches. At the end of the test there will be two
independent plies between the jaws.
Next, using sharp blade carefully cut off one of the plies close to the jaw faces. Without undue
handling, mount the single yarn carefully on a single-yarn twist tester using a 10 inch test length,
if possible, or a one-inch test length and determine the twist level as explained earlier. The
second ply left on the take-up twist tester is then cut off and tested similarly on a single-yarn
twist tester.
If a three-ply yarn is to be tested, follow the above procedure until all the three plies have been
tested.
 Cabled yarn
If a cabled yarn is to be tested, first determine the cabling twist direction and cabling twist using
a take-up twist tester and a test length of 10 inches as explained for the plied yarn. At the end of
the test, the component (doubled) yarns will be separated. All of them but one is cut off flush
with the jaw faces.
The doubled yarn left uncut between the jaws will be slack and of a length greater than 10 inches
on account of the extension due to the untwisting of the parent cabled yarn. One of the jaws is
opened and the doubled yarn is tensioned and then clamped again. The doubling twist direction
and level of twist is then determined. Finally, the component single yarn twist is determined as
explained above.
Electronic Twist Tester (Microprocessor twist tester)

The electronic twist tester is an automated version of the conventional manually-operated
twist testers described above. This instrument is capable of evaluating the twist in both single
and doubled yarns.
Principle:-The instrument uses the untwist-and-retwist principle for single yarns and the
principle of the take-up twist tester (untwisting only) for doubled yarns.

Construction:-The essential features of the instrument are shown in the figure. Yarn from a test
package is first taken to a disc unit mounted on a solid base, which also has a scale along its
length to measure the distance between the two clamps (i.e. test specimen length). The scale is
graduated both in inches (1-20") and in centimeters (1 to 50 cm).
The disc unit consists of a graduated disc pivoted at its centre and mounted on a moveable
support. The disc unit is thus capable of being moved anywhere along the scale to set any desired
yarn test length.
At the top of the disc is a non-rotatable clamp to hold one end of the test specimen. The tension
in the specimen can be set by adjusting a pointer to any desired position on the scale, the
graduations of which indicate yarn tension in grams force. This is the arrangement for setting the
tension in single yarns. In the case of doubled yarns, an additional weighting device is added to
the disc.
The right side of the instrument has a microprocessor unit to which is attached a rotatable jaw.
The unit houses a motor to rotate the jaw in the clockwise or anticlockwise direction. It also has
the following features.
 A digital display unit for displaying yarn tpi or tpm.
 An lamp to indicate zero position
 Tpi / tpm selection switch
 Motor switch
 Twist direction selection switch (S / Z switch)
 Forward / backward rotation switch
Test Procedure for single yarn

 The disc unit is slid along the scale and fixed to give the desired test length.
 The required yarn tension, calculated on the basis of the yarn count, is set on the graduated
dial. The pointer is moved appropriately so that it reads the set yarn tension.
 Make the required selections of the tpi I tpm switch and the S / Z switch.
 The yarn sample from the test package is led through a guide and clamped in between the
two jaws. When this is done correctly the forward direction switch light up.

 Before the test is started, the digital display should read zero and the concerned indicator
lamp lights up. If not, the zero setting is obtained by using the reset knob.
 The motor switch is now turned on. When the motor runs the zero-set indicator light
normally turns off at a display value of l tpi (or tpm).
 When the yarn has been untwisted and retwisted the motor stops automatically.
 The tpi or the tpm value of the test specimen is then read off the digital display unit and
noted.
 20 such readings are taken and the average value of twist is reported.
Test procedure for doubled yarn

The additional weight arrangement is used to get the right test yarn tension. The tension pointer
is set to the maximum value on the scale. The digital display is set to zero. All of the other steps
are the same as those for single yarn. When the motor stops automatically the display shows 2 to
3 tpi (or 20 to 25 tpm). A sharp needle is now inserted in between the ply yarns close to the face
of the non-rotatable jaw and any residual twist is pushed towards the rotatable jaw. The motor is
then run slowly until the needle can be freely pushed right up to the face of the rotatable jaw.
The twist reading is then noted and at least 10 such readings are obtained in all to arrive at the
mean value of the yarn twist.

Yarn Evenness
Introduction
The spinning of yarns from natural fibres is a difficult task for any spinner because of the
natural variations in fibre properties like length, fineness, strength, crimp, cross sectional area,
etc. Right through the spinning systems developed by man, the textile technologists have
constantly been putting their efforts into the production of an ideally even yarn by manipulating
the process parameters and machine design. There has always been an endeavour to enhance the
evenness of spun yarn. Yarn evenness contributes immensely to the quality of woven and knitted
fabrics. Other applications where yarn is used also calls for good evenness. Hence yarn evenness
plays a very important role in the quality of most textile products.
Evenness, unevenness, regularity and irregularity are common terms used to describe the
degree of uniformity of a textile product. In the textile field, the uniformity of products like the
lap, sliver, roving or yarn is expressed in terms of evenness or regularity or in terms of
unevenness o irregularity.
In actual practice, it is not easy to produce a yarn of perfectly uniform characteristics
such as uniformity in weight per unit length, uniformity in diameter, twists per inch, strength,
etc. This is mainly due to the inherent variation in natural fibre characteristics such as fineness,
maturity, length, color, diameter etc.
The following yarn properties are usually subject to variation.
Weight per unit length
Twists per inch
Diameter
Strength
Importance of Yarn Evenness on process and product quality

Irregularity can adversely affect many of the properties of textile materials. The most
obvious consequence of yarn evenness is the variation of strength along the yarn. If the average
mass per unit length of two yarns is equal, but one yarn is less regular than the other, it is clear
that the more even yarn will be the stronger of the two. The uneven one should have more thin
regions than the even one as a result of irregularity, since the average linear density is the same.
Thus, an irregular yarn will tend to break more easily during spinning, winding, weaving,
knitting, or any other process where stress is applied.
A second quality-related effect of uneven yarn is the presence of visible faults on the
surface of fabrics. If a large amount of irregularity is present in the yarn, the variation in fineness
can easily be detected in the finished cloth. The problem is particularly serious when a fault a
thick or thin place appears at precisely regular intervals along the length of the yarn. In such
cases, fabric construction geometry ensures that the faults will be located in a pattern that is very
clearly apparent to the eye, and defects such as streaks, stripes, barre, or other visual groupings
develop in the cloth.

Such defects are usually compounded when the fabric is dyed or finished, as a result of
the twist variation accompanying them. Twist tends to be higher at thin places in a yarn. Thus, at
such locations, the penetration of a dye or finish is likely to be lower than at the thick regions of
lower twist. In consequence, the thicker yarn region will tend to be deeper in shade than the
thinner ones and, if a visual fault appears in a pattern on the fabric, the pattern will tend to be
emphasized by the presence of color or by some variation in a visible property, such as crease-
resistance controlled by a finish.
Other fabric properties, such as abrasion or pill-resistance, soil retention, drape,
absorbency, reflectance, or lustre, may also be directly influenced by yarn evenness. Thus, the
effects of irregularity are widespread throughout all areas of the production and use of textiles,
and the topic is an important one in any areas of the industry.
Classification of yarn irregularity

When dealing with yarns, especially spun yarn, two types of variation are commonly
encountered.
1. Random Variation
2. Periodic Variation
1. Random Variation: - Variation that occurs randomly in a textile material without any definite
order or pattern is called random variation. This is caused mainly due to the natural variations in
the fibre properties.
If a yarn were cut into one-inch lengths and the weight of each consecutive length is
determined and then the weights are plotted in a graph against the lengths. A graph such as the
one shown in the figure would be obtained. When the plotted points are joined to form a graph, it
represents an irregularity trace. A mean line is drawn to indicate the average value of the weight
of the one-inch lengths of yarn.
Thus the deviation of each point or value from the mean can be observed. If the
deviations from the mean are of a random nature and no definite pattern of variation is visible, as
seen in the figure, then the variation is called ‘random variation.

2. Periodic Variation: - Periodic variation is a variation that occurs at definite length sequences
in the textile material. The periodic variations are of two types namely short term periodic
variation and long term periodic variation.
mplitud
e M-
Mean
Value
D- Distance between two consecutive amplitudes.
Suppose a yarn is cut into one-inch lengths and the cross sections of consecutive lengths
of yarn are determined. If the cross sections were plotted against the successive lengths, a graph
such as the one depicted in the figure would be obtained. The plots are joined to form a graph as
shown and a line indicating the mean value is drawn.
Periodic variation is usually denoted by the terms 'wavelength' and ‘amplitude’. In the
figure, the distance from one peak of the wave to the next on the same side of the mean line is
called wavelength. Amplitude is a measure of the size of the deviation from the mean level. If
the deviations from the mean are in a definite sequence, the variation is called ‘periodic
variation‘.
Periodic variations are listed below
 Short term periodic variation:- If the wavelength of the periodic variation is 1 to 10 times
the fibre length, the variation is called short-term variation.
 Medium tern periodic variation:- If the wavelength of the periodic variation is 10 to 100
times the fibre length, the variation is referred to as medium term variation.
 Long tern periodic Variation:-Lastly, if the wavelength of the periodic variation is 100 to
1000 times and above the fibre length,the variation is called long term variation.
Expression of irregularity
Two terms are used to express the irregularity of yarns & intermediate products of
spinning mill to asses and quantify the uniformity or regularity.
1. Percentage of mean deviation.

2. Co-efficient of variation.

Basic irregularity: - The basis irregularity is the certain amount of irregularity found even in
most uniform material. Basic irregularity is also referred to as “limit irregularity” (Vr) as it is
difficult to bring the irregularity to zero. The basic irregularity is given by the following
expression
Where Vr – CV% of weight per unit of length of strand, N – the average number of fibres in the
cross section of the strand and Vm – CV% of the fibre weight per unit length. This relationship
shows that for given fibre and yarn count, there is a basic or limit irregularity which cannot be
improved by the spinning machinery.
Index of Yarn Irregularity: - This is the ratio between the actual irregularity present in the
material and the calculated basis irregularity. Using this index it is possible to assess and
quantify the spinning quality of yarn. It is given by the formula.
Where I – Index of irregularity, Va – The actual irregularity measured, Vr – the calculated limit
irregularity Accordingly the best yarn have a value of I = 1. Higher the value of I indicate that
the yarn is more irregular.
Number of fibres in yarn cross section: The average number of fibres in a yarn cross section is
a good measure of the evenness of spun yarn. Of course this would depend upon variation in
fibre fineness. In general, finer the fibre the greater the number of fibres in the yarn cross section.
Methods used for Measurement of Yarn Evenness
The following methods have been used to measure yarn evenness. As stated earlier, the most
important property that determines yarn evenness is the mean number of fibres in the cross-
section.

1. Visual Assessment
In this method, the test yarn is wound on a black board or a drum with a black surface. The
parallel array of yarns is compared with a set of standard yarns wound in a similar manner. The
test yarn is then accordingly graded for its appearance.
Examples: Blackboard method, drum method, photographic technique, projector method, lap
meter method.
2. Gravimetric technique
In this technique, also called the cutting-and-weighing method, the test strand in the form of a
lap, sliver, rove or yarn is cut to a known length and its mean count is calculated from the results
of a number of test specimens. The standard deviation, coefficient of variation and the
percentage mean deviation are computed and then analysed for evenness.
Examples: Lap scale; lap meter; sliver, roving and yarn wrapping.
3. Electronic capacitance testers

In this type of a device, the sliver, rove or yarn is passed through a capacitor head. The variation
in the weight per unit length is monitored continuously as the strand moves at constant speed
through the capacitor. The variation is continuously measured and electronic circuits record the
degree of unevenness of the test strand.
Examples: Fielden-Walker evenness tester and User Evenness Tester.
4. Measuring the thickness of a strand under compression

In this technique, the test strand runs through a rectangular groove, where it is compressed and
its thickness is monitored using photocells. The variation in thickness is a measure of the
evenness of the material.
Examples: WIRA roving levelness tester and LINRA roller yarn diameter tester.
5. Photoelectric testers
In this method, a beam of light is passed through the textile strand. The light emerging from the
strand falls on a photoelectric cell. This produces an electric current, the magnitude of which will
depend upon the thickness of the material. The output is converted into values that denote the
evenness of the test strand.
Examples: WIRA photoelectric tester and LINRA tester.
1. Visual Assessment Methods (Blackboard method)
This is probably the most economical and widely used everyday test for yarn unevenness. In this
method, the test yarn is wound uniformly on a black surface (which may be a black board as
shown in the figure or a black drum). The appearance of the parallel array of threads is examined
visually against standard appearance boards of yarn similar to the test yarn. When a black
painted drum is used instead of a cardboard, the size of the drum would depend upon the

requirement. Drums of fairly large diameter that can display the entire contents of a cop of yarn
have been used in practice. However, the blackboard technique is the more frequently method.
In a typical test, the yarn is wound on a blackboard of size 91/2"X 51/2" on a device called the yarn
appearance board winder. This winder is shown in the figure. The winder consists of a peg to
carry the test yarn package, a tension type yarn guide and a traverse guide. The guide sits on a
grooved spindle, which is driven manually by rotating handle. The blackboard is held in position
by a holder and is flipped in a continuous manner by operating the handle which causes the
required action through stepped set of pulleys. Each pulley gives a specific number of winds per
inch, which is selected according to the test yarn count.
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) supplies a set of Standard Yarn
Appearance Boards for cotton that is used for comparing the appearance of the test yarn. These
standard boards are prepared with a definite number of wraps per inch for different count ranges
as indicated in the table below.
For example, if a 30s Nec yarn is to be examined by this method; it should be wound on the
blackboard to a wrapping density of 26 wraps/inch.

Interpretation of results: A blackboard is fixed to the holder in a yarn appearance board
winder. The test yarn is wound with uniform tension on to the board using the handle. When the
board is full of yarn, it is taken out and assessed for its appearance by grading it. In order to
identify the grade of the yarn, it is compared with the ASTM standard boards. The boards are
photographs of yarns of different counts wound similarly and classified into four main grades as
A, B, C and D according to visual appearance of yarn. There are also intermediate grades like
B+, C+ and D+. Lastly, there is a grade referred to as BG.
Description of the ASTM yarn grades

1. Grade A Yarn
 No large neps those are three times more than the normal diameter of the yarn.
 Must have good uniformity from inch to inch.
 Should have good cover without excessive fuzziness.
 No leaf and other foreign matters are present.
2. Grade B Yarn
 No large neps but may have a few small ones.
 May have a maximum of three small pieces of foreign matter per board.
 This yarn will be slightly more irregular and slightly more fuzzy than Grade A yarn
3. Grade C Yarn
 Will have more neps.
 More fuzziness and a greater amount of foreign matter than Grade B yarn.
 More thick and thin places than in Grade B yarn.
 Over-all rougher appearance.
4. Grade D Yarn
 Has some slubs, which are more than three times the average diameter of the yarn
 Has more neps of large size.
 Have more thick and thin places.
 Have more fuzz and more foreign matter than Grade C yarn.
 Has an overall rougher appearance than Grade C yarn.
5. Yarn Below Grade D (BG grade)
 Has more defects
 Overall rougher appearance than Grade D yarn
Grading:-The boards prepared for a test yarn are compared with the ASTM boards of the same
count group. The sample is graded on both the sides of the board (front and reverse) and the
grade of the poorer side is taken as the grade of the sample. Three graders should grade each
board independently. When all the three graders assign the same grade then that is taken as the
final grade. In case of disagreement, then the grade given by any two of the graders will be taken

as final provided that the grade assigned by the third grader does not differ by. More than one
grade from the grade assigned by the other two.
In situations where a comparison of the average quality of different lots of yarn is involved, the
grade of each specimen is converted to its equivalent yarn appearance index and the average
index value is calculated. Qualitative designations that can be assigned to yarn and the yarn
appearance index corresponding to each of the above grade are given in Table.
2. Gravimetric technique
As mentioned earlier, the basis of this technique is that strands are first cut to specific known
lengths and each of them weighed accurately in a sensitive balance. The mass per unit length of
the lengths is analysed and the yarn uniformity is assessed. This technique is used widely for
laps, slivers, rovings and yarns.
 Lap Uniformity: The first stage at which the weight per unit length can be controlled in
spinning is the lap stage. Variation in lap is found out in terms of Lap-to-lap variation &
Yard-to-yard variation in the lap
 Lap-to-lap variation: In this commonly practiced method, the full lap, which is usually a
fixed length, is weighed and its weight recorded. A tolerance of 250 grams per lap is
permitted. Any lap that exceeds this tolerance limit is rejected and suitable measures are
taken at the blow room Scutcher to rectify the variation. By controlling the lap weight in this
way, the lap-to-lap variation is kept within tolerable limits.
 Yard-to-yard variation or within-lap variation: To study the yard-to-yard variation, a lap
is cut into one-yard lengths and weighed. The results are recorded and analysed. If any undue
variation is found, the mechanical defects in the blow room scutcher responsible for it can be
identified and these can be rectified to avoid the production of faulty laps.
 Uniformity of Sliver or rove: Slivers and rovings are checked routinely for variation in
mass per unit length. The method consists of measuring off standard lengths of the strand and
weighing them in an accurate balance. The count (hank) of the test specimens is then
calculated. The test procedure has been explained in detail in the section on yarn count. Any
variation in the mass per unit length of the strand is computed in terms of standard deviation

(SD) and coefficient of variation (CV). If the variation is on the plus side, suitable
corrections in the process or machinery are made to get a strand of acceptable uniformity.
 Uniformity of Yarn: Yarn is also monitored for variation in mass per unit length. The
method consists of wrapping a standard length of the test yarn (120 yards or 100 metres) and
weighing them in an accurate balance. The count or the linear density of the test specimens is
calculated and any variation in it is assessed in terms of SD and CV. In the event of excessive
variation, suitable remedial action is then taken to get yarn of tolerable evenness.
3. Electronic Capacitance Testers
Principle: These testers consist essentially of a measuring device that is a parallel-plate air
capacitor. Strands such as sliver, rove or yarn are passed through the capacitor. The capacitance
of the capacitor will vary depending upon the variation in the mass per unit length of the strand
under test. The change in the capacitance will be proportional to the weight of the material in
between the plates of the capacitor. As the material is passed continuously, changes in
capacitance are measured and converted into unevenness values and irregularity traces by
suitable electronic circuits and electro-mechanical devices.
The electronic capacitance testers are influenced by certain material and instrumental factors that
are briefly discussed below.
 Strand Thickness
In order to ensure the right sensitivity and working performance of the capacitor in the evenness
tester, the thickness of the test strand should not occupy more than 40% of the distance between
the capacitor plates. So different capacitors are necessary to evaluate different strands like sliver,
rove coarse yarns and fine yarns.
 Capacitor Length
The shorter the length of the capacitor the better the evaluation of the strand, as variations over
short lengths is measurable. In the Uster Tester the capacitor length varies from 20 mm to B mm,
to accommodate the testing of sliver, rove and yarn.
Assessment of yarn evenness
 Cross-sectional shape of the strand
When the cross-sectional shape of the test strand changes, the capacitance of the capacitor too
changes. It is therefore important that the cross-sectional shape of the material tested remains the
same throughout the test. Soft strands, slivers in particular, should be prevented from becoming
flat randomly along their length.
 Effect of moisture content in the strand
Changes in the atmospheric conditions alter the moisture content of the sample; the mass of the
material will consequently be affected. This in turn would cause changes in the capacitance
values of the capacitor. The higher the moisture content in the sample the greater is the change in
capacitance value and vice-versa. Therefore tests are always performed on conditioned samples
in standard testing atmosphere.

Yarn Faults & there lengths
 Nep: This is a yarn fault of length 1 mm and a cross-section of 200% the average value.
 Thick place: This is a yarn fault of length approximately equal to the staple length of the
fibre. The cross-sectional area of a thick place is approximately 50% greater than the
average cross sectional area of the yarn.
 Thin place: This is a yarn fault of length approximately equal to the staple length of the
fibre. The cross-sectional area of a thin place is approximately 50% less than the average
cross sectional area of the yarn. The Uster Company has recommended standards for the
number of neps, thick places and thin places in cotton yarn.
As an example their standards for the number of neps/1000 meteres is included |n the table for
the yarn count range 20-80S Nec.
The Uster Evenness Tester (Electronic Capacitance principle)
The Uster evenness tester was among the earliest of the capacitance testers to find great
commercial success. The tester gives an output of the unevenness (U%) of the test strands sliver,
rove and yarn and the imperfections in yarn.
Principle: The instrument works on the ‘capacitance principle‘, mentioned above. The textile
strand is passed through a parallel-plate capacitor. The capacitance of the capacitor varies as the
cross-sectional area of the test strand. Change in the capacitance is transformed into signals
which are amplified and converted by suitable circuits to give an output of the following
information, of which a printout can be obtained.
 U% (Unevenness %)
 Imperfections - Neps, thick places and thin places.
 CV % (Variation)
 Spectrograph
Description: This is a fairly recent model of the Uster tester and its salient features are shown in
the figure. The instrument consists of three main units. These are, The Tester, Signal Processor
and Printer.

Tester: The tester consists of a peg A to hold a test yarn package B. Separate creeling devices
are available for holding and guiding larger and softer strands like the sliver and rove. The test
strand is led through a regular guide C, tension guides D and a adjustable bar E. The bar can be
pushed leftwards or rightwards so as to increase or decrease the gap between the tensions guides.
A magnetic-control tension device F adjusts itself according to the test yarn count.
The instrument also consists of measuring head G, rubber-covered rollers H, a suction circle I, a
push- button switch J and a manometer K. The measuring head consists of four slots of varying
width for accommodating the following specimens.
Slot No 1 - For sliver.
Slot No 2 - For rove.
Slot No 3 - For yarns up to 30s Nec count.
Slot No 4 - For yarns of count greater than 30s Nec.
The rubber-covered rollers are positively driven rollers that draw the test material through the
instrument. They can be run at any one of the following speeds, 25, 50, 100, 200 and 400 m/mm.
The speed is usually varied according to the test material. They deliver the test material into the
suction circle, which is a hole into which the material is sucked for disposal. The push-button
switch is used for getting the initial pressure during testing. The manometer indicates the
pressure of the air in the suction tube; this is usually kept at 1 kg/cm2.
Signal Processor: The signal processor consists of a processing unit with video screen, a
keyboard and push button switches. The following information is keyed in for every test.
 Test Programmes - This push button sets the required test programmes.
 Test parameters - This push button is used to select the test particulars.

 Report parameters - The parameters required for getting a printed report are selected by
this push button.
 Video results - If the results are required on the video screen, they can be seen by using
this button.
 Test Series - This button is for selecting the number of samples to be tested and also series
to be tested.
 Start/stop button - This is to start or stop the instrument.
 A key for initialising the signal processor; this is indicated by a red bulb indicator.
Printer: A printer is connected to the signal processor. It gives a printout of the test results when
required. All the results are stored in the signal processor and immediately after the tests have
been completed the results can be printed.
Testing Procedure for Yarns
 The instrument is switched on.
 At least 30 minutes are allowed for warm up.
 The test programmes, test parameters, test series and report parameters are selected by
operating the keyboard and the other buttons of the signal processor. The selections are
made to include the following information.
a. Test material particulars
b. Results required on printer / video
c. Operator and other reference data required.
 Yarn from the creel is passed through guides, the tension device, the measuring slot
(capacitor) and finally fed into the suction circle.
 The pressure in the manometer is checked to ensure the correct pressure.
 When all of the above has been set, the instrument is ready for a test.
 The start button is now pressed and the guide at the measuring head moves automatically
to guide the yarn into the 3rd or 4th slot according to the yarn count.
 The yarn passes continuously through the slot and it is monitored for a pre-selected period
of one minute at a pre-selected speed of 400 m/min (for yarns).
 The normal stroke diagram (variations with respect to the mean level) and the U% can be
seen on video screen.
 When the first test has been completed, the next specimen is threaded through the parts as
before and the second test is started.
 The test procedure is repeated until the selected number of tests is completed.
 If there is any problem during a test, the signal processor clearly indicates it and the
operator rectifies it before resuming the test.
 After completing all the tests, the printer is switched on and the test reports are printed
out. Printout normally provides the following information both in numerical and in
graphical form.

1. Data relating to the test material, machine and test house particulars
2. U%, CV% and imperfections
3. Spectrogram
4. Variance - length curves.
Table shows the Uster values for carded cotton yarn:
Test Procedure for Sliver and Rove:

The creel unit of the instrument is suitably modified to accommodate the sliver or rove. The test
procedure for these strands is the same as that described for yarn. The test programmes, test
parameters, video and printer results, etc are selected in accordance with the test material. The
test strand is then threaded through the instrument, the test performed and the results like the
U%, CV%, Spectrogram, etc are printed out.
Analysis of Periodic Variation (U %)

The following are the major causes of periodic variations in yarn.
 Poor fibre control - leading to drafting waves and
 Mechanical defects in the machinery.
The wavelength of the periodic variation plays a vital role in identifying the source(s) that
cause(s) variation. The example given under the next topic clarifies this.
For a given strand, it is one of the previous machinery that introduces variation in the material.
The following formula is used to find out the wavelength of periodic variation introduced by a
previous machine.
Wavelength of variation introduced Wavelength of variation in the yarn

Machine by a previous (e.g. simplex) =
Draft in the current machine (e.g. ring frame)

Causes of Irregularity in Yarn: The causes of yarn irregularity can be broadly traced to the
following factors.
1. Variation in the properties of the raw material.
2. Inherent drawbacks of the machinery.
3. Mechanical defects in the machinery.
4. Extraneous causes.
Classimat System –Yarn Faults

This is a system for evaluating yarn for faults. It classifies the faults into specific categories so
that a clear picture of the number and type of defects in the yarn is obtained. Yarn faults Yarn
irregularity can be broadly grouped into two categories namely the frequently occurring faults
and the seldom-occurring faults. The frequently occurring faults are analysed by the Uster
evenness tester and accessories whereas the seldom-occurring faults are scanned by the Uster
classimat system.
 Frequently Occurring Faults
The frequently occurring faults are thin places, thick places and neps. These faults are defined as
those deviating from the average value by a pre-determined reference value. Generally these
imperfections are measured at density levels of 50, 3,3. With reference to these levels, a thin
place is a region where the cross-section is less than half the cross-sectional size of the yarn
average. Similarly a thick place is that region where the cross-sectional size is greater by 50% of
the yarn average. A small, but sharp thick place is defined as a nep.
 Rarely-occurring faults
Faults such as slubs, spun-in fly, loose fly, hard piercings, and long thin place constitute the not-
so-frequent faults. These faults are to be avoided for two reasons.
 They contribute to end breaks in processes such as winding, warping, weaving and
knitting.
 They take away the aesthetic appeal of the fabrics.
The frequency of the infrequent faults is generally estimated in the industry by the number of
breaks that occur and the faults that are ‘cleared’ by the clearers. The frequency of these faults
varies widely between 5% and 75%. The use of this general information for determining the
frequency and classification of the faults becomes practically meaningless. This is where the
Uster classimat system comes in.
The Uster classimat system enables a quick, objective and comprehensive estimate of the
infrequent yarn faults. The system is fundamentally designed to measure very large yarn
imperfections like slubs, bad piecing, spun-in lint and not the conventional imperfections as
those measured by the Uster Imperfections Indicator, namely thin places, thick places and neps.
As the type of imperfections scanned by the classimat is rare occurrences in the yarn, they are
referred to as infrequent faults.

The Classimat classification of faults: The Uster classimat (UCM) provides a detailed break-up
of yarn faults on the basis of the length and dimension of the faults. This instrument presents the
results of fault classification in the format shown in the figure. There are totally 23 types of
faults. A letter of the English alphabet and a number identify each fault. The letter represents the
length range in which the fault lies and the number indicates the transverse size range in which
the fault lies.
A-type faults are those that have a length in the range 0.1-1 cm; similarly, B-type faults are in the
length range 1-2 cm; C-type faults, 2-4 cm and so on. The letters A to G denote the thick yarn
faults while the letters 'H' and 'I' represent the thin faults.
Figure: Classes of yarn fault as given by the Classimat
The number 1 represents a fault of size +100% to +150% over the nominal cross-sectional size
of the yarn in the case of thick places and 30% to 45% in the case of thin places; number 2
denotes +150% to +250% for the thick places and 45% to 75% for the thin places and so on. No
numerals are attached to the E to G types of faults since they are generally few in number. The
E-type of fault represents faults that are +100% and above the average cross-sectional area of the
yarn and of length equal to or greater than 8 cm.
The F and G faults characterise faults that have crosssections in the range +45% to +100% over
the mean transverse area of the yarn but the length ranges are different; the F-type fault includes
faults in the length range 8-32 cm while the G-type fault includes those above 32 cm. The
classimat system is programmed to perform a cumulative counting of the faults within each
length class. Very simply, this means that the bigger faults are automatically included as faults in
the lower categories also. The table explains this feature of the classimat for the A-type faults.

*al, a2 and a3 are the absolute faults in the respective categories. The above is applicable for all
the length classes. The cumulative indication of the faults facilitates the evaluation of the sum
value of all disturbing yarn faults for each length class. The 23 classes of faults are further
grouped into three categories. These are listed below.
 Short thick faults: A1 + B1 + C1
 Long thick faults: E + F + G
 Long thin faults: H1 +I1
Causes of the short thick faults

 Presence of large amount of trash or high proportion of seed coat fragments in the mixing
resulting in insufficient opening and cleaning at blow-room and carding.
 Use of low-micronaire cottons with high level of immaturity.
 Use of cotton lots containing a high proportion of short fibres.
 Excessive fibre entanglements while opening and cleaning in blow-room.
 Use of improper settings between cylinder and flats in cards.
 Damaged wire points in cylinder, doffer and flats in cards.
 Absence of top roller clearers in speed frame.
 Use of broken and damaged surface of the floating condensers and roving guides
 Use of too wide or narrow settings in roving and spinning machines.
 Use of improper spacers in speed and ring frame.
Causes of the long thick faults

 Presence of unopened rovings in the blow-room lap or card slivers.
 Folding or overlapping of the blow-room layers while feeding to the licker-in of the
cards.
 Use of improper settings in draw frames.
 Too low a web or creel draft in draw frame resulting in improper drafting.
 Loose bottom and top aprons in speed frames.
 Improper seating of floating and fixed condensers in speed frames.
 Improper piecing in speed and ring frames.
 Occurrence of lashing-in and excessive end breaks in speed frames.
 Absence of top or bottom roller clearers in speed and ring frames.
 Occurrence of short fibre choking in the hollow leg flyer of speed frames.
 Too close a setting between traveller clearer and traveller in ring frames.
 Use of narrow spacer in ring frames resulting in non-drafted ends.
 Use of fibres having excessive variation in fibre length resulting in formation of crackers
in the yarn.
Causes of the long thin faults

 Excessive incidence web falling (partial or full) in cards.
 Too high a break/creel draft or web drafts in draw frames.
 Excessive variation in top roller pressure in draw frames.
 Loose top roller end bushes in draw frames.
 Disturbance to the free rotation of creel calender rollers in draw frames.
 Sliver stretch of the creel in speed frames due to too high a creel draft.
 Too high a break draft in speed frames.
Benchmarks for classimat faults: The table gives the average occurrences of different type of
faults present in Indian yarns as reported by SITRA. The values serve as benchmarks to compare
the occurrence of the infrequent yarn faults in spinning mills. The seldom occurring faults in the
export yarn were evaluated by means of classimat system II.

UNIT-III
1. Tensile Testing of textiles –introduction terminology and definitions.
Introduction: The level of strength required from a yarn or fabric depends on its end use. For
some end uses it is the case that the higher the strength of the materials, the better it is for its end
use. This is particularly true for yarns and fabrics intended for industrial products. However,
fabrics intended for household or apparel use merely need an adequate strength in order to
withstand handling during production and use. It is generally the case that a higher-strength
product can only be obtained by either making a heavier, stiffer fabric or by using synthetic
fibres in place of natural ones. In either case changes are produced in other properties of the
material, such as the stiffness and handle, which may not be desirable for a particular end use.
Terminology & Definitions:

 Units: It is important when measuring strength to be clear about the distinction among mass,
weight and force. The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). Force can only be defined in
terms of what it does. Force is that which changes a body's state of rest or of uniform motion
in a straight line. In other words a force causes a body to accelerate. The SI unit of force the
Newton (N) is defined in terms of the acceleration produced when the force acts on a mass of
one kilogram.
 Breaking strength; tensile strength: This is the maximum tensile force recorded in
extending a test piece to breaking point. It is the figure that is generally referred to as
strength. The force at which a specimen breaks is directly proportional to its crosssectional
area, therefore when comparing the strengths of different fibres; yarns and fabrics allowances
have to be made for this. The tensile force recorded at the moment of rupture is sometimes
referred to as the tensile strength at break.
 Stress: Stress is a way of expressing the force on a material in a way that allows for the
effect of the cross-sectional area of the specimen on the force needed to break it:
Stress = force applied / cross-sectional area
In the case of textile materials the cross-sectional l area can only be easily measured in
the case of fibres with circular cross-sections. The crosssections of yarns and fabrics contain
an unknown amount of space as well as fibres so that in these cases the cross-sectional area is
not clearly defined. Therefore stress is only used in a limited number of application s
involving fibres.
 Tenacity: Tenacity is defined as the specific stress corresponding with the maximum force
on a force/extension curve. The nominal denier or Tex of the yarn or fibre is the figure used
in the calculation; no allowance is made for any thinning of the specimen as it elongates.
 Breaking length: Breaking length is an older measure of tenacity and is defined as the
theoretical length of a specimen of yarn whose weight would exert a force sufficient to break
the specimen. It is usually measured in kilometres.

 Elongation: Elongation is the increase in length of the specimen from its starting length
expressed in units of length. The distance that a material will extend under a given force is
proportional to its original length; therefore elongation is usually quoted as strain or
percentage extension. The elongation at the maximum force is the figure most often quoted.
 Strain: The elongation that a specimen undergoes is proportional to its initial length. Strain
expresses the elongation as a fraction of the original length:
Strain = Elongation / Initial Length
 Extension percentage: This measure is the strain expressed as a percentage rather than a
fraction
Extension = (Elongation / initial length) X 100%
Breaking extension is the extension percentage at the breaking point.
 Work of rupture: The work of rupture is a measure of the toughness of a material as it is the
total energy required to break the material. Consider a small section of the force extension
curve. Within this small section the force can be considered to be constant at a value F. This
force increases the sample in length by an amount d/, therefore
Work done = force X displacement = FdI
From this the total work done in breaking the material which is the work of rupture is:
2. Load & Elongation Curve- the stress strain curve.
When an increasing force is gradually applied to a textile material so that it extends and
eventually breaks, the plot of the applied force against the amount that the specimen extends is
known as a force-elongation or stress-strain curve. The curve contains far more information than
just the tensile strength of the material. The principal features of a force elongation curve, in this
case of a wool fibre, are shown in Fig. The use of the force elongation curve as a whole allows a
better comparison of textile materials to be made as it contains more information about the
behaviour of the material under stress than do the simple figures for tensile strength and
elongation.
The most important features of the curve are as follows.
 Yield point: Depending on the material being tested, the curve often contains a point
where a marked decrease in slope occurs. This point is known as the yield point. At this
point important changes in the force elongation relationship occur. Before the yield point
the extension of the material is considered to be elastic that is the sample will revert to its
original length when the force is removed. Above the yield point in most fibres, some of
the extension is non-recoverable, that is the sample retains some of its extension when the
force is removed.
 Young's modulus: This value is obtained from the slope of the least squares fit straight
line made through the steepest linear region of the curve as shown in Fig.
 Breaking point: when loading is continuing a point will come where the yarn will break as
shown in the figure and that load or force is known as breaking force.
3. Elastic Recovery- instantaneous and time depended effects.
The effects of time are important in the mechanical behaviour of textile fibres. For example, if a
rope were made to carry a heavy fixed load for a long time, how would it respond or behave?
Similarly, how would be the behaviour of a fibre material (e.g. rubber fibre), which is maintained
at constant strain for an extended period of time?
Three variables are always present in a tensile test of textile fibres, load, elongation and time. Of
these three, time is the variable that can never be kept constant! So it is usual to study the effects
of time in one of two ways.
 Keeping the load constant and observing the change in elongation with time - the effect
is known as creep.
 Keeping the elongation constant and observing the change in load with time - this effect
is called stress relaxation.
Creep: Creep may be defined as the gradually increasing elongation shown by a fibre specimen
with respect to time when subjected to a constant load. The study of the creep behaviour of a
fibre can be split into two aspects.
1. Instantaneous creep effect
2. Time dependent creep effect

The creep behaviour of a fibre under a constant load and its recovery under zero loads is
illustrated schematically in the figure, in which the constant load on the specimen is for a period
of time OC.
The figure (a) is the load-time relationship. Load OA is applied to the fibre and this remains
constant over the time period of the test as shown by the line AB. The figure (b) is a relationship
between strain and time and depicts the creep behaviour of the fibre specimen. Initially the
specimen extends rapidly and this is called the ‘instantaneous extension‘. Thereafter the
extension slows down gradually with time and this is therefore called the time dependent effect.
The total extension is thus made up of two components, the instantaneous extension and the time
dependent extension. This time dependent extension is called creep.
On removal of the load at point B in the figure, the specimen recovers rapidly at first and then
more slowly with perhaps a small amount of residual extension referred to as ‘permanent set.
The instantaneous extension is composed of two quantities.
1. The elastic extension which is recoverable and
2. The plastic or permanent extension, which is not recoverable.

Similarly, the time dependent extension is a combination of two parts; primary creep which is
recoverable and the secondary creep, which is not recoverable.
In the figure b,
Instantaneous extension = a — b
Total creep = b — c
Primary creep = e — f (recoverable)
Secondary creep = g—h
(Non-recoverable or permanent deformation)
Instantaneous recovery on removal of load =d—e
One of the classic examples of the effects of creep is that of the behaviour of an automobile tyre
reinforced with nylon continuous filament tyre yarn. After a long drive in a car running on
nylon-yarn reinforced tyres, the tyres get quite hot. When the car is stopped for a while to rest
them, the weight of the car acting on the tyres constitutes constant large load acting on the tyres.
Due to the heat and the creep effect of the nylon, the tyres acquire a flat shape at the point of
contact with the ground. When the car resumes its journey, a ‘thumping’ sound is heard because
of the partly-flattened tyres. The noise stops after a while when the circular shape of the tyre is
regained.
4.The Mechanism of strength testing machines –CRL, CRE & CRT.

Principles of applying load to yarn test specimens in the section on Fibre Strength, it has been
discussed in some detail that three ways of applying the load to the test specimen are prevalent in
tensile testing. These are listed below. Just as fibre strength testers have one or another of these
principles inbuilt in their design, so too do yarn tensile testers incorporate them. Yarn tensile
testers that include the principles in their design are indicated in each case.
 Constant rate of loading (CRL) e.g. Scott I. P. Tester and Uster Dynamat.
 Constant rate of extension (CRE) e.g. Instron Tensile Tester, Uster Tensorapid.
 Constant rate of traverse. (CRT) e.g. Pendulum lever type single thread and lea strength
testers.
The student is referred to the earlier discussion on the three alternatives to load a test specimen
and their implications in testing practice. However, the principles alone are illustrated here and
briefly explained below for the convenience of the student.
 CRL
The ends of a test specimen A are mounted respectively in an immovable jaw J1 and a
traversable jaw J2. A gradually increasing force F, starting from zero but increasing at a constant
rate, is applied to the specimen. The applied force causes the specimen to extend until it breaks.
In this case, the loading causes elongation. Since the load on the specimen increases at a constant
rate, this principle of loading is called the Constant Rate of Loading (CRL) principle.

 CRE
Specimen B has its ends mounted respectively in a non-traversable jaw J3 and a traversable
jawJ4. The latter is moved downwards at a constant rate of speed by a screw mechanism. The
initial tension in the specimen is zero, but when the bottom jaw moves downward, the
specimen suffers extension and this would cause it to be loaded; the tension in the specimen
would go on increasing until it is so high that the specimen breaks. In this case, the applied
elongation is responsible for the tension or loading in the specimen. So this principle of loading
is called the Constant Rate of Elongation (CRE) principle.
 CRT
Specimen C is fixed exactly like Specimen 2, but between Jaws J5 and J6. The upper jaw is not
truly fixed as in the above cases, but due to an instrumental design feature, is connected to a
pulley at the top to operate a load indicating mechanism. The lower jaw traverses downward at
a constant rate to elongate the specimen, exactly like J4. The movement of the upper jaw
relative to that of the lower jaw prevents the extension of the specimen at a precisely constant
rate. This principle of loading is therefore referred to as the Constant Rate of Traverse (CRT)
principle. Though in this case too, specimen extension causes loading, it is different from the
CRE principle.

5. Factors influencing yarn strength – factors affecting the test results obtained from
testing instruments.
Factors influencing yarn strength:

 Staple length: Long staple fibre will normally give stronger yarn than short staple fibre as
more twist can be inserted in a strand of long fibres. Increased twist gives rise to increased
strength. Even at low twist factors, a yarn consisting of long fibres will be stronger than one
with short staple fibre. The effect of twist in binding the fibres will be greater when long
fibres are present than if short fibres were present.
 Fibre fineness: Fine fibres produce stronger yarn than coarse fibres for a given count of
yarn. The finer the fibre, the greater the number of fibres in the yarn cross-section and
consequently, the greater will be the inter-fibre friction. Thus the finer the fibre the greater in
general will be the yarn strength. In the case of cotton this effect is the more pronounced as
the finer fibres are also the stronger fibres.
 Fibre strength: Stronger fibres produce stronger yarn. For the reasons explained in the
previous point, even with relatively weak fibre, increased fineness of the fibres will produce
a yarn of acceptable strength.
 Twist: In the section on yarn twist, it was mentioned that the strength of a staple fibre yarn
increases with twist until the optimum level of twist is reached when the yarn shows
maximum strength. The optimum twist level is also a function of the twist angle and the twist
multiplier (TM). The right TM is chosen for yarns of different types and meant for different
end uses.
 Evenness: The strength of a yarn is directly related to its uniformity. The more uniform a
yarn is the higher is its strength and vice-versa. Poor uniformity leads to a greater number of
weak places in the yarn and a correspondingly lower strength.
 Fibre length variation and distribution: In the case of staple fibre with inherent natural
variation, like cotton, the strength of yarn spun from it is greatly influenced by short fibre
content. The greater the short fibre content the weaker the yarn and vice versa. The fibre
length distribution should also be uniform to get optimum strength.
 Fibre finish: The following finishes are usually applied to synthetic staple fibres during the
early stages of spinning to improve their processing performance. Spin finish & Anti-static
finish. The type and amount of chemicals in the finish composition will have a definite
influence on the strength of the resulting yarn. Not only would the characteristics of the fibre
be altered but also the strength of the yarn may increase or even decrease.
Factors affecting the test results obtained from testing instruments.

The tensile properties of textile materials are influenced by the following factors.
1. Test specimen length: In a tensile test, the longer the test specimen the lower in general is
its strength. The breaking load of a specimen at different gauge lengths. Actually the strength
of the weakest point in the specimen. When the material is tested using shorter gauge lengths,

the breaking loads .yarn tested at a shorter gauge length shows greater strength because it
would have relatively fewer weak points. As the test length increases, the possibility of there
being a greater number of weak point’s increases and the mean strength would not reflect the
actual strength of the material. This is called the “weak link effect”. This effect is overcome
in tensile testing by standardising the length of the test specimen.
2. Speed of test or time to break the specimen: the section on ﬁbre strength it was discussed
that the speed of a tensile test influences the breaking load high speed test is one in which the
specimen is loaded at a rapid rate and it breaks very quickly. A slow tensile test is the
opposite; the rate of loading is low and the specimen takes a long time to break with yarns
too, a rapid test would result in a greater breaking load than a slow test.
3. Capacity of the tensile tester: The capacity of a tensile tester would depend upon the
breaking load of the sample being investigated. If a yarn is tested in a machine with a very
high capacity, meant for very strong strands, it would break at a low time-to-break and a
higher than expected breaking load would result.
4. Effects of Humidity and Temperature: The atmosphere moisture influences the structure
and mechanical behaviour of textile fibres. So, for routine tensile testing, it is essential that
the standard testing atmosphere is always maintained, i.e. 65 ± 2% RH and 27 ± 2° C, in the
case of a tropical country like India.
5. Previous history of the specimen: Textile materials are subjected to various forms of stress
and strain during the following processes. Various stages in the yarn manufacture &
Chemical processing the tensile strength of textile materials will vary depending upon its
exact previous history. Some examples are cited below. A mechanically conditioned or a
work-hardened textile would be stronger than one that is not conditioned thus. The strength
of a sized yarn would generally be stronger than the original unsized yarn. A bleached textile
would in general be weaker than the original grey material.
6. Form of the test specimen: The material for test may be available in different forms, namely
single yarn, double yarn, etc. These yarns will have different tensile strength. Further factors
associated with the form and structure of the yarn would also influence the results. For
example, a six-ply yarn produced in one single doubling operation could have a different
strength compared with a six-ply cabled yarn made up of the same singles count, but which
consists of three strands of two-ply yarn, produced in two doubling operations.

6. The Pendulum Lever Yarn Strength Tester
The pendulum lever principle of instrument design has been in popular use for both single-yarn
as well as lea testing on a regular basis. These are sturdy instruments that operate on the CRT
principle of loading the test specimen.
The pendulum lever principle: The figure shows a specimen A fixed in between an upper jaw
J1 and a lower jaw J2. The upper jaw is attached to a steel band B, which runs over a small
pulley C, of radius r. The lower jaw is given a constant rate of traverse in a downward direction
by means of the screw mechanism D. This causes tension in the specimen. The tension is
transmitted to the small pulley via the steel band. The pulley rotates in an anticlockwise direction
and causes the pendulum P to swing away from its vertical position of rest. The pendulum is
pivoted at the same point as the pulley and it swings over an arc-shaped load scale at its free end;
while it moves thus, it pushes a pointer along the scale. When the specimen breaks, the
pendulum stops moving and the position of the pointer indicates the specimen‘s breaking load.
Let M be the mass of pendulum and let its- centre of gravity lie at a distance R from its pivot at
E. Assuming for the moment that the specimen is inextensible and that there are no dynamic

forces acting on it at any chosen instant, let radians be the angle through which the pendulum has
moved. Given these conditions, the following relationship may be derived.
The system will be in equilibrium if the moment exerted by the load is balanced by the moment
exerted by the weight of pendulum. Taking moments about the pivot of the small pulley, we get,
F×r = Mg×x =Mg R Sin θ

Since Mg, R and r are constant we can substitute (MgR)/r by the constant K.
F = K Sin θ i.e. F∞ Sin θ
As the force F acting on the tape is equal to the tension in the specimen, the tension in the
specimen is proportional to the sine of the angle through which the pendulum moves from its
initial vertical position. As increases, so too does Sinθ. Thus the force in the specimen goes on
increasing until it breaks.
7. Inertia Effects
In an instrument in which there are a number of parts that move due to mechanical forces,
errors related to inertia, acceleration, etc will occur. It cannot therefore be assumed that the
instrument is free from dynamic forces acting on the specimen. In actual practice, two effects of
inertia namely overthrow and acceleration affects the final results. Appropriate corrections have
thus to be made.
 Overthrow error
In pendulum type testers, even after the specimen breaks, the pendulum will continue to move
until all the kinetic energy possessed by the pendulum has been dissipated. So, the instrument
tends to show a higher breaking load. The additional load would depend upon the angular
velocity of the pendulum at the moment of specimen break.
Called the overthrow error, it is naturally found to be the greatest in the case of low
breaking loads. This error can be overcome to a great extent by using a lower rate of traverse. It
is also for this reason that materials showing breaking loads less than 10% of the tester capacity
should not be tested. Further inextensible materials will give rise to higher overthrow errors as in
this case the velocity of the upper jaw will be about the same as the velocity of the lower jaw and
thus give the pendulum a higher angular velocity.
 Acceleration error
In the pendulum-lever tester, there will be a tendency, at the start of a test, for the specimen to
stretch before any load is recorded. Tension develops in the specimen increasingly until it is
sufficient to overcome the inertia of the pendulum. The initial force required to move the
pendulum is greater than the force required to keep the pendulum moving at its required angular
velocity. Hence, there will be a tendency for the pendulum to overshoot or accelerate; the tension
in the specimen reduces as a result and it slackens even as an increasing load is being indicated.
If the above points are kept in mind and appropriate corrections are made for the errors stated,

the pendulum lever tester is the most economical method of finding out the single-thread strength
and the lea strength of spun yarns.
 The Pendulum Lever Single Thread Strength Tester (CRT)

The principle on which this instrument works is CRT and some of the factors to be borne in mind
when using it have been discussed above. The parts of the instrument and the test procedure
normally followed are discussed as follows.
Description of the instrument
The salient features of the instrument are shown in the figure. The instrument consists of an
upper jaw J1 and a lower jaw J2. A yarn specimen ‘A’ taken from supply package B passes
through the thread guide C and is clamped at the jaws. The lower jaw is driven by a screw-
thread spindle-rod D, driven by a motor E through a gear box F, a stepped pulley G and a clutch
H.

A traverse speed control handle I connected to a ' variable stepped-pulley drive enables the
bottom jaw to be traversed in two ranges namely: i) 50 to 150 mm / minute and ii) 150 to 500
mm / minute. The clutch can be used to lower or raise the lower jaw. This jaw is connected to a
rod and a pin arrangement (J and K) that can be raised or lowered to accommodate test
specimens of desired gauge lengths from 0 to 500 mm. The rod on which the lower jaw is
mounted is housed inside the screw-thread spindle rod D. The upper jaw is connected to a chain
L, which in turn is connected to a sector M and a pendulum N. The sector replaces the pulley in
some of the older versions.
The arm of the pendulum is connected to a pointer O, such that when the pendulum moves, along
the serrated quadrant scale P, the pointer too is pushed along with it. The quadrant scale is
graduated in two ranges. The upper range includes the breaking strength values from 0 to 2000 g
and the regular pendulum is used. The lower scale is graduated to read from 0 to 10 kg and a
small additional weight Q is added to the pendulum when this scale is required to be used. When
the instrument is at rest, the pendulum arm and the pointer are in line with the zero reading on
the scale.
The pendulum is held in this position by means of a catch R. A set of pawls S, attached to the
arm of the pendulum, work on the serrations on the top face of the quadrant scale when the
pendulum is in motion. As soon as the test specimen breaks the pawls fall into the serrations and
the movement of the pendulum is arrested.
A pointer T, connected to the upper jaw, helps to read the specimen elongation on the elongation
scale U. A catch V, inserted below the lower jaw rod, keeps the specimen under tension at the
start of a test. The instrument is usually set to give a specimen breaking time of 20 i 3 seconds.
The rate of traverse of the lower jaw is normally set at 300 mm I min (or 12 inches per minute in
the older models of the instrument).
Testing Procedure
The required specimen length is set by using the rod and pin (J & K). The traverse speed is set by
using traverse speed control handle (I). The pointers on the strength scale and elongation scale
are brought to zero position. The pendulums and the movement of the upper jaw are arrested
with a catch. The specimen to be tested is taken and clamped between the upper jaw and the
lower jaw. The extra material is cut off exactly at the jaw position and then the catch is taken out.
So the yarn is under tension before testing. When the instrument is started, the lower jaw
traverses downward imposing tension on the specimen and thereby pulling the upper jaw; this in
turn will make the pendulum to move over the quadrant scale. When the specimen ruptures, the
pendulum arm is retained in the position by a set of pawl working over the serrated portion of the
quadrant. The position of pendulum arm gives the breaking load of the specimen. This is read by
the pointer (O). 50 tests are done for single yarns and 25 for plied yarns. Every time the
pendulum arm is brought to zero position and the movement of the upper jaw is arrested. Then
the tenacity is calculated using the formula

Mean breaking load in kg ×1,000
Tenacity in g/tex =
Count of yarn in tex
Apart from the breaking load, the elongation is also measured by noting down the relative
position of the upper jaw. The elongation scale pointer (T) directly reads the difference in the
movement of both the lower and upper jaws. This can be calculated in terms of percentage by:
Elongation scale reading
Elongation % = x 100
Gauge length or specimen length
Since small samples are being tested, the range in the strength value will be very high and
thereby increase the CV%. The number of spun yarn samples to be tested in the standard test
procedure for 20 inches is 50.
Scales in the pendulum lever type strength testing instruments

In pendulum lever type of strength testing instruments, the force acting on the specimen is
directly proportional to the sine of angle through which the pendulum has moved.
So
 If the recording strength scale is circular, the graduations for reading strength will be even.
 If the scale is a serrated quadrant, the graduations are initially closely spaced and further on
they are spaced more widely. An additional pendulum positioned at the top pivot has been
used to overcome this effect and have regularly spaced graduations.
Advantages over a single-thread strength test
 The time required to test a lea is much less.
 The lea strength is useful for comparing the quality of yarns spun from different cottons
 The yarn count can be determined subsequently using the ruptured lea from a test.
 The effects of yarn irregularity can be seen more clearly in a lea strength test.
 Any errors due to sampling are not really significant.
Yarn leas Strength Tester
The lea tester is a popularly used instrument and is a common sight in the test houses of yarn
manufacturing organisations. It is a very sturdy machine and works on the pendulum lever
principle. It uses the CRT principle of loading the specimen, which is a 120-yard skein or a lea of
yarn. Both the pendulum lever and the CRT principles have already been explained above.
Description of the instrument: A typical lea tester is shown in the figure. The entire set-up is
exactly like that of the single-thread tester, except that this machine is heavier and of a higher
capacity, as a lea is to be tested. This instrument is also motor-driven but it requires a bigger
motor.
In a lea tester, there are no typical jaws to ‘clamp’ the test specimen. Instead there is an upper
hook H1 and the lower hook H2. ‘A’ is the specimen inserted over them. The lower hook is
traversed by a screw mechanism driven at constant speed by motor C.
The rate of traverse in a lea tester is usually 12 inches (300 mm) per minute. The upper hook is
connected to a steel band D, which in turn is connected to pulley E and pendulum F. The
pendulum has a heavy bob G. Pawl I is attached to the pendulum. It moves over a serrated
quadrant K. The pawl works in the serration on the quadrant scale and helps the pendulum to
stop at the precisely when the lea breaks. Pointer L is connected to the arm of the pendulum via a
gear mechanism. The pointer moves over a dial M and indicates the lea strength in pounds (in
older models) or in kilograms (in more recent models).
Test Procedure: From the test cops or cones, at least fifteen 120-yard leas are prepared using a
standard wrap reel. The precautions to be observed when using wrap reels. One of the leas is
slipped over the hooks of the tester so that it forms a flat, evenly-spread sheet of yarn. The
following precautions are taken while preparing leas and mounting them in the tester.

 The yarns should be reeled under uniform tension.
 The yarns should be reeled such that the individual strands forming the lea make up a
narrow sheet of yarn with the strands parallel to each other; grouping or bunching of
threads is to be avoided.
 The lea should be mounted on the hooks of the tester as a flat even sheet of yarn; none of
the strands should be in a twisted state or should ride over adjacent threads.
 The pointer should initially read zero on the dial. If not, the pendulum and the pawl are
suitably adjusted to ensure this.
The lower hook is engaged with the screw mechanism and the motor is switched on. The hook -
now traverses downwards at a constant rate. The threads in the test specimen straighten up and
start getting elongated and pulled down by the screw. As the yarns are pulled down, there is a
pull on the upper hook. This causes the pendulum to be pulled and this in turn moves the pointer
over the dial. As all of this happens, one or two threads break and many of them therefore slip
around the hooks. When the lea offers no further resistance, the pendulum stops instantly and the
pawls working in the serration on the quadrant prevent it from swinging back to its original
position of rest. At the same time the pointer also stops moving and indicates the breaking load
of the lea on the dial. The lea strength reading is now taken and recorded. The lower hook is then
reversed back to its previous position and the broken lea is removed from the hooks. The
remaining 14 leas are then tested in like manner and the mean breaking load is calculated.
Capacity of the Lea Tester: When performing tests on a lea tester, it must be ensured that the
breaking load value of the test leas lie between 10 and 90 per cent of the breaking load range of
the instrument used. If the values fall outside this range, an instrument of a different appropriate
capacity is to be selected.
Drawbacks of the lea-strength tester
1. The lea strength of a yarn is not truly representative of the combined strengths of the 80
individual threads in the lea. It is only a near approximation of the combined strength.
2. The following human errors lead to unreliable lea strength values like uneven yarn
tension during wrapping of the test material. If the threads are inclined during a test, the
lea strength value obtained will not be accurate.
3. Lea strength values serve little purpose in winding or weaving operations. In these
processes, the yarn is used as individual strand and not as a skein.
4. The rupture of a single thread at a weak place affects the results of the whole skein.
5. As the lea tester is of the CRT-type, inertia errors may affect the results.
6. The skein test does not give an indication of the extensibility and elastic properties of the
yarn; these are important characteristics of the yarn that greatly influence the weaving
process.

The merits of a lea tester
 A lea tester is a simple instrument that is easy to use. Most textile industry personnel are
accustomed to using one for routine testing. So it is still very much prevalent.
 The broken lea remaining after a lea strength test is used to determine the yarn count. The
lea strength and the yarn count are combined into a parameter called the Count-Strength-
Product or the CSP, the values of which are useful to both buyer and seller.
 Though a lea test is not a particularly sensitive test to identify the weakest point in the
yarn, it is sensitive enough to detect changes in yarn quality. For example, incorporation
of cotton waste in mixing, changes in settings, changes in the weighing system, etc, can
be detected.
 A lea tester does not contain any complicated part or mechanism. It is a strong and robust
instrument and gives long period of service without trouble.
 Many samples can be tested in a short duration of time to have a comparative idea of the
material emerging from the spinning room. So the lea test is still regarded as a handy test
by the spinner in general.
The Inclined Plane Principle
Constant rate of loading (CRL) test conditions are obtained in the inclined plane type of testers.
The figure shows the basic features of this principle. A yarn specimen ‘A’ is clamped between a
fixed jawJ1 and a movable jaw J2. Jaw J1 is fixed to a plane or rail BC and jaw J2 is fixed to a
freely movable carriage D. The plane is pivoted at E and lowering its right end can therefore tilt
it. The right end of the rail is linked to a rack and pinion drive F, which is driven by a motor. At
the start of a test, the plane is horizontal and its right end is at C. When the rack is set in motion,
the end C descends to position C‘.
Let the rail swing through an angle θ when its right end moves from position C to position C‘.
This is also the angle of inclination of the rail from the horizontal. Let W be the weight of the
carriage acting downwards. The force P acting on the yarn specimen can be calculated by
resolving the vertical force W in two directions, one parallel to the plane and the other
perpendicular to it.
If P is the force parallel to the plane i.e. the force applied to the specimen due to the carriage
rolling on the inclined plane, then
P = W sin θ,
P α sin θ
Hence, the load on the specimen is directly proportional to the sine of the angle of inclination of
the rail. Now consider the triangle E C'C,
Sin θ = CC’/ EC’
For a given machine EC’ is a constant and therefore sin is proportional to CC’. Thus, if sin is θ
increased at a constant rate, the load on the specimen can be increased at a constant rate.

This is easily achieved by increasing CC’ at a constant rate. In the Scott Inclined Plane Tester
and the Uster Dynamat Instrument, the right end C of the plane is actually a wheel that sits on a
small pedestal or platform, as shown in the figure. The platform is lowered or raised by a gear
drive mechanism. It can be seen here that the rate of loading is not affected by the extension of
the specimen. Apart from this, the instrument can be used to study the stress-strain properties of
a material and also the effect of loading and unloading at various stages.
The Inclined Plane Single-Thread Strength Tester
The Scott IP Tester and the Uster Dynamat Instrument are two examples of inclined plane testers
for evaluating single thread strength. Both these instruments work on the principle explained
above.
The Scott Inclined Plane Tester
This instrument is used to find single yarn strength and its RKM value. The instrument works on
the “inclined plane principle” and is designed to give a constant rate of loading to the test
specimen.
Description of the instrument: The figure shows the major features of the Scott IP tester. The
instrument consists of a creel A to hold the test yarn package B. A tension device C consisting of
a dead-weight-and-lever arrangement D can be adjusted to apply a fixed pre-tension to the test
specimen. A fixed jaw E is attached to one end of a long rail G (the left end in the figure). The
fixed jaw can be adjusted to set any desired specimen length. The rail can swing about fulcrum
H. The rail is graduated up to 500 mm.
Another jaw F is attached to a carriage or trolley I that can roll freely on the rail. The carriage
can take on an additional weight J, to increase the capacity of the instrument. A pen K can be

attached to the carriage. During a test, the pen can trace the load-elongation curve of the test
specimen on a chart or graph paper L. The chart holder M is fixed to a balance frame, a balance
rod N and balance weight O.
This set-up balances the frame when the instrument is working. Four guide pulleys P manipulate
the chart holder.
The extreme right end of rail is connected to a roller Q, which rests on a platform R. This end of
the rail is moved down by screw mechanism S, activated by a motor and clutch. The clutch can
be operated either way to raise the rail or lower it.
Test Procedure
 The left-hand jaw is positioned and fixed on the rail to give the desired gauge length or
test specimen length.
 The dead weight close to the fixed jaw is positioned on the lever to give a yarn pre-
tension corresponding to the nominal count of the test yarn.
 Any additional weight is attached to the carriage unit depending upon the breaking load
range of the test yarn.
 Ensure that the pen contains enough ink and then place it in the pen holder of the
carriage.
 Insert a fresh chart paper in the chart holder.
 Set the rail in the horizontal position. If required use the operator handle and bring it to
the horizontal position.
 Open the fixed and movable jaws.
 Fix one end of the yarn in the fixed jaw and clamp it.
 Pass the other end of the yarn via the tension discs, pull it until the tension-discs unit is
vertical and clamp the specimen to the movable jaw.
 The specimen is now set for the test.

 The screw rod is now lowered. The rail starts inclining as a result. The carriage rolls on
the inclining rail and load is thus applied to the yarn.
 As the rail tilts, the chart and pen system come into operation and the pen records a curve
on the paper. As the load is applied to the yarn it extends. When the load is too much to
bear the yarn breaks.
 As soon as the yarn breaks, the carriage rolls quickly down the rail to the right end.
 The screw drive is reversed to raise the rail back to its horizontal position and the motor
is switched off.
 The above procedure is repeated for another 49 test specimens.
The charts are analysed to arrive at the following information and the mean values are calculated.
1. The breaking load: the point of specimen break on the curve is noted and depending on the
calibration of the load scale, the breaking load is worked out.
2. The RKM value or the breaking length in kilometres is calculated by using the following
formula.
Breaking load in grams

RKM = --------------------------------
Yarn count in tex
The Strain Gauge Principle
The strain gauge principle is relatively a more recent one that is used extensively nowadays in
textile testing. The technique uses the well-known ‘Wheatstone bridge‘principle.
A beam ABCD, which is actually a flat stiff spring, is mounted like a cantilever, as shown in the
figure. The free end of the beam is connected to an upper jaw J1 at which is clamped one end of
a test specimen E. The other end of the specimen is clamped at a lower jaw J2, which can be
caused to traverse vertically, up or down, by means of screw mechanism M.
If J2 is moved downwards, a tensile force is developed in the specimen and this causes the free
end of the beam BC to be deflected.
If a resistance wire R were fixed to the upper face AB of the beam, the effects of the deflection
of the beam will be transmitted to it (R) such that it would be possible to measure the magnitude
of the load on the specimen.
A deflection in the beam would cause an increase in length of its upper face AB and a decrease
in length of its lower face CD. The resistance wire being attached to the upper face of the beam
would also suffer an increase in length. Recalling his/her knowledge of basic electricity, the
student will realise that, in the above situation, the following two statements hold good.

 When a length of resistance wire is stretched, its electrical resistance increases and when
it contracts, its resistance decreases.
 The change in the resistance of the wire is proportional to its change in length.
Thus, the resistance of R increases and the increase is proportional to the amount of load applied
to the specimen and therefore to the beam. Now this change in resistance has to be converted to a
meaningful record of the load applied to the specimen and the response to it. This is achieved
admirably by means of a typical Wheatstone bridge circuit.
The circuit includes four resistances, two attached to the upper face AB of the beam and the
other two to its lower face CD. The interconnections between the four resistances are as in a
Wheatstone bridge, as shown in the figure.
All the resistors are of equal resistance and with no strain on the beam, if a voltage is applied
across AB, there will be no voltage drop across CD. When the beam suffers a strain imposed on
it by the load applied to the specimen, it would result in changes in the resistances of the resistors
attached to it and this in turn would lower the output voltage across CD. This voltage drop would
be proportional to the load applied to the specimen. This output is electronically processed and
recorded automatically as visible information.
Instron Tensile Tester
This instrument is capable of evaluating the tensile properties of single, plied and cabled yarns. It
is also used to determine the tensile strength of fabrics. It is a universal tensile testing machine
that can test a whole range of fibres, yarns and fabrics.
Principle: The instrument works on the ‘strain gauge principle, explained above. The yarn
specimen is clamped between a traversable upper jaw and a fixed lower jaw. The upper jaw is
traversed at a constant speed to extend the specimen. This causes a load to develop in the yarn.
The load is transmitted to the resistance wires in a load cell. The changes in the load cell are
transformed via appropriate electronic circuits to tensile data.
Description: A typical Instron tensile tester is shown in the figure. J1 is the traversable upper
jaw and J2 the lower fixed jaw. In the earlier versions of the tester, the upper jaw was connected
to the top cross bar of the instrument via the load cell and the lower jaw was mounted in a
traversable crosshead. ‘A’ is the yarn test specimen clamped at the jaws. The instrument comes
with different types and sizes of jaws that can be used according to the type of material for test.
There are very light jaws for fibres, slightly heavier ones for yarns and cords and very heavy
ones for fabric and very strong material. A load cell B is housed in a moving crosshead C that
can be traversed along two screw rods D located in the side columns of the instrument. The
crosshead speed can be varied in the range 50 to 500 mm / minute.

The upper jaw is attached to the load cell. A range of load cells is supplied with the universal
model to accommodate materials of varying tensile properties. The capacities of the load cells
normally range from 0-50 grams (0-0.5 N) for fibre testing 0 -500kg (0-5 KN) for very strong
material.
A range of specimen grips or clamps is also supplied with the instrument. The grips selected
depend upon the material being tested, lighter ones being used for fibre testing and the heavier
ones for strong material.
The load cell is connected to a load cell amplifier, which keeps the electronic circuit unit at a
constant sensitivity. The instrument is also provided with a strip chart recorder system with a
control panel and a pen to record the load. The chart is moved at a selected speed and the pen
records the load-elongation curve, in a normal tensile test, on the chart. The chart speed can be
varied in the range 50 to 1000 mm/minute.
Working: The correct load cell and the jaws are selected according to the test material. The
required gauge length, the crosshead speed (i.e. the rate of extension), the chart speed, etc are
selected on the main control panel of the instrument. The yarn specimen is mounted in between
the two jaws and the crosshead is traversed. The upper jaw moves up and the specimen is

the output voltage in the circuit. The electronic circuitry converts the output data into a load-
elongation curve that is drawn on the chart. The chart paper is traversed so that fresh paper
comes into the test area. Further specimens are tested as described above and the mean values of
the breaking load, breaking elongation, etc are calculated.
Range of tests possible on the Instron Tester
The following tests are possible on the Instron tensile tester.
 Load-elongation
 Compression
 Fabric tearing strength
 Cyclic loading
 Elastic recovery
 Stress Relaxation
The Ballistic Tester
Why a ballistic tester?

During processing and usage, some textile materials will be required to withstand an impact or
sudden high load acting for a mere fraction of a second. Sometimes this may be repeated loading.
For example, when a yarn is caught in a heald or in a dent of the reed, during weaving, it could
be subjected to sudden high loads. Similarly a sewing thread may get caught in the eye of a
needle during high-speed stitching. The energy required by yarns and threads to withstand the
resulting load or stress can be evaluated by subjecting them to a ballistic load or an impact load
(or a shock load!), and the energy required to break or rupture them can be measured.
Description of the tester

The figure shows the salient parts of a typical ballistic tester. It consists of a semicircular scale A
fixed to a solid stand B. The scale is calibrated either in in.lb. or cm kg to indicate the energy of
rupture of the test specimen. A pendulum C, with a very heavy bob, has its fulcrum at D. Two
fixed jawsJ1 and J2 are attached to the base E of the instrument. Jaw J1 is used for yarns and jaw
J2 is used for fabric specimens. A jaw J3 is fixed to the pendulum bob.
A pointer F is also pivoted at G and it is free to move about the pivot. During a test the pendulum
pushes it to a point on the scale where the reading of the work of rupture of the test specimen can
be read off. A catch H at the top right hand side of the frame holds the pendulum up at the start
of every test.
Test Procedure: The test sample of yarn is first converted into the form of full leas, half leas or
quarter leas depending upon the yarn count. For counts above 605 full leas are used, for counts
between 205 and 605, half leas are used and for counts less than 205, quarter leas are used for
testing. The instrument is first calibrated properly as follows.

The pointer is brought to the vertical position. Then, without attaching any yarn sample to the
pendulum, raise it up to the top right-hand position (Position 1) and lock it in place using the
catch. Next release the pendulum and note the position to which the pointer is pushed up at the
top left.
If the pointer shows zero on the scale, the instrument is ready for the test. If not, the position of
catch H is adjusted, moving it either higher or lower as required, until the pointer is in line with
the zero on the scale when the pendulum falls freely without restraint. When the instrument is set
for the test, the pendulum is raised to the top right and the catch is operated to hold up the
pendulum. The pointer is then positioned close to its anticipated position when the specimen
breaks.
One end of the test yarn skein is then attached to the fixed jaw on the base of the instrument and
the other end to the jaw on the pendulum bob. Care is taken to see that the specimen is mounted
properly and free of twists. The catch is then released and the pendulum swings to the other side
pulling the sample with it and finally rupturing it. The position of the pointer on the scale shows
the energy spent in rupturing the sample in inch lb or cm kg. The above procedure is repeated for
another 15 samples and the mean work of rupture is calculated.
Merits of the Ballistic Test
The ballistic test has the following advantages.
 It is a simple test and it tests a large sample of yarn. The operator need not have a great
deal of practice to perform tests with an acceptable degree of accuracy.
 It is a very fast test. So several sample can be tested quickly on it and more quickly than
it would take the same number of samples on a lea tester.
 As the operation is easy and simple, there are neither operator errors nor operator fatigue.
A little care has nevertheless to be taken to keep the operator safe from injury due to the
rapidly falling heavy pendulum during the test.
 There is hardly any effect of yarn friction on the final results.
 Every thread in the test skein contributes to the final result, unlike the lea test.

 The ruptured lea may be used for determination of yarn count. So like the lea tester, two
properties are simultaneously evaluated.
 The ballistic test is capable of highlighting weak places in the yarn and yarn evenness
with greater consistency than a lea test.
 The work of rupture is a good indicator of the breaking load and the breaking extension
of a yarn. The ballistic test thus indirectly provides a combined measure of these two
important yarn properties.
CSP & CORRECTED CSP

 Lea Count Strength Product (Break Factor or Yarn Factor)
The product of the count of a yarn in Ne and its lea strength in pounds is called the Lea Count
Strength Product or the Lea CSP. It has also been referred to as the break factor or the ‘yarn
factor‘. The lea CSP is used even today as an important yarn parameter. It has been found to be
very useful in the assessment of the character of a given cotton yarn from the strength point of
view. It also enables comparisons to be made between yarns of similar, but not necessarily,
identical count. The count strength product of a yarn tested under a given set of conditions can be
calculated for another set of conditions. The formula given below can be used.
80 x N x S
Count Strength Product (CSP) = —————
W
Where
S — Average yarn breaking load (lea strength) in lb (kg 2 206)
N — Average yarn count in an indirect system
W — number of wraps (strands) in skein
Simplified Formula
CSP = N×S
 Corrected CSP
The actual count of a spun yarn would generally be slightly different from its nominal count, i.e.
the desired count. A yarn of 40s nominal count could turn out to have a mean actual count of
39.7 or sometimes 40.2, and so on. The yarn manufacturer usually labels all the yarn bundles
produced with the CSP values in terms of the nominal count of the yarn. The actual mean CSP of
a given yarn thus needs to be corrected to the nominal yarn count.
The following ASTM formula, applicable to American Upland-type cottons, is used to get the
corrected strength.
S2 = [N1S1-18.27 (N2-N1)] / N2
Where, N1 = actual count, S1 = actual strength in lb, N2 = nominal count, S2 = corrected strength
in lb. The CSP corrected to nominal yarn count = N2S2.

UNIT – IV
1. Fabric strength testing

Introduction: The level of strength required from a yarn or fabric depends on its end use .For
some end uses it is the case that the higher the strength of the materials, the better it is for its end
use. This is particularly true for yarns and fabrics intended for industrial products. However,
fabrics intended for household or apparel use merely need an adequate strength in order to
withstand handling during production and use. It is generally the case that a higher-strength
product can only be obtained by either making a heavier, stiffer fabric or by using synthetic
fibres in place of natural ones. In either case changes are produced in other properties of the
material, such as the stiffness and handle, which may not be desirable for a particular end use.
Definitions
 Stress: Stress is a way of expressing the force on a material in a way that allows for the
effect of the cross-sectional area of the specimen on the force needed to break it. In the case
of textile materials the cross-sectional area can only be easily measured in the case of fibres
with circular cross-sections. The crosssections of yarns and fabrics contain an unknown
amount of space as well as fibres so that in these cases the cross-sectional area is not clearly
defined. Therefore stress is only used in a limited number of application s involving fibres.
Stress = Force applied / cross-sectional area
 Specific (mass) stress: Specific stress is a more useful measurement of stress in the case of
yarns as their cross-sectional area is not known. The linear density of the yarn is used instead
of the cross-sectional area as a measure of yarn thickness. This allows the strengths of yarns
of different linear densities to be compared. It is defined as the ratio of force to the linear
density:
Specific stress = force / linear density
The preferred units are N/tex or mN/tex,
 Tenacity: Tenacity is defined as the specific stress corresponding with the maximum force
on a force/extension curve. The nominal denier or tex of the yarn or fibre is the figure used in
the calculation; no allowance is made for any thinning of the specimen as it elongates.
 Breaking length: Breaking length is an older measure of tenacity and is defined as the
theoretical length of a specimen of yarn whose weight would exert a force sufficient to break
the specimen. It is usually measured in kilometres.
 Elongation: Elongation is the increase in length of the specimen from its starting length
expressed in units of length. The distance that a material will extend under a given force is
proportional to its original length therefore elongation is usually quoted as strain or
percentage extension. The elongation at the maximum force is the figure most often quoted.

 Strain: The elongation that a specimen undergoes is proportional to its initial length. Strain
expresses the elongation as a fraction of the original length:
Strain = elongation / initial length
 Extension percentage: This measure is the strain expressed as a percentage rather than a
fraction
Extension = (elongation / initial length) X 100%
Breaking extension is the extension percentage at the breaking point.
 Gauge length: The gauge length is the original length of that portion of the specimen over
which the strain or change of length is determined.
Fabric strength
The breaking strength is a measure of the resistance of the fabric a tensile load or stress in either
warp or weft direction. “To measure the breaking strength,’ there are three tests that may be
used. They are:
1. Ravelled strip method
2. Cut strip method
3. Grab method
1. Ravelled Strip Method: it is a tension test on a strip of fabric in which the specified
specimen width is secured by ravelling away yarns. The specimen should be of 2 inches and
8 inches test length. For these samples of 12×2.5 inches are cut, the bigger dimension is in
the direction of testing. The extra length is allowed for gripping in the jaws. From these
samples, threads from both the edges are removed until the width is reduced to 2 inches
exactly. Rate of traverse for the bottom clamp is 12 inches/min.
2. Cut Strip Method: It is a tension test on a strip of fabric in which the specimen width is
secured by cutting the fabric. This method of fabric strength is identical to ravelled strip
method. The sample width is 2 inches and test length is 8 inches. The test specimens are cut
for exact width and no ravelling of the sample is necessary. This method is used only for
coated or heavily sized fabrics, where ravelling of the threads would be difficult. Procedure
of doing the test la the same as that for ravelled strip test.
Method of Measuring Tensile Strength

The tensile strength of the fabric can be determined using the instrument cloth tensile strength
tester and is shown in Fig 4.8.
Description: This is a motor driven, pendulum type strength tester. A dial plate, calibrated in kgs
and lbs, is provided at the top and a pointer is made to move over the dial plate. The-pointer shaft
is connected to the upper clamp by connecting rod and steel tape against a heavy pendulum. The
pendulum carries a pawl which moves over a toothed quadrant. This acts as a catch and prevents
the heavy pendulum from dropping back after the breakage of the material takes place.

This also helps to note the reading at ease. A red pointer is provided in the upper clamp and an
elongation scale in the lower clamp to note the elongation of the specimen. Downward
movement is given to the lower clamp by a screw rod and lever at the rate of 18 inches/minute. A
catch is provided for the upper clamp to mount the sample without disturbing the pointer on the
dial.
Procedure:
 Inspect the tester for the proper size of the clamps, distance between the clamps, and any
other parts or settings that are necessary. (If a pendulum - type tester is used, select the
proper pendulum weight so that the pendulum will be between approximately 9 and 45
degrees with the vertical when the specimen breaks).
 If stress-strain curve is to be drawn, place the chart and pen in positioned align the chart
properly.
 Place the sample in the clamps. The specimen should be so placed that yams are broken
perpendicular to the load.
 Apply load to the sample and when the sample breaks, reverse the movement of the lower
clamp and raise the pen from the chart if a stress-strain chart is being made. If a stress-strain
chart is not being made,
 Record the breaking strength and return the pendulum to the zero position.

3. Grab Test Method: It is a tension test on the fabric in which only a part of the width of the
specimen is gripped in the clamps. For example, if the specimen width is 4 inches and the
width of jaw is 1 inch the specimen is gripped centrally in the clamps as shown in the figure.
Test samples of size 4 x 6 inches are cut from the master sample. The 6 inch length is parallel to
the yarn to be tested and it is depended on the gauge length. In setting the testing instrument, the
clamps must be set 3 inches apart. The lower jaw moves at a rate of 12 inches per minute.
Procedure:
 Inspect the tester for the proper size of the clamps, distance between the clamps etc.
 If stress-strain curve is to be drawn, place the chart and pen in positioned align the chart
properly.
 Place the sample in the clamps. The specimen should be so placed that yams are broken
perpendicular to the load.
 Apply load to the sample and when the sample breaks, reverse the movement of the lower
clamp and raise the pen from the chart if a stress-strain chart is being made. If a stress-strain
chart is not being made,
 Record the breaking strength and return the pendulum to the zero position.
 Five breaks are made both for warp and weft.
Tearing Strength tests

A fabric tears when it is snagged by a sharp object and the immediate small puncture is
converted into a long rip by what may be a very small extra effort. It is probably the most
common type of strength failure of fabrics in use. It is particularly important in industrial fabrics
that are exposed to rough handling in use such as tents and sacks and also those where
propagation of a tear would be catastrophic such as parachutes. Outdoor clothing, overalls and
uniforms are types of clothing where tearing strength is of importance.

Measuring tearing strength: The fabric property usually measured is the force required to
propagate an existing tear and not the force required to initiate a tear as this usually requires a
cutting of threads. As part of the preparation of the fabric specimens a cut is made in them and
then the force required to extend the cut is measured. This is conveniently carried out by
gripping the two halves of the cut in a standard tensile tester. The various tear tests carried out in
this manner differ mainly in the geometry of the specimen. The simplest is the rip test where a
cut is made down the centre of a strip of fabric and the two tails pulled apart by a tensile tester.
The test is sometimes referred to as the single rip test, the trouser tear or in the US as the tongue
tear test Fig. 5.24(a). What is understood in the UK as the tongue tear test has the specimen cut
into three tails Fig. 5.24(b) and (c), the central one is gripped in one jaw of the tensile tester and
the outer two in the other jaw. This test is also known as the double rip as two tears are made
simultaneously.
Single rip tear test: In the US Standard 10 specimen s are tested from both fabric directions
each measuring 75mm X 200mm (3 X 8 in) with an 80mm (3.5 in) slit part way down the centre
of each strip as shown in Fig. (a). One of the 'tails ' is clamped in the lower jaw of a tensile tester
and the other side is clamped in the upper jaw, the separation of the jaws causes the tear to
proceed through the uncut part of the fabric. The extension speed is set to 50mm/min (2in/min)
or an optional speed of 300mm/min can be used. There are three ways of expressing the result:
1. The average of the five highest peaks.
2. The median peak height.
3. The average force by use of an integrator.
Depending on the direction the fabric is torn in the test is for the tearing strength of filling yarns
or of warp yarns. If the direction to be torn is much stronger than the other direction, failure will
occur by tearing across the tail so that it is not always possible to obtain both warp and weft
results.

(All Dimensions are in Inches)
Wing rip tear test: The wing rip test overcome s some of the problem s which are found with
the single rip test as it is capable of testing most types of fabric without causing a transfer of tear.
During the test the point of tearing remains substantially in line with the centre of the grips. The
design of the sample is also less susceptible to the withdrawal of threads from the specimen
during tearing than is the case with the ordinary rip test. The British standard uses a sample
shaped as in Fig. 5.25 which is clamped in the tensile tester in the way shown in Fig. 5.26. The
centre line of the specimen has a cut 150mm long and a mark is made 25mm from the end of the
specimen to show the end of the tear.

The test is preferred to the tongue tear test though it is not suitable for loosely constructed fabrics
which would fail by slippage of the yarns rather than by the rupture of threads. Five specimens
across the weft and five specimens across the warp are tested. The test is carried out using a
constant rate of extension testing machine with the speed set at 100mm/min. The tearing
resistance is specified as either across warp or across weft according to which set of yarns are
broken. The results can be expressed as either the maximum tearing resistance or the median
tearing resistance. The median value is determined from a force elongation curve such as that
shown in and it is the value such that exactly half of the peaks have higher values and half of
them have lower values than it. The median tearing resistance value is close to the mean value
but it is an easier value to measure by hand methods as it can be determined by sliding a
transparent rule down the chart until half the peaks are above the edge of the rule and half below
it, at which point the load can be read from the chart.
Elmendorf tear tester

The Elmendorf tear tester is a pendulum type ballistic tester which measures energy loss during
tearing. The tearing force is related to the energy loss by the following equation:
Energy loss = tearing force X distance

Loss in potential energy = work done
The apparatus which is shown in Fig. consists of a sector-shaped pendulum carrying a clamp
which is in alignment with a fixed clamp when the pendulum is in the raised starting position,
where it has maximum potential energy. The specimen is fastened between the two clamps and
the tear is started by a slit cut in the specimen between the clamps. The pendulum is then
released and the specimen is torn as the moving jaw moves away from the fixed one. The
pendulum possesses potential energy because of its starting height. Some of the energy is lost in
tearing through the fabric so that as the pendulum swings through its lowest position it is not able
to swing to the same height as it started from. The difference between starting height and
finishing height is proportional to the energy lost in tearing. The scale attached to the pendulum
can be graduated to read the tearing force directly or it may give percentage of the original
potential energy.
The apparatus tears right through the specimen. The work done and hence the reading obtained is
directly proportional to the length of material torn. Therefore the accuracy of the instrument
depends on very careful cutting of the specimen which is normally done with a die. The range of
the instrument is from 320 gf to 3840 gf in three separate ranges obtained by using
supplementary weights to increase the mass of the pendulum. When a fabric is being torn all the
force is concentrated on a few threads at the point of propagation of the tear. This is why the
forces involved in tearing are so much lower than those needed to cause tensile failure.
Depending on the fabric construction, threads can group together by lateral movement during
tearing, so improving the tearing resistance as more than one thread has to be broken at a time.
The ability to group is a function of the looseness of the yarns in the fabric. Weave has an
important effect on this: twill or a 2/2 matt weave allows the threads to group better thus giving
better tearing resistance than a plain weave. High sett fabrics inhibit thread movement and so
reduce the assistance effect.

Resin treatments such as crease resistance finishes which cause the yarns to adhere to one
another also have the same effect. The tensile properties of the constituent fibres have an
influence on tearing resistance as those with a high extension allow the load to be shared whereas
fibres with low extension such as cotton tear easily.
Bursting strength: Tensile strength tests are generally used for woven fabrics where there are
definite warp and weft directions in which the strength can be measured. However, certain
fabrics such as knitted materials, lace or non-woven s do not have such distinct directions where
the strength is at a maximum. Bursting strength is an alternative method of measuring strength in
which the material is stressed in all directions at the same time and is therefore more suitable for
such materials. There are also fabrics which are simultaneously stressed in all directions during
service, such as parachute fabrics, filters, sacks and nets, where it may be important to stress
them in a realistic manner. A fabric is more likely to fail by bursting in service than it is to break
by a straight tensile fracture as this is the type of stress that is present at the elbows and knees of
clothing.
When a fabric fails during a bursting strength test it does so across the direction which has the
lowest breaking extension. This is because when stressed in this way all the directions in the
fabric undergo the same extension so that the fabric direction with the lowest extension at break
is the one that will fail first. This is not necessarily the direction with the lowest strength. The
standard type of bursting strength test uses an elastic diaphragm to load the fabric, the pressure
of the fluid behind the diaphragm being used as the measure of stress in the fabric. The general
layout of such an instrument is shown in Fig. 5.29. The bursting strength is then measured in

units of pressure. As there is a sizeable force needed just to inflate the diaphragm this has to be
allowed for in the test. The usual way is to measure the increase in height of the diaphragm
during the test and then to inflate the diaphragm to the same height without a specimen present.
The pressure required to inflate the diaphragm alone is then deducted from the pressure
measured at the point of failure of the sample. The relationship between the diaphragm height
and the fabric extension is quite complex so that the method is not used to obtain an estimation
of fabric extension.
Diaphragm bursting test: The fabric to be tested is clamped over a rubber diaphragm by means
of an annular clamping ring and an increasing fluid pressure is applied to the underside of the
diaphragm until the specimen bursts. The operating fluid may be a liquid or a gas. Two sizes of
specimen are in use, the area of the specimen under stress being either 30mm diameter or
113mm in diameter. The specimens with the larger diameter fail at lower pressures
(approximately one-fifth of the 30mm diameter value). However, there is no direct comparison
of the results obtained from the different sizes. The standard requires ten specimens to be tested.
In the test the fabric sample is clamped over the rubber diaphragm and the pressure in the fluid
increased at such a rate that the specimen bursts within 20 ± 3 s. The extension of the diaphragm
is recorded and another test is carried out without a specimen present. The pressure to do this is
noted and then deducted from the earlier reading.
The following measurements are reported:
Mean bursting strength kN/m2
Mean bursting distension mm

The US Standard is similar using an aperture of 1.2 2 ± 0.3 in (31 ± 0.75mm) the design of
equipment being such that the pressure to inflate the diaphragm alone is obtained by removing
the specimen after bursting. The test requires ten samples if the variability of the bursting
strength is not known.
The disadvantage of the diaphragm type bursting test is the limit to the extension that can be
given to the sample owing to the fact that the rubber diaphragm has to stretch to the same
amount. Knitted fabrics, for which the method is intended, often have a very high extension.
Abrasion resistance
Introduction: A garment is considered to be serviceable when it is fit for its particular end use.
After being used for a certain length of time the garment ceases to be serviceable when it can no
longer fill its intended purpose in the way that it did when it was new. The particular factors that
reduce the service life of a garment are heavily dependent on its end use. For instance overalls
worn to protect clothing at work would be required to withstand a good deal of hard usage during
their lifetime but their appearance would not be considered important. However, garments worn
purely for their fashionable appearance are not required to be hard wearing but would be
speedily discarded if their appearance changed noticeably. An exception to this generalisation is
found in the case of denim where a worn appearance is deliberately strived for.
If asked, many people would equate the ability of a fabric to 'wear well' with its abrasion
resistance, but 'wear', that is the reduction in serviceable life, is a complex phenomenon and can
be brought about by any of the following factors:
 Changes in fashion which mean that the garment is no longer worn whatever its physical
state.
 Shrinkage or other dimensional changes of such a magnitude that the garment wills no
longer fit.
 Changes in the surface appearance of the fabric which include: the formation of shiny
areas by rubbing, the formation of pills or surface fuzz, the pulling out of threads in the
form of snags.
 Fading of the colour of the garment through washing or exposure to light. The bleeding
of the colour from one area to another.
 Failure of the seams of the garment by breaking of the sewing thread or by seam
slippage.
 Wearing of the fabric into holes or wearing away of the surface finish or pile to leave the
fabric threadbare. Wearing of the edges of cuffs, collars and other folded edges to give a
frayed appearance.
 Tearing of the fabric through being snagged by a sharp object.
These changes are brought about by the exposure of the garment to a number of physical and
chemical agents during the course of its use. Some of these agents are as follows:

 Abrasion of the fabric by rubbing against parts of the body or external surfaces.
 The cutting action of grit particles which may be ingrained in dirty fabrics and which
may cause internal abrasion as the fabric is flexed.
 Tensile stresses and strains which occur as the garment is put on or taken off and when
the person wearing it is active.
 The laundering and cleaning processes which are necessary to retain the appearance of
the garment.
 Attack by biological agents such as bacteria, fungi and insects. This is a particular
problem for natural materials.
 Degradation of the fabric by contact with chemicals which can include normal household
items such as bleach, detergents, anti-perspirants and perfumes.
 Light, in particular ultra-violet light can cause degradation of polymers leading to a
reduction in strength as well as causing fading of colors.
 Contact of the garment with sharp objects leading to the formation of tears.
The above causes of wear are often acting at the same time. For instance, chemical or bacterial
attack may so weaken a fabric that it can then easily fail through abrasion or tearing. Laundering
of a fabric taken together with the abrasion that it encounters during use may lead to much earlier
formation of pills or failure through abrasion than would be predicted from any pilling or
abrasion tests undertaken on the new material.
Factors affecting abrasion resistance

The factors that have been found to affect abrasion include the following.
 Fibre type: It is thought that the ability of a fibre to withstand repeated distortion is the
key to its abrasion resistance. Therefore high elongation, elastic recovery and work of
rupture are considered to be more important factors for a good degree of abrasion
resistance in a fibre than is a high strength. Nylon is generally considered to have the best
abrasion resistance. Polyester and polypropylene are also considered to have good
abrasion resistance. Blending either nylon or polyester with wool and cotton is found to
increase their abrasion resistance at the expense of other properties.
 Fibre properties: One of the results of abrasion is the gradual removal of fibres from the
yarns. Therefore factors that affect the cohesion of yarns will influence their abrasion
resistance. Longer fibres incorporated into a fabric confer better abrasion resistance than
short fibres because they are harder to remove from the yarn. For the same reason
filament yarns are more abrasion resistant than staple yarns made from the same fibre.
Increasing fibre diameter up to a limit improves abrasion resistance.
 Yarn twist: There has been found to be an optimum amount of twist in a yarn to give the
best abrasion resistance. At low-twist factors fibres can easily be removed from the yarn
so that it is gradually reduced in diameter. At hightwist levels the fibres are held more

tightly but the yarn is stiffer so it is unable to flatten or distort under pressure when being
abraded. It is this ability to distort that enables the yarn to resist abrasion.
 Fabric structure: The crimp of the yarns in the fabric affects whether the warp or the
weft is abraded the most. Fabrics with the crimp evenly distributed between warp and
weft give the best wear because the damage is spread evenly between them. If one set of
yarns is predominantly on the surface then this set will wear most; this effect can be used
to protect the load-bearing yarns preferentially. One set of yarns can also be protected by
using floats in the other set such as in a sateen or twill weave. The relative mobility of the
floats helps to absorb the stress. There is an optimum value for fabric sett for best
abrasion resistance.
Factors that can affects the Abrasion tests

Very many different abrasion tests have been introduced. Poor correlation has been found both
between the different abrasion testers and between abrasion tests and wear tests. The methods
that have survived to become standards are not necessarily the 'best' ones. Among the factors
which can affect the results of an abrasion test are the following.
 Type of abrasion: This may be plane, flex or edge abrasion or a combination of more
than one of these factors.
 Type of abradant: A number of different abradants have been used in abrasion tests
including standard fabrics, steel plates and abrasive paper or stones (aluminum oxide or
silicon carbide). The severity as well as the type of action is different in each case.
 Pressure: The pressure between the abradant and the sample affects the severity and rate
at which abrasion occurs. It has been shown that using different pressures can seriously
alter the ranking of a set of fabrics when using a particular abradant.
 Speed: Increasing the speed of rubbing above that found in everyday use also brings the
dangers of accelerated testing as described above. A rise in temperature of the sample can
occur with high rubbing speeds; this can affect the physical properties of thermoplastic
fibres.
 Tension: It is important that the tension of the mounted specimen is reproducible as this
determines the degree of mobility of the sample under the applied abradant. This includes
the compressibility of any backing foam or inflated diaphragm.
 Direction of abrasion: In many fabrics the abrasion resistance in the warp direction
differs from that of the weft direction. Ideally the rubbing motion used by an abrasion
machine should be such as to eliminate directional effects.
Method of assessment:
Two approaches have been used to assess the effects of abrasion:
1. Abrade the sample until a predetermined end-point such as a hole, and record the time or
number of cycles to this.

2. Abrade for a set time or number of cycles and assess some aspect of the abraded fabric
such as change in appearance, loss of mass, loss of strength change in thickness or other
relevant property.
The first approach corresponds to most people’s idea of the end point of abrasion but the length
of the test is indeterminate and requires the sample to be regularly examined for failure in the
absence of a suitable automatic mechanism. This need for examination is time consuming as the
test may last for a long time. The second approach promises a more precise measurement but
even when the sample has rubbed into a hole the change in properties such as mass loss can be
slight. However none of the above assessment methods produces results that show a linear or
direct comparison with one another. Neither is there a linear relationship between successive
measurements using any of these methods and progressive amounts of abrasion.
Martindale Abrasion Tester

This apparatus is designed to give a controlled amount of abrasion between fabric surfaces at
comparatively low pressures in continuously changing directions. The results of this test should
not be used indiscriminately, particularly not for comparing fabrics of widely different fibre
composition or construction.
In the test circular specimens are abraded under known pressure on an apparatus, shown in,
which gives a motion that is the resultant of two simple harmonic motions at right angles to one
another. The fabric under test is abraded against a standard fabric. Resistance to abrasion is
estimated by visual appearance or by loss in mass of the specimen.
Method: Four specimens each 38mm in diameter are cut using the appropriate cutter. They are
then mounted in the specimen holders with a circle of standard foam behind the fabric being
tested. The components of the standard holder are shown in. It is important that the mounting of
the sample is carried out with the specimens placed flat against the mounting block.

Fig. Standard Holder for abrasion tester
The test specimen holders are mounted on the machine with the fabric under test next to the
abradant. A spindle is inserted through the top plate and the correct weight (usually of a size to
give a pressure of 12kPa but a lower pressure of 9kPa may be used if specified) is placed on top
of this. The standard abradant should be replaced at the start of each test and after 50,000 cycles
if the test is continued beyond this number. While the abradant held flat by a weight as the
retaining ring is tightened. Behind the abradant is a standard backing felt which is replaced at
longer intervals.
Assessment: The specimen is examined at suitable intervals without removing it from its holder
to see whether two threads are broken. If the likely failure point is known the first inspection can
be made at 60% of that value. The abrading is continued until two threads are broken. All four
specimens should be judged individually. The interval for inspection are given below
The individual values of cycles to breakdown of all four specimens are reported and also the
average of these.
Assessment by Average rate of loss in mass: This is an alternative method of assessing
abrasion resistance which requires eight specimens for the test. Two of these are abraded to the
endpoint as described above and then the other pairs are abraded to the intermediate stages of
25%, 50% and 75% of the end point. The samples are weighed to the nearest 1 mg before and
after abrasion so that a graph can be plotted of weight loss against the number of rubs. From the
slope of this graph, if it is a straight line, the average loss in mass measured in mg/1000 rubs can
be determined.

Figure: One station of Martindale Abrasion Tester
Pilling of fabrics & its Causes –Measurement of picking by using ICI pilling box tester
Pilling:
Pilling is a condition that arises in wear due to the formation of little 'pills ‘of entangled
fibre clinging to the fabric surface giving it an unsightly appearance. Pills are formed by a
rubbing action on loose fibres which are present on the fabric surface. Pilling was originally a
fault found mainly in knitted woollen goods made from soft twisted yarns. The introduction of
man-made fibres into clothing has aggravated its seriousness.
The initial effect of abrasion on the surface of a fabric is the formation of fuzz as the result of
two processes, the brushing up of free fibre ends not enclosed within the yarn structure and the
conversion of fibre loops into free fibre ends by the pulling out of one of the two ends of the
loop.
The greater the breaking strength and the lower the bending stiffness of the fibres, the
more likely they are to be pulled out of the fabric structure producing long protruding fibres.
Fibre with low breaking strength and high bending stiffness will tend to break before being
pulled fully out of the structure leading to shorter protruding fibres.

Pilling tests:
After rubbing of a fabric it is possible to assess the amount of pilling quantitatively either
by counting the number of pills or by removing and weighing them. However, pills observed in
worn garment s vary in size and appearance as well as in number. The appearance depends on
the presence of lint in the pills or the degree of colour contrast with the ground fabric. These
factors are not evaluated if the pilling is rated solely on the number or size of pills. Furthermore
the development of pills is often accompanied by other surface changes such as the development
of fuzz which affect the overall acceptability of a fabric.
It is therefore desirable that fabrics tested in the laboratory are assessed subjectively with
regard to their acceptability and not rated solely on the number of pills developed. Counting the
pills and/or weighing them as a measure of pilling is very time consuming and there is also the
difficulty of deciding which surface disturbances constitute pills. The more usual way of
evaluation is to assess the pilling subjectively by comparing it with either standard samples or
with photographs of them or by the use of a written scale of severity. Most scales are divided
into five grades and run from grade 5, no pilling, to grade 1, very severe pilling.
ICI pilling box:

For this test four specimen s each 125mm X 125mm are cut from the fabric. A seam
allowance of 12mm is marked on the back of each square. In two of the samples the seam is
marked parallel to the warp direction and in the other two parallel to the weft direction. The
samples are then folded face to face and a seam is sewn on the marked line. This gives two
specimens with the seam parallel to the warp and two with the seam parallel to the weft. Each
specimen is turned inside out and 6mm cut off each end of it thus removing any sewing
distortion. The fabric tubes made are then mounted on rubber tubes so that the length of tube
showing at each end is the same. Each of the loose ends is taped with poly (vinyl chloride)
(PVC) tape so that 6mm of the rubber tube is left exposed as shown in below Fig.
All four specimen s are then placed in one pilling box. The samples are then tumbled
together in a cork-lined box as shown in Fig.7.5. The usual number of revolutions used in the test
is 18,000 which take 5 h. Some specifications require the test to be run for a different number of
revolutions.
Assessment: The specimens are removed from the tubes and viewed using oblique lighting in
order to throw the pills into relief. The samples are then given a rating of between 1 and 5 with
the help of the description s in above Table.
Figure: line diagram of ICI Pilling Box

Crease Resistance & Crease Recovery
Creases are a fold in a fabric introduced unintentionally. The definition of a wrinkle is less clear,
however. Some define wrinkles as three-dimensional creases, whereas others define them as
short and irregular creases. They form when fabrics undergo double curvature, which occurs
when a flat material is bent in both of its planes. Sufficient force must be applied that the change
is permanent to some degree. Some people use the terms ‘wrinkle’ and ‘crease’ interchangeably.
Wrinkles and creases are distinct to pleats, because pleats are introduced intentionally and over
regular intervals. They are usually sharp folds, often running lengthways to give a decorative
effect. Crease marks are marks left in a fabric once the crease has been removed and are usually
caused by mechanical damage.
Crease resistance is the ability of a material to resist, or recover from, creasing. Crease recovery
is a specific measurement of crease resistance that determines the crease recovery angle. It is
therefore a quantitative method of analysis.
Crease is a fold in fabric introduced unintentionally at some stages of processing. Crease or
crushing of textile material is a complex effect involving tensile, compressive, flexing and
tensional stresses. Crease recovery is a fabric property which indicates the ability of fabric to go
back to its original position after creasing.
Measurement by Shirley Crease Recovery tester: Crease recovery is a measure of creases
resistance, specified quantitatively in terms of crease recovery angle. To measure this, the
popular instrument is Shirley crease recovery tester. The instrument consists of a circular dial
which carries the clamp for holding the specimen. Directly under the centre of the dial there is a
knife edge and an index line for measuring the recovery angle. Crease recovery is determined
depending upon this recovery angle. If the angle is 0o then recovery is zero and if the angle is
180o then recovery is full. Crease recovery depends on the construction, twist of yarn, pressure,
time etc. Usually crease recovery is more in warp way than in weft way. This is because warp
yarns are well in quality, strength, treated with sizing, kept in more tension during weaving etc.
Apparatus: Crease recovery tester, Scissor, Glass plates, Steel plates, Weight.
Sample: Cotton woven fabric Size: 4.4 X 1.5cm.
Atmosphere: Temperature – 25oC and relative humidity – 67% Standard atmosphere:
temperature – 20oC and relative humidity - 65%.
Figure: Shirley Crease Recovery Tester.

Procedure:
1. The specimen is cut by template and carefully creased by folding in half.

2. The crease is imparted on fabric by placing it between two glass plates and adding to
500gm weight on it.
3. After 1 min the weight is removed and the creased fabric is clamped on the instrument.
4. Then it is allowed to recover from the crease. The recovery time may vary to suit
particular creases. Usually it is 1 min.
5. When crease recovers the dial of the instrument is rotated to keep the free edge of the
specimen in line with the knife edge.
6. The recovery angle is read from the engraved scale.
7. In this way 10 tests are done in warp way and 10 for weft way.
8. The mean value of recovery angle is taken and thus crease recovery is measured.
Crease recovery is determined depending upon the recovery angle. If the angle is 0 o then
recovery is zero and if the angle is 180o then recovery is full. Here the recovery angle for the
given fabric sample is the middle of the range. So it is to say that the crease recovery of the
sample fabric is average.
Fabric stiffness, Handle & Drape-Bending length, flexural rigidity, bending modulus-
Shirley stiffness tester.
Handle: 'Handle', the term given to properties assessed by touch or feel, depends upon
subjective assessment of the fabrics by a person. Terms such as smooth, rough, stiff or limp
depend strongly on the type of fabric being assessed, for instance the smoothness of a worsted
suiting is different in nature from that of cotton sateen. Because of the subjective nature of these
properties attempts have been made over the years to devise objective tests to measure some or
all of the factors that go to make up handle. Fabric stiffness and drape were some of the earliest
properties to be measured objectively.
 Bending length
A form of the cantilever stiffness test is often used as a measure of a fabric's stiffness as it
is an easy test to carry out. In the test a horizontal strip of fabric is clamped at one end and the
rest of the strip allowed hanging under its own weight. This is shown diagrammatically shown in
below Fig. The relationship among the length of the overhanging strip, the angle that it bends to
and the flexural rigidity, G, of the fabric is a complex one which was solved empirically by
Peirce to give the formula:

Where L = length of fabric projecting,
θ = angle fabric bends to,
M = fabric mass per unit area.
From this relationship Peirce defined a quantity known as the bending length as being
equal to the length of a rectangular strip of material which will bend under its own mass to an
angle of 7.1°. The bending length is dependent on the weight of the fabric and is therefore an
important component of the drape of a fabric when it is hanging under its own weight. However,
when a fabric is handled by the fingers the property relating to stiffness that is sensed, in this
situation, is the flexural rigidity which is a measure of stiffness independent of the fabric weight.
The bending length is related to the angle that the fabric makes to the horizontal by the following
relation:
Where C = bending length.

When the tip of the specimen reaches a plane inclined at 41.5° below the horizontal the
overhanging length is then twice the bending length. This angle is used in the Shirley apparatus
to increase the sensitivity of the length measurement and the slide on this instrument is directly
calibrated in centimeters.
Shirley stiffness tester

This test measures the bending stiffness of a fabric by allowing a narrow strip of the
fabric to bend to a fixed angle under its own weight. The length of the fabric required to bend to
this angle is measured and is known as the bending length.
The test specimens are each 25mm wide and 200mm long; three are cut parallel to the warp and
three parallel to the weft so that no two warp specimens contain the same warp threads, and no
two weft specimens contain the same weft threads. The specimens should not be creased and
those that tend to twist should be flattened.
Before the test the specimens are preconditioned for 4h (500C >10 % RH) and then
conditioned for 24 h. If a specimen is found to be twisted its mid-point should be aligned with
the two index lines. Four readings are taken from each specimen, one face up and one face down
on the first end, and then the same for the second end. The mean bending length for warp and
weft is calculated. The higher the bending length, the stiffer is the fabric.
Flexural rigidity: The flexural rigidity is the ratio of the small change in bending moment per
unit width of the material to the corresponding small change in curvature:
Where C = bending length (mm), M = fabric mass per unit area (g/m2).
Bending modulus: The stiffness of a fabric in bending is very dependent on its thickness, the
thicker the fabric, the stiffer it is if all other factors remain the same. The bending modulus is
independent of the dimensions of the strip tested so that by analogy with solid materials it is a
measure of 'intrinsic stiffness'.
Where T = fabric thickness (mm).
Figure: Shirley Stiffness Tester
Fabric Drape –Drape Co-efficient & Drape Meter
Drape: Drape is the term used to describe the way a fabric hangs under its own weight. It has an
important bearing on how good a garment looks in use. The draping qualities required from a
fabric will differ completely depending on its end use; therefore a given value for drape cannot
be classified as either good or bad. Knitted fabrics are relatively floppy and garments made from
them will tend to follow the body contours. Woven fabrics are relatively stiff when compared
with knitted fabrics so that they are used in tailored clothing where the fabric hangs away from

the body and disguises its contours. Measurement of a fabric s drape is meant to assess its ability
to do this and also its ability to hang in graceful curves.
Cusick drape test: In the drape test the specimen deforms with multi-directional curvature and
consequently the results are dependent to a certain amount upon the shear properties of the
fabric. The results are mainly dependent, however, on the bending stiffness of the fabric.
In the test a circular specimen is held concentrically between two smaller horizontal discs and is
allowed to drape into folds under its own weight. A light is shone from underneath the specimen
as shown in Fig. 10.4 and the shadow that the fabric casts, shown in Fig. 10.5, is traced onto an
annular piece of paper the same size as the unsupported part of the fabric specimen. The stiffer a
fabric is, the larger is the area of its shadow compared with the unsupported area of the fabric. To
measure the areas involved, the whole paper ring is weighed and then the shadow part of the ring
is cut away and weighed. The paper is assumed to have constant mass per unit area so that the
measured mass is proportional to area. The drape coefficient can then be calculated using the
following equation:
The higher the drape coefficient the stiffer is the fabric.
Figure 10.4 Cusick Drape Test

At least two specimens should be used, the fabric being tested both ways up so that a total of six
measurement s are made on the same specimen. There are three diameters of specimen that can
be used:
• A 24cm for limp fabrics; drape coefficient below 30% with the 30cm sample;
• B 30cm for medium fabrics;
• C 36cm for stiff fabrics; drape coefficient above 85% with the 30cm sample.
It is intended that a fabric should be tested initially with a 30cm size specimen in order to see
which of the above categories it falls into. When test specimens of different diameter are used,
the drape coefficients measured from them are not directly comparable with one another.

UNIT –V
1. Crimp of yarn in fabric – crimp and fabric properties, measurement of crimp

percentage
When the linear density of a yarn has to be determined from a sample of fabric, a strip of
the fabric is first cut to a known size. A number of threads are then removed from it and their
uncrimped length is determined under a standard tension in a crimp tester. All the threads are
weighed together on a sensitive balance and from their total length and total weight the linear
density can be calculated.
Yarn from a finished fabric may have had a resin or other type of finish applied to it so
that its weight is greater than that of the original yarn. Alternatively it may have lost fibres
during the finishing process so that its weight may be lower than that of the original yarn. For
these reasons the linear densities of yarn from finished fabrics can only represent an estimate of
the linear density of the yarn used to construct the fabric.
There are several important effects of crimp on Fabric Properties:
 Abrasion Resistance: If crimp percentage is high then the resistance of the fabric will be
higher.
 Shrinkage: If crimp percentage is high then the shrinkage of the fabric will be lower.
 Handle Properties: When the crimp percentage is higher, the softness of the fabric will be
fiber. Simultaneously stiffness of the fabric will be lower.
 Fabric Design: Required extensibility is achieved by controlling crimp.
Shirley crimp tester:

When yarn is removed from a fabric it is no longer straight but it is set into the path that
it took in the fabric. This distortion is known as crimp and before the linear density of the yarn
can be determined the crimp must be removed and the extended length measured.
The crimp tester is a device for measuring the crimp-free length of a piece of yarn
removed from a fabric. The length of the yarn is measured when it is under a standard tension
whose value is given in Table 4.3.

The instrument is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 4.3 and consists of two clamps, one of which
can be slid along a scale and the other which is pivoted so as to apply tension to the yarn.
The sample of yarn removed from the fabric is placed in the clamps with each end a set distance
into the clamp. This is because the length of yarn in the clamps has to be allowed for in the
measurement. The right hand clamp can be moved along the scale and it has an engraved line on
it at which point the extended yarn length can be read. The left hand clamp is balanced on a pivot
with a pointer arm attached. On the pointer arm is a weight which can be moved along the arm to
change the yarn tension, the set tension being indicated on a scale behind it. At zero tension the
left hand clamp assembly is balanced and the pointer arm lines up against a fixed mark. As the
weight is moved along the arm the clamp tries to rotate around the pivot, so applying a tension to
the yarn. When a measurement is being made the movable clamp is slid along the scale until the
pointer is brought opposite the fixed mark. At this point the tension in the yarn is then the value
which was set on the scale. The length of the yarn can then be read off against the engraved line.
The crimp, which is the difference between the extended length and the length of the yarn in the
fabric, is defined as:
Where L0 = distance between ends of the yarn as it lies in the fabric.

L1 = straightened length of yarn.
2. Fabric shrinkage and its measurements.

The dimensional stability of a fabric is a measure of the extent to which it keeps its
original dimensions subsequent to its manufacture. It is possible for the dimensions of a fabric to
increase but any change is more likely to be a decrease or shrinkage. Shrinkage is a problem that
gives rise to a large number of customer complaints. Some fabric faults such as colour loss or
pilling can degrade the appearance of a garment but still leave it usable.
Other faults such as poor abrasion resistance may appear late in the life of a garment and to some
extent their appearance may be anticipated by judging the quality of the fabric. However,

dimensional change can appear early on in the life of a garment so making a complaint more
likely. A recent survey of manufacturers rated shrinkage as one of the ten leading quality
problems regardless of the size of the company.
Fabric shrinkage can cause problems in two main areas, either during garment
manufacture or during subsequent laundering by the ultimate customer. At various stages during
garment manufacture the fabric is pressed in a steam press such as a Hoffman press where it is
subjected to steam for a short period while being held between the upper and lower platens of the
press.
Laundering is a more vigorous process than pressing and it usually involves mechanical
agitation, hot water and detergent. Tumble drying can also affect the shrinkage as the material is
wet at the beginning of the drying process, the material being agitated while heated until it is dry.
Dry cleaning involves appropriate solvents and agitation; the solvents are not absorbed by the
fibres so they do not swell or affect the properties of the fibres. This reduces some of the
problems that occur during wet cleaning processes.
There are a number of different causes of dimensional change, some of which are connected to
one another. Most mechanism s only operates with fibre types that absorb moisture, but
relaxation shrinkage can affect any fibre type. The following types of dimensional change are
generally recognised:
1. Hygral expansion is a property of fabrics made from fibres that absorb moisture, in
particular fabrics made from wool. It is a reversible change in dimensions which takes place
when the moisture regain of a fabric is altered.
2. Relaxation shrinkage is the irreversible dimensional change accompanying the release of
fibre strains imparted during manufacture which have been set by the combined effects of
time, finishing treatments, and physical restraints within the structure.
3. Swelling shrinkage results from the swelling and de-swelling of the constituent fibres of a
fabric due to the absorption and desorption of water.
4. Felting shrinkage results primarily from the frictional properties of the component fibres
which cause them to migrate within the structure. This behaviour is normally considered to
be significant only for fibres having scales on their surface such as wool.
The dimensions of fabrics can become set while they are deformed if they are subjected to a
suitable process. Fibres that absorb water can be set if they are deformed while in the wet state
and then dried at those dimensions. Thermoplastic fibres can be set if they are deformed at a
comparatively high temperature and then allowed to cool in the deformed state. The set may be
temporary or permanent depending on the severity of the setting conditions. During relaxation
shrinkage it is temporary set that is released. It is generally the case that deformation that has
been set can be released by a more severe treatment than the setting treatment. Conversely if it is
wished to make the dimension s of the fabric permanent it is necessary to carry out the setting at
conditions that the fabric will not meet in use.

Hygral expansion: Hygral expansion refers to the property of certain fabrics that absorb
moisture, where the fabric expands as the moisture content increases, owing to the swelling of
the constituent fibres. This is particularly a property of wool fabrics. All of the expansion is
subsequently reversed when the fabric is dried to its original moisture content. The increase in
dimensions takes place in both warp and weft directions and its magnitude is related to the
amount of moisture in the material. Figure 6.2 shows the increase in dimensions of two wool
fabrics with increasing atmospheric moisture content; in one case the expansion increases with
regain almost up to the maximum value for wool, whereas in the other fabric the expansion
reaches a maximum at around 20% regain. This is considered to be due to the tighter weave of
the second fabric which causes the width ways expansion of the warp yarn to interfere with the
lengthways expansion of the weft yarn.
Hygral expansion is believed to be caused by the straightening of crimped yarn as it absorbs

moisture. This is due to the fact that wool fibres swell to 16% in diameter and 1% in length when
wet. The swelling causes fibres which have been permanently set into a curve to try to straighten
out due to the imbalance of forces. When the fibres dry out they revert to their former diameter
and so take up their original curvature.
Hygral expansion of a fabric in a finished garment can cause problems when the garment is
exposed to an atmosphere of higher relative humidity than that in which it was made. The
expansion can cause pucker at seams and wrinkling where it is constrained by other panels or
fixed interlining.

Relaxation shrinkage: when yarns are woven into fabrics they are subjected to considerable
tensions, particularly in the warp direction. In subsequent finishing processes such as tentering or
calendering this stretch may be increased and temporarily set in the fabric. The fabric is then in a
state of dimensional instability. Subsequently when the fabric is thoroughly wetted it tends to
revert to its more stable dimensions which results in the contraction of the yarns. This effect is
usually greater in the warp direction than in the weft direction.
Relaxation shrinkage in wool fabrics is caused by stretching the wet fabric beyond its relaxed
dimensions during drying. A proportion of the excess dimensions are retained when the dry
fabric is freed of constraint. The fabric will, however, revert to its original dimensions when
soaked in water. This effect is related to the hygral expansion value of a fabric in that a fabric
with a high value of hygral expansion will increase its dimensions more when it is wetted out so
that it subsequently needs to contract to a greater extent when it is dried. Merely holding such a
fabric at its wet dimensions will thus give rise to a fabric that is liable to relaxation shrinkage.
Swelling shrinkage: This type of shrinkage results from the width ways swelling and
contraction of the individual fibres which accompanies their uptake and loss of water. For
instance viscose fibres increase in length by about 5% and in diameter by 30-40 % when wet.
Because of the fibre swelling, the yarns made from them increase in diameter which means that,
for instance, a warp thread has to take a longer path around the swollen weft threads. This is
shown diagrammatically in Fig. 6.3 where the swelling of the yarns from the dry state (a) to the
wet state (b) causes an increase in the length of the path the yarn must take if the fibre centers
remain the same. In a fabric the warp yarn must either increase in length or the weft threads must
move closer together. In order for the warp yarn to increase in length, tension needs to be applied
to the fabric to stretch it. In the absence of any tension, which is usually the case during washing,
the weft threads will therefore move closer together. Although the fibre dimensions will revert to
their original values on drying, the forces available for returning the fabric to its original
dimensions are not as powerful as the swelling forces so that the process tends to be one way.
The overall effect of the swelling mechanism on a fabric's dimensions is dependent on the
tightness of the weave. This mechanism is the one that is active when viscose and cotton fabrics
shrink.

Felting shrinkage: Felting shrinkage is a mechanism of shrinkage that is confined to wool
fabrics and it is a direct consequence of the presence of scales on the wool surface as shown in
Fig. 6.4. Deliberate use of this effect is made in milling to increase the density of structures.
Felting is related to the directional frictional effect (DFE) which is found in wool fibres. The
coefficient of friction of wool fibres is greater when the movement of the fibre in relation to
another surface is in the direction of the tip than when it is in the direction of the root. This effect
can be measured directly. Shrinkage is caused by the combined effects of DFE and fibre
movement promoted by the elasticity of wool. The behaviour is promoted if the fibres are in
warm alkaline or acid liquor.
When alternating compression and relaxation are applied to the wet material, the compression
force packs the fibres more tightly together but on relaxation of the force the DFE prevents many
of the fibres from reverting to their original positions. Wool can be made shrink resistant by
treatment to reduce the effect of the scales on friction. Chlorine treatments tend to remove the
scales; however, too drastic a treatment can reduce the strength of the fibres. Resin treatments
are used to mask the scales. The most successful treatments use a combination of the two
approaches.
Methods of measuring dimensional stability
Marking out samples: The general procedures for preparing and marking out of samples are
laid down in the British Standard. Many dimensional stability tests follow very similar lines
differentiated only by the treatment given to the fabric, so that these procedures may be followed
if no specific test method exists.
For critical work the recommended sample size is 500mm X 500mm and for routine work a
minimum sample size of 300mm X 300mm is considered sufficient. The samples are marked
with three sets of marks in each direction, a minimum of 350mm apart and at least 50mm from
all edges as shown in Fig. 6.5. In the case of the smaller sample the marks are made 250 mm
apart and at a distance of 25 mm from the edge. For critical work it is recommended that the

samples are preconditioned at a temperature not greater than 500C with a relative humidity of
between 10% and 25%. All samples are then conditioned in the standard atmosphere. After
measurement the samples are subjected to the required treatment and the procedure for
conditioning and measuring repeated to obtain the final dimensions.
Figure 6.5 Marking out sample
WIRA steaming cylinder: The WIRA steaming cylinder is designed to assess the shrinkage that
takes place in a commercial garment press as steam pressing is part of the normal garment
making up process. The shrinkage that takes place when a fabric is exposed to steam is classified
as relaxation shrinkage not felting or consolidation shrinkage.
In the test the fabric is kept in an unconstrained state and subjected to dry saturated steam at
atmospheric pressure. These conditions are slightly different from those that occur in a steam
press where the fabric is trapped between the upper and lower platens while it is subjected to
steam.
Four warp and four weft samples are tested, each measuring 300mm X 50mm. They are first
preconditioned and then conditioned for 24 h in the standard testing atmosphere in order that the
samples always approach condition from the dry side. Markers (threads, staples, ink dots) are
then put on the fabric so as to give two marks 250mm apart on each sample.
The four specimens are then placed on the wire support frame of the apparatus shown in Fig. 6.6
and steam is allowed to flow through the cylinder for at least one minute to warm it thoroughly.
The frame is then inserted into the cylinder keeping the steam valve open and the following cycle
carried out:
• Steam for 30 s
• Remove for 30 s
This cycle is performed three times in total with no additional intervals. The specimens
are then allowed to cool, preconditioned and then conditioned for another 24 h to bring them into

the same state they were in when they were marked. They are then remeasured on a flat smooth
surface and the percentage dimensional change calculated. The mean dimensional change and
direction is reported:
3. Inspection of fabrics- American 10 point system-method of grading – 4 point system for

knitted fabrics.
Fabric inspection methods: The inspection of fabric has two primary functions; first to classify
the products according to the different quality based on the demands of the buyer/market or
client and second to provide the information about the quality being produced. During the
inspection the fabric may be found to contain different defects.
The defects depending on the magnitude, frequency of occurrence, position, importance, effect
on the purpose, consequence in the further process etc., shall be classified and graded under
various systems. During the inspection, the occurrences of various defects need to be examined
and graded based on their magnitude and dimension as per the required system. There are two
most common types of systems for grading the defects:
 4 – Point System
 10-Point System.

 4 – Point system:
It is an inspection method used for the visual checking of fabric quality; faults are scored with
penalty points of 1, 2, 3 and 4 according to the size and significance. The 4-point system, also
called the American Apparel Manufacturers’ Association (AAMA) point-grading system for
determining fabric quality, is widely sued by producers of apparel fabrics and by the Department
of Defense in the United States and is endorsed by the AAMA as well as the ASQC. Defect can
be in either length or width direction, the system remains the same. Only major defects are
considered. No penalty points are assigned to minor defects.
In this system, one should inspect at least 10 per cent of the total rolls in the shipment and make
sure to select at least one roll of each colour way. Fabric defects are assigned points based on
the following:
Size of defect Penalty

3 inches or less 1 points
Over 3 but not over 6 2 points
Over 6 but nor over 9 3 points
Over 9 inches 4 points
Total defect points per 100 square yards of fabric are calculated and the acceptance criteria are
generally not more than 40 penalty points. Fabric rolls containing more than 40 points are
considered "seconds".
The formula to calculate penalty points per 100 square yards is given by:
= (Total points scored in the roll × 3600) / Fabric width in inches × Total yards inspected
the following are noteworthy points for this system:
No more than 4 penalty points can be assigned for any single defect.
The fabric is graded regardless of the end-product.
This system makes no provision for the probability of minor defects.
4 point system is most widely used system in apparel industry as it is easy to teach and
learn.

 10-point method Fabric Inspection system
The earliest inspection system and is designed to identify defects and to assign each defect a
value based on severity of defect. Published in 1955 by Textile Distributors Institute and
National Federation of Textiles.
Ten Points System (Woven):

Warp Defects
 10-36 inches 10 points
 up to 1 inch 1 point
Weft Defects
 Full width 10 points
 5 inches to half width 5 points
 up to 1 inch 1 point
Notes:-Standards for examination of finished goods (woven mainly). Penalties to be assigned for
imperfection of warp and weft defects. Grading is designed to apply to every imperfection
according to size, regardless of type. For print cloth, any piece of grey which contains less than
50% more penalty. No one yard should be penalized more than 10 points. Any warp or weft
defect occurring repeatedly throughout the entire piece makes it “second”. A combination of
both warp and weft defects when occurring in one yarn should not be penalized more than 10
points.
Ten Point System Grading:
First Quality’s: piece is graded as “first” if the total quality points do not exceed the total
yardage of the piece.
Example: 100 yard piece got the penalized of 70.
Second Quality’s: piece is graded a “second” if the total penalty points exceed the total yardage
of the piece.

Quality Assurance:
Quality Assurance (QA) is a way of preventing mistakes or defects in manufactured
products and avoiding problems when delivering solutions or services to customers. QA is
applied to physical products in pre-production to verify what will be made meets specifications
and requirements, and during manufacturing production runs by validating lot samples meet
specified quality controls.
Quality Assurance refers to administrative and procedural activities implemented in a quality

system so that requirements and goals for a product, service or activity will be fulfilled. It is the
systematic measurement, comparison with a standard, monitoring of processes and an associated
feedback loop that confers error prevention. This can be contrasted with quality control, which is
focused on process output.
Two principles included in Quality Assurance are: "Fit for purpose", the product should be
suitable for the intended purpose; and "Right first time", mistakes should be eliminated. QA
includes management of the quality of raw materials, assemblies, products and components,
services related to production, and management, production and inspection processes.
Suitable quality is determined by product users, clients or customers, not by society in general. It
is not related to cost, and adjectives or descriptors such as "high" and "poor" are not applicable.
For example, a low priced product may be viewed as having high quality because it is
disposable, where another may be viewed as having poor quality because it is not disposable.
 Definition: QA is a set of activities for ensuring quality in the processes by which products
are developed.
 Focus on: QA aims to prevent defects with a focus on the process used to make the product.
It is a proactive quality process.
 Goal: The goal of QA is to improve development and test processes so that defects do not
arise when the product is being developed.
 How: Establish a good quality management system and the assessment of its adequacy.
Periodic conformance audits of the operations of the system.
 What: Prevention of quality problems through planned and systematic activities including
documentation.
 Responsibility: Everyone on the team involved in developing the product is responsible for
quality assurance.
 Example: Verification is an example of QA.
 Statistical Techniques: Statistical Tools & Techniques can be applied in both QA & QC.
When they are applied to processes (process inputs & operational parameters), they are called
Statistical Process Control (SPC); & it becomes the part of QA.
 As a tool: QA is a managerial tool.

Quality Control:
Refers to quality related activities associated with the creation of project deliverables. Quality
control is used to verify that deliverables are of acceptable quality and that they are complete and
correct. Examples of quality control activities include inspection, deliverable peer reviews and
the testing process.
Controls include product inspection, where every product is examined visually, and often using a
stereo microscope for fine detail before the product is sold into the external market. Inspectors
will be provided with lists and descriptions of unacceptable product defects such as cracks or
surface blemishes for example.
The quality of the outputs is at risk if any of these three aspects is deficient in any way.Quality
control emphasizes testing of products to uncover defects and reporting to management who
make the decision to allow or deny product release, whereas quality assurance attempts to
improve and stabilize production (and associated processes) to avoid, or at least minimize, issues
which led to the defect(s) in the first place. For contract work, particularly work awarded by
government agencies, quality control issues are among the top reasons for not renewing a
contract.
 Definition: QC is a set of activities for ensuring quality in products. The activities focus on
identifying defects in the actual products produced.
 Focus on: QC aims to identify (and correct) defects in the finished product. Quality control,
therefore, is a reactive process.
 Goal: The goal of QC is to identify defects after a product is developed and before it's
released.
 How: Finding & eliminating sources of quality problems through tools & equipment so that
customer's requirements are continually met.
 What: The activities or techniques used to achieve and maintain the product quality, process
and service.
 Responsibility: Quality control is usually the responsibility of a specific team that tests the
product for defects.
 Example: Validation/Software Testing is an example of QC.
 Statistical Techniques: When statistical tools & techniques are applied to finished products
(process outputs), they are called as Statistical Quality Control (SQC) & comes under QC.
 As a tool: QC is a corrective tool.

Total quality management (TQM)
TQM consists of organization-wide efforts to install and make permanent a climate in which an
organization continuously improves its ability to deliver high-quality products and services to
customers. While there is no widely agreed-upon approach, TQM efforts typically draw heavily
on the previously developed tools and techniques of quality control. TQM enjoyed widespread
attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s before being overshadowed by ISO 9000, Lean
manufacturing, and Six Sigma.
The main features of TQM are:
Customer-oriented: TQM focuses on customer satisfaction through creation of better

quality products and services at lower costs.
Employee involvement and empowerment: Teams focus on quality improvement
projects and employees are empowered to serve customers well.
Organization-wide: TQM involves every department or division.
Continuous improvement: Quality improvement is a never-ending journey.
Strategic focus: Quality is viewed as a strategic, competitive weapon.
Process management: TQM adopts the concept of prevention through process
management.
Change in corporate culture: TQM involves the creation of a work culture that is
conducive to quality improvement.
There is no widespread agreement as to what TQM is and what actions it requires of
organizations; however a review of the original United States Navy effort gives a rough
understanding of what is involved in TQM. The key concepts in the TQM effort undertaken by
the Navy in the 1980s include:
"Quality is defined by customers' requirements."

"Top management has direct responsibility for quality improvement."
"Increased quality comes from systematic analysis and improvement of work processes."
"Quality improvement is a continuous effort and conducted throughout the organization."
Total Quality Management (TQM) Tools
Total quality management (TQM) tools help organizations to identify, analyze and assess
qualitative and quantitative data that is relevant to their business. These tools can identify
procedures, ideas, statistics, cause and effect concerns and other issues relevant to their
organizations. Each of which can be examined and used to enhance the effectiveness, efficiency,
standardization and overall quality of procedures, products or work environment, in accordance
with ISO 9000 standards (SQ, 2004). According to Quality America, Inc. the number of TQM
tools is close to 100 and come in various forms, such as brainstorming, focus groups, check lists,

charts and graphs, diagrams and other analysis tools. In a different vein, manuals and standards
are TQM tools as well, as they give direction and best practice guidelines to you and/or your
staff. TQM tools illustrate and aid in the assimilation of complicated information such as:
1. Identification of your target audience

2. Assessment of customer needs
3. Competition analysis
4. Market analysis
5. Brainstorming ideas
6. Productivity changes
7. Various statistics
8. Staff duties and work flow analysis
9. Statement of purpose
10. Financial analysis
11. Model creation
12. Business structure
13. Logistic analysis.
The list goes on, though essentially TQM tools can be used in any situation, for any number of
reasons, and can be extremely effective if used properly.
TQM Tools
The following are some of the most common TQM tools in use today. Each is used for, and
identifies, specific information in a specific manner. It should be noted that tools should be used
in conjunction with other tools to understand the full scope of the issue being analyzed or
illustrated. Simply using one tool may inhibit your understanding of the data provided, or may
close you off to further possibilities.
 Pie Charts and Bar Graphs: Used to identify and compare data units as they relate to
one issue or the whole, such as budgets, vault space available, extent of funds, etc.
 Histograms: To illustrate and examine various data element in order to make decisions
regarding them Effective when comparing statistical, survey, or questionnaire results.
 Run Chart: Follows a process over a specific period of time, such as accrual rates, to
track high and low points in its run, and ultimately identify trends, shifts and patterns.
Pareto Charts / Analysis Rates issues according to importance and frequency by
prioritizing specific problems or causes in a manner that facilitates problem
solving. Identify groupings of qualitative data, such as most frequent complaint, most
commonly purchased preservation aid, etc. in order to measure which have priority.· Can
be scheduled over select periods of time to track changes. They can also be created in
retrospect, as a before and after analysis of a process change.
 Force Field Analysis : To identify driving and restraining forces occurring in a chosen
process in order to understand why that particular process functions as it does. For
example, identifying the driving and restraining forces of catering predominantly to
genealogists. To identify restraining forces that need to be eradicated, or driving forces
that need to be improved, in order to function at a higher level of efficiency.
 Focus Groups: Useful for marketing or advertising organizations to test products on the
general public. Consist of various people from the general public who use and discuss
your product, providing impartial feedback to help you determine whether your product
needs improvement or if it should be introduced onto the market.
 Brainstorming and Affinity Diagrams: Teams using creative thinking to identify
various aspects surrounding an issue. An affinity diagram, which can be created using
anything from enabling software to post-it notes organized on a wall, is a tool to organize
brainstorming ideas.
 Tree Diagram:
-To identify the various tasks involved in, and the full scope of, a project.
-To identify hierarchies, whether of personnel, business structure, or priorities.
-To identify inputs and outputs of a project, procedure, process, etc
 Flowcharts and Modeling Diagrams: Assist in the definition and analysis of each step
in a process by illustrating it in a clear and comprehensive manner. Identify areas where
workflow may be blocked, or diverted, and where workflow is fluid.
Identify where steps need to be added or removed to improve efficiency and create
standardized workflow
 Scatter Diagram: To illustrate and validate hunches. To discover cause and effect
relationships, as well as bonds and correlations, between two variables . To chart the
positive and negative direction of relationships
 Relations Diagram: To understand the relationships between various factors, issues,
events, etc. so as to understand their importance in the overall organizational view.
 PDCA: The Plan-Do-Check-Act style of management where each project or procedure is
planned according to needs and outcome, it is then tested, examined for efficiency and
effectiveness, and then acted upon if anything in the process needs to be altered.
This is a cyclical style to be iterated until the process is perfected. All of these TQM tools
can be easily created and examined by using various types of computer software or by
simply mapping them out on paper. They can also be easily integrated into team
meetings, organizational newsletters, marketing reports, and for various other data
analysis needs. Proper integration and use of these tools will ultimately assist in
processing data such as identifying collecting policies, enhancing work flow such as
mapping acquisition procedures, ensuring client satisfaction by surveying their needs and
analyzing them accordingly, and creating an overall high level of quality in all areas of
your organization.

ISO : ISO (International Organization for Standardization) is an independent, non-governmental
membership organization and the world's largest developer of voluntary International Standards.
ISO is made up of 165 member countries who are the national standards bodies around the
world.
What are standards?
International Standards make things work. They give world-class specifications for
products, services and systems, to ensure quality, safety and efficiency. They are instrumental in
facilitating international trade.
ISO has published more than 19 500 International Standards covering almost every industry,
from technology, to food safety, to agriculture and healthcare. ISO International Standards
impact everyone, everywhere.
Benefits of International Standards: International Standards bring technological, economic
and societal benefits. They help to harmonize technical specifications of products and services
making industry more efficient and breaking down barriers to international trade. Conformity to
International Standards helps reassure consumers that products are safe, efficient and good for
the environment.
Benefits of standards: the ISO Materials: ISO has developed materials describing the
economic and social benefits of standards, the ISO Materials. They are intended to be shared
with decision makers and stakeholders as concrete examples of the value of standards.
 Facts and figures about the benefits of standards:The repository of studies on economic
and social benefits of standards provides an insight of the approaches and results of the
studies untertaken by different authors, such as national and international standards bodies,
research institutes, universities and other international agencies.
 For business: International Standards are strategic tools and guidelines to help companies
tackle some of the most demanding challenges of modern business. They ensure that business
operations are as efficient as possible, increase productivity and help companies access new
markets.
Benefits include:
 Cost savings - International Standards help optimise operations and therefore improve the
bottom line.
 Enhanced customer satisfaction - International Standards help improve quality, enhance
customer satisfaction and increase sales.
 Access to new markets - International Standards help prevent trade barriers and open up
global markets.
 Increased market share - International Standards help increase productivity and
competitive advantage.
 Environmental benefits - International Standards help reduce negative impacts on the
environment.

How does ISO develop standards?
An ISO standard is developed by a panel of experts, within a technical committee. Once
the need for a standard has been established, these experts meet to discuss and negotiate a draft
standard. As soon as a draft has been developed it is shared with ISO’s members who are asked
to comment and vote on it. If a consensus is reached the draft becomes an ISO standard, if not it
goes back to the technical committee for further edits.
Key principles in standard development:
1. ISO standards respond to a need in the market: ISO does not decide when to develop
a new standard. Instead, ISO responds to a request from industry or other stakeholders
such as consumer groups. Typically, an industry sector or group communicates the need
for a standard to its national member who then contacts ISO. Contact details for national
members can be found in the list of members.
2. ISO standards are based on global expert opinion: ISO standards are developed by
groups of experts from all over the world, that are part of larger groups called technical
committees. These experts negotiate all aspects of the standard, including its scope, key
definitions and content. Details can be found in the list of technical committees.
3. ISO standards are developed through a multi-stakeholder process: The technical
committees are made up of experts from the relevant industry, but also from consumer
associations, academia, NGOs and government. Read more about who develops ISO
standards.
4. ISO standards are based on a consensus: Developing ISO standards is a consensus-
based approach and comments from stakeholders are taken into account.
ISO Elements
Management Responsibility Inspection and Test Status

Quality System Control of Nonconforming Product
Contract Review Corrective & Preventive Action
Design Control Handling , Storage, Packaging,
Document & Data Control Preservation and Delivery
Purchasing Control of Quality Records
Control of Customer Supplied Product Quality Audits
Product Identification and Traceability Training
Process Control Servicing
Inspection and Test Status Statistical Techniques
Control of Inspection, Measuring and
Test Equipment.

What is Six Sigma ?
Six Sigma's aim is to eliminate waste and inefficiency, thereby increasing customer
satisfaction by delivering what the customer is expecting.
Six Sigma is a highly disciplined process that helps us focus on developing and
delivering near-perfect products and services.
Six Sigma follows a structured methodology, and has defined roles for the participants.
Six Sigma is a data driven methodology, and requires accurate data collection for the
processes being analyzed.
Six Sigma is about putting results on Financial Statements.
Six Sigma is a business-driven, multi-dimensional structured approach to:
o Improving Processes
o Lowering Defects
o Reducing process variability
o Reducing costs
o Increasing customer satisfaction
o Increased profits
The word Sigma is a statistical term that measures how far a given process deviates from
perfection. The central idea behind Six Sigma is that if you can measure how many "defects" you
have in a process, you can systematically figure out how to eliminate them and get as close to
"zero defects" as possible and specifically it means a failure rate of 3.4 parts per million or
99.9997% perfect.
Key Concepts of Six Sigma: At its core, Six Sigma revolves around a few key concepts.
Critical to Quality: Attributes most important to the customer.
Defect: Failing to deliver what the customer wants.
Process Capability: What your process can deliver.
Variation: What the customer sees and feels.
Stable Operations: Ensuring consistent, predictable processes to improve what the
customer sees and feels.
Design for Six Sigma: Designing to meet customer needs and process capability.
Our Customers Feel the Variance, Not the Mean. So Six Sigma focuses first on reducing process
variation and then on improving the process capability.
The Benefits of Six Sigma: There are following six major benefits of Six Sigma that attract
companies.
Six Sigma:
Generates sustained success.
Sets a performance goal for everyone.
Enhances value to customers.
Accelerates the rate of improvement.

Promotes learning and cross-pollination.
Executes strategic change.
Key Elements of Six Segma: There are three key elements of Six Sigma Process Improvement.
Customers
Processes
Employees
The Customer: Customers define quality. They expect performance, reliability, competitive
prices, on-time delivery, service, clear and correct transaction processing and more. Today,
Delighting a customer is a necessity. Because if we don't do it, someone else will!
The Processes: Defining Processes and defining Metrics and Measures for Processes is the key
element of Six Sigma. Quality requires to look at a business from the customer's perspective, In
other words, we must look at defined processes from the outside-in. By understanding the
transaction lifecycle from the customer's needs and processes, we can discover what they are
seeing and feeling. This will give a chance to identify week area with in a process and then we
can improve them.
The Employees: The company must involve all employees in Six Sigma Program. Company
must provide opportunities and incentives for employees to focus their talents and ability to
satisfy customers.
Methodologies of Six Sigma: the following two key methodologies:
DMAIC: refers to a data-driven quality strategy for improving processes. This

methodology is used to improve an existing business process.
DMADV: refers to a data-driven quality strategy for designing products & processes.
This methodology is used to create new product designs or process designs in such a way
that it results in a more predictable, mature and defect free performance.
There is one more methodology called DFSS - Design For Six Sigma. DFSS is a data-driven
quality strategy for designing design or re-design a product or service from the ground up.
Sometimes a DMAIC project may turn into a DFSS project because the process in question
requires complete redesign to bring about the desired degree of improvement.
DMAIC Methodology: This methodology consists of following five steps.
Define --> Measure --> Analyze --> Improve -->Control

Define : Define the Problem or Project Goals that needs to be addressed.
Measure: Measure the problem and process from which it was produced.
Analyze: Analyze data & process to determine root causes of defects and opportunities.

Improve: Improve the process by finding solutions to fix, diminish, and prevent future
problems.
Control: Implement, Control, and Sustain the improvements solutions to keep the
process on the new course.
In the subsequent session we will give complete detail of DMAIC Methodology
DMADV Methodology:This methodology consists of following five steps.
Define --> Measure --> Analyze --> Design -->Verify
Define : Define the Problem or Project Goals that needs to be addressed.
Measure: Measure and determine customers needs and specifications.
Analyze: Analyze the process for meet the customer needs.
Design: Design a process that will meet customers needs.
Verify: Verify the design performance and ability to meet customer needs.
DFSS Methodology: DFSS - Design For Six Sigma is a separate and emerging discipline related
to Six Sigma quality processes. This is a systematic methodology utilizing tools, training and
measurements to enable us to design products and processes that meet customer expectations and
can be produced at Six Sigma Quality levels. This methodology can have following five steps.
Define --> Identify --> Design --> Optimize -->Verify
Define : Identify the Customer and project.
Identify: Define what the customers want, or what they do not want.
Design: Design a process that will meet customers needs.
Optimize: Determine process capability & optimize design.
Verify: Test, verify, & validate design.
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1. Objectives & Importance of Textile Testing

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 1

Some Weakness in Acceptance Sampling

Factors Governing Sampling

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 2

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 3

Yarn and Fabric Sampling Method

A. Methods used for sampling Fibers

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 4

2. The cut squaring method

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 5

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 6

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 7

C. Methods Used In Sampling of Fabrics

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 8

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 9

Measures of Central Tendency

1. Arithmetic mean or average

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 10

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 11

Where x – arithmetic mean, x – observed values, n – number of observations.

Percentage mean deviation (PMD)

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 12

Coefficient of Variation CV = (SD/ x) x 100

Where SD – standard deviation, x - mean

Where SE – Standard error, SD – Standard deviation, n- number of observations.

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 13

Conditioning & Textile Testing

Absolute Humidity & Relative Humidity

1. Absolute humidity (AH)

2. Relative Humidity (RH)

Standard Testing Atmosphere

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 14

Conditioned weight is the weight of the material when it is conditioned.

Measurements of Atmospheric Conditions

1. Wet & Dry bulb hygrometer

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 15

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 16

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 17

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 18

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 19

1. Moisture Measuring Oven

Description: - below Figure shows a moisture-testing oven. It consists of a double-walled

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 20

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 21

Moisture content (M)

2. Shirley Moisture Meter - an indirect method

This instrument is based on an indirect method of measuring amount of moisture in

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 22

Procedures for the determination of sample regain

6. Effects of Moisture Regain on Fibre Properties

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 23

Textile manufacturing operations are conducted to large extent in a humidity atmosphere.

Effects of Regain on Fibre properties

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 24

Factors Affecting fiber regain

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 25

Standard Regain Value of Textile Materials

Corrected Invoice weight

Textile Testing By P. Rangari Page 26

Where R1 is Commercial regains value