GENDER STUDIES

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER

HISTORICIZING CONSTRUCTIONISM
• As the basis for gender identity and learning gender identity
o We inherit the sex but we learn our gender. Gender is a structural feature of
society and it is a devise by which society controls its members.
o Gender is more fluid – it may or may not depend upon biological traits.
o Gender like social class and race can be used to socially categorize people and
even lead to prejudice and discrimination.
o When there is differential treatment of people based on their sex the term sexism
defines this behavior.
o Forms of Sexism (gender discrimination)
§ Hostile sexism, benevolent sexism and ambivalent sexism
• Reasons for constructing gender in society and categorizes.
§ Stability, division of labor, identity, define person and role, socialization,
express attitude with same gender etc
Ø Gender and Gender Identity
Ø Gender refers to the social, psychological and cultural attributes of masculinity and
femininity, many of which are based on biological distinctions – Gender includes
people’s self image and expectations for behavior among other things• Gender describes
societal attitudes and behaviors expected of and associated with the two sexes.
Ø Gender identity refers to the degree to which an individual sees herself or himself as
feminine or masculine based on society’s definitions of appropriate gender roles.
• Society/Culture constructed gender roles (set of norm-behavior-acceptable-on their
actuality sexuality) through family, education, media, occupation, religious beliefs,
heterosexuality (imitation) and expectations towards them
o Social norms (Beliefs, Values, Norms-Folkways, Mores, Taboos, Laws-Customs)
o Biological factor
• Media
o Furthermore the media also affects and influences gender identity. e.g. role of the
male "hero" who saves the weak female.
o After the Second World War, media broadcast a new propaganda of a housewife's
lifestyle as the only proper way for women to reach happiness.
o These magazines addressed women as housewives who aimed to impress their
authoritative, working husband, and gave them advice that focused on bringing
happiness to their families.
• Language is essential tool to construct reality. Ultimately, language has a huge influence
on how humans perceive reality and, as a result, is the creator of this reality. Construction
of perceived social reality is made through language.
• Product of human choices rather than laws
• Possibility of change from one generation to other. E.g.

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GENDER STUDIES

o “what is justice”?
o Idea of “pink” and “blue”
Ø Gender identity is different from one society to another depending on the way the
members of society evaluate the role of females and males.
Ø Society typically only recognizes two genders. Therefore, when transgender individuals
want to have a sex change operation, they must prove that they can "pass" as a man or
woman – so even the choice of changing one's gender is socially constructed.
Ø Unfortunately in several countries around the world such as Arabian courtiers, Africa and
India things have not changed much and women are still considered a minority and do
not have equal access and rights in their societies as do males
QUEER THEORY
• Tresa de Lauretis coined it as “Queer Theory: Lesbian and Gay Sexualities” and Queer
Theory originated in Judith Butler’s 1991 book “Gender Trouble”
• 1970 the movement was established in Britain in the autumn (GLF): Gay Liberation
Front
• Gay powers, Marxism was common
• By 1972 the largest British Gay organization was the Campaign for Homosexual
Equality, which centered its efforts on law reform and developing social facilities—there
were far fewer gay bars and clubs then than there are now
• Meaning of the term “queer”: odd or abnormal, strange, peculiar, out of ordinary until
1980s.
o Queer theory is a set of ideas based around the idea that identities are not fixed
and do not determine who we are.
• Contains
o All concepts linking sexual behaviors to sexual identities, all categories of sexual
normative and deviant sexualities are social constructs and create certain type of
social meaning. Includes Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people and
deviant, cross dressing, gender ambiguity and gender corrective surgery.
o Rejects traditional theory of gender and sexuality.
o Queer aimed to challenge the hegemony of heterosexual norms
o Focuses on mismatch among sex, gender and desire.
• Core issue? Sexuality is socially constructed or biological driven? Gender and sexuality
are not just personal identities; they are social identities.
• Queer Theory was Reaction to school of 1970 feminism
o Each sex comes with its own characteristics
o Focus too much on male thinking e.g Sigmund freud & Michel Foucault
o Homosexuality was getting problem in its recognition
• Sexuality: It is about sexual attraction, sexual practices and identity. Just as sex and
gender don’t always align, neither does gender and sexuality. Sexual Orientation—
Beauty—each sex, Sexual relations in Greek, Roman, Christianity, 12-14thCentuty, 19th
century ((Asexuality))

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GENDER STUDIES

• Contribution
o Penis is no longer centre, gender preferences, always ask Qs who am I really?
challenge categories of sex, identities are not fixed, destabilize popular cultural
narratives.
IS SEX SOCIALLY DETERMINED TOO?
• Gender is social and sex is biological
• Categories: Male (XX) and Female (XY)
• Example Cater Semenya (Los Angeles Times)
• 5 alpha reductase deficiency causes male infant to appear female; some in puberty
perform full functions as male
o It cannot restricted to genetics or gentiles
o Trans women have both breast and genitals
• Sociologists disagree with sex division; intersex born infants range 500- 1000
• Texas marriage laws” females with XY chromosomes marry to XX females
• 5 specific measures of Biological Sex
o Chromosomes, Genitals, Gonads, Hormones, Secondary Sex Characteristics e.g.
body hair, breast size, voice, emotions all have blur differences
MASCULINITIES AND FEMINISM
• Manhood or manliness: behavior, roles and set of attributes traditionally associated with
men e.g. strength and boldness, courage, assertiveness, independent etc
o Gender identity e.g recognition of ways being a man.
o Includes qualities and actions that are seen as masculine.
• Shaped by socio-cultural factors
o Historical location, age and physique, sexual orientation, education, culture, status
and life style, geographical factors, ethnicity, religion & belief, class and
occupation.
• Not essentialism (born with certain qualities that can not be changed)
o E.g. men are not born with masculinity ..acculturated
• Both men and women exhibit masculine traits
o E.g. Julia (female boxer) displays masculinities
• Definitions
o Natural Sciences. Biological basis/result of physiological factors e.g hormones
and chromosomes
o Social Sciences. Form of power relation
§ Among men themselves
§ B/w men and women
• Connell gave socio-economic analysis
o Masculinities can be understood as the effects of interpretation and definition of
human body and culture
o In Gender Hierarchy, there are masculinities and femininities

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GENDER STUDIES

§ Masculinities can be divided into hegemonic masculinities (Authority,

physical toughness, religious and mass media doctrine/heterosexuality)
and subordinated masculinities (homosexuality)
§ Forms of femininities are emphasized femininity, resistance femininity
and complex femininity)
• Essentials of Complex Femininity is not based on force/violence,
subordination not elimination, contains mix of strategies
(heterosexuality, misogyny, domesticity, violence)
• Masculinity can be displayed at different places and time (male & female version)
Femininity (male & female version)
o Household responsibility to men, females running org, women drinking at public
places, strong men crying etc
• Stereotype attitude towards masculinity in society and institutions
o Always superior to feminism
o Male dominance and female subordination
o 1970 female movement “feminism”
• Reasons of masculine traits in women
o Rise of women (suffrage movement), conflict in the 20th century (warriors’ role)
changes in world’s work, the rise of guy movement, changes views on
masculinity (call for liberation in North America), advent of consumer society
(car, cloth, home etc)
NATURE VERSUS CULTURE: A DEBATE IN GENDER DEVELOPMENT
• Manifestation of gender in society, biology and science
• Heredity determines physiological differences in males and females (typical male and
female characteristics—sexual organs, weight, muscular, larger, deeper voices,
navigation methods, math, spatial abilities —sensitivity to touch and sounds, willingness
to communicate, eye contact for longer periods, recognizing people and places in
photograph, reach puberty earlier, higher verbal abilities)
• Genetic Factor and Gender
o GF is crucial in defining one’s appearance
o Different features that may appear abnormal
o Hormones create differences in visual spatial and verbal abilities among children
• Nurture determines one is boy or girls, they are taught to behave like girls or boy
• Environmental factors and culture define one’s role and practices as male or female
• Evolutionary psychology labels these differences as a product of evolution
• Cognitive social learning theory purposes these differences are the outcome of socially
acceptable individual’s roles
• Homosexuality and Gender
o Play significant role in nature and nurture theory
o It is biological or socially learned

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