Career point world school

A PROJECT REPORT ON
SURFACE CHEMISTRY
FOR
AISSCE 2019-20 EXAMINATIO
(AS PER PART OF CHEMISTRY
COURSE)
SUBMITTED BY:
MAYURAJ SINGH
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF:
MR.VIKAS MATHUR
 CERTIFICATE
THE PROJECT ENTITLED, “TRANSFORMER” IS A
BONAFIDE WORK DONE BY MAYURAJ SINGH OF
CLASS XII SCIENCE FROM CAREER POINT WORLD
SCHOOL FOR SESSION 2019-20
IN A PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT OF
CBSE’S AISSCE EXAMINATION 2019
HAS BEEN CARRIED OUT UNDER MY DIRECT
SUPERVISION AND GUIDANCE.THIS REPORT OR A
SIMILAR REPORT ON THIS TOPIC HAS NOT BEEN
SUBMITTED FOR ANY OTHER EXAMINATION AND
DOES NOT FORM A PART OF ANY OTHER COURSE
UNDERGONE BY
THE CANDIDATE.

SIGNATURE OF EXTERNAL EXAMINER

SIGNATURE OF TEACHER

SIGNATURE OF PRINCIPAL
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my special thanks of

gratitude to my teacher MR.VIKAS MATHUR as
well as our principal MS.REKHA CHOUHAN who
gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful
project on the topic TRANSFORMER, which also
helped me in doing a lot of Research and i came to
know about so many new things I am really thankful
to them.

Secondly I would also like to thank my parents and

friends who helped me a lot in finalizing this project
within the limited time frame.
 INTRODUCTION
A transformer is an electrical device which is used for
changing the A.C. voltages. A transformer is most widely
used device in both low and high current circuit. As such
transformers are built in an amazing strength of sizes. In
electronic, measurement and control circuits, transformer
size may be so small that it weight only a few tens of
grams where as in high voltage power circuits, it may
weight hundred of tones.
In a transformer, the electrical energy transfer from one
circuit to another circuit takes place without the use of
moving parts.
A transformer which increases the voltages is called a
step-up transformer. A transformer which decreases the
A.C. voltages is called a step-down transformer.
Transformer is, therefore, an essential piece of apparatus
both for high and low current circuits.
 PRINCIPLE
A Transformer based on the Principle of mutual induction
according to this principle, the amount of magnetic flux
linked with a coil changing, an e.m.f is induced in the
neighbouring coil that is if a varying current is set-up in a
circuit induced e.m.f. is produced in the neighboring
circuit. The varying current in a circuit produce varying
magnetic flux which induces e.m.f. in the neighboring
circuit.

CONSTRUCTION
The transformer consists of two coils. They are
insulated with each other by insulated material and
wound on acommon core. For operation at low
frequency, we may have asoft iron. The soft iron
core is insulating by joining thin ironstrips coated
with varnish to insulate them to reduce energy losses
by eddy currents.The input circuit is called primary.
And theoutput circuit is called secondary.
THEORY AND WORKING OF A
TRANSFORMER
When an altering e.m.f. is supplied to the primary coil
p1p2, an alternating current starts falling in it. The altering
current in the primary produces a changing magnetic flux,
which induces altering voltage in the primary as well as in
the secondary. In a good-transformer, whole of the
magnetic flux linked with primary is also linked with the
secondary, then the induced e.m.f. induced in each turn of
the secondary is equal to that induced in each turn of the
primary. Thus if Ep and Es be the instantaneous values of
the e.m.f.’s induced in the primary and the secondary and
Np and Ns are the no. of turns of the primary secondary
coils of the transformer and
Dфь / dt = rate of change of flux in each turnoff the coil at
this instant,
we have
Ep = -Np dфь/dt -----------------
(1) and
Es = -Ns dфь/dt ----------------- (2)
Since the above relations are true at every instant, so by
dividing 2 by 1, we get
 Es / Ep = - Ns / Np ----------------(3)
As Ep is the instantaneous value of back e.m.f induced in
the primary coil p1, so the instantaneous current in
primary coil is due to the difference (E – Ep ) in the
instantaneous values of the applied and back e.m.f. further
if Rp is the resistance o, p1p2 coil, then the instantaneous
current Ip in the primary coil is given by
Ip = E – Ep / Rp
E – Ep = Ip Rp
When the resistance of the primary is small, Rp Ip can be
neglected so therefore
E – Ep = 0 or Ep = E
Thus back e.m.f = input e.m.f
Hence equation 3 can be written as
Es / Ep = Es / E = output e.m.f / input e.m.f = Ns / Np =
K
Where K is constant, called turn or transformation ratio.
In a step up transformer
Es > E so K > 1, hence Ns > Np
In a step down transformer
Es < E so K < 1, hence Ns < Np
If
Ip = value of primary current at the same instant t
And
Is = value of sec. current at this instant, then
Input power at the instant t = Ep Ip and
Output power at the same instant = Es Is
If there are no losses of power in the transformer, then
Input power = output power
Or
Ep Ip = Es Is
Or
Es / Ep = I p / Is = K
In a step up transformer
As k > 1, so Ip > Is or Is < Ip
i.e. current in sec. is weaker when secondary voltage is
higher.
Hence, whatever we gain in voltage, we lose in current in
the same ratio.
Similarly it can be shown, that in a step down
transformer, whatever we lose in voltage, we gain in
current in the same ratio.
Thus a step up transformer in reality steps down the
current & a step down transformer steps up the current.

Efficiency :-
Efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of
output power to the input power. i.e.
η = output power / input power = Es Is / Ep Ip
Thus in an ideal transformer, where there is no power
losses, η = 1. But in actual practice, there are many power
losses; therefore the efficiency of transformer is less than
one.
 PROCEDURE
i) Demonstrating the principle of transformer by
winding primary and secondary coil on a steel rod

1. Take a soft iron rod of cm and cm diameter.

Wrap thick paper on it.

2. Wind a coil P of enameled copper wire 200 turns.

3. Wind another coil S of thick enameled copper wire

with 400 turns.

4. Both coils are wound over same length of the rod, so

that almost the entire flux produced by current in one
is linked to the other.

5. Connect the coil S with an AC voltmeter. Connect an

identical voltmeter across P also.
6. Switch on the current in P and note voltage across the
two coils
7. Find the ratio Vp to Vs
 OBSERVATIONS
1. We will find that ratio of Vp and Vs across
the two coils is equal to the ratio of number of
turns in the coil P to that in the coil S.i.e.,

Vp/Vs = Np/Ns ---------------(1)

2. The coil P (to which AC voltage is applied) is

Called the primary and coil S (in which AC is
induced) is called the secondary.

3.Since coil S is placed very close to the coil

P,the power in the primary is transferred into
the secondary through mutual induction.

4. It is clear from equation 1, that by appropriate

choice of the turn ratio i.e., Np/Ns, we can
obtain a higher voltage or lower voltage in S
compared to that in P.
 ENERGY LOSSES:-
Following are the major sources of energy loss in a
transformer:
1. Copper loss: is the energy loss in the form of heat in
the copper coils of a transformer. This is due to joule
heating of conducting wires.
2. Iron loss: is the energy loss in the form of heat in the
iron core of the transformer. This is due to formation of
eddy currents in iron core. It is minimized by taking
laminated cores.
3. Leakage of magnetic flux: occurs inspite of best
insulations. Therefore, rate of change of magnetic flux
linked with each turn of S1S2 is less than the rate of
change of magnetic flux linked with each turn of P1P2.
4. Hysteretic loss: is the loss of energy due to repeated
magnetization and demagnetization of the iron core when
A.C. is fed to it.
5. Magneto striation: humming noise of a transformer.
 USES OF TRANSFORMER
A transformer is used in almost all a.c.
operations
In voltage regulator for T.V., refrigerator,
computer, air conditioner etc.
A step down transformer is used for welding
purposes.
A step down transformer is used for
obtaining large current.
A step up transformer is used for the
production of X-Rays and NEON
advertisement.
Transformers are used in voltage regulators
and stabilized power supplies.
Transformers are used in the transmissions
of a.c. over long distances.
Small transformers are used in Radio sets,
telephones, loud speakers and electric bells
etc.
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF
TRANSFORMERS

Instrument transformers
Instrument transformers are used for measuring voltage
and current in electrical power systems, and for power
system protection and control. Where a voltage or current
is too large to be conveniently used by an instrument, it
can be scaled down to a standardized low value.
Instrument transformers isolate measurement, protection
and control circuitry from the high currents or voltages
present on the circuits being measured or controlled.
A current transformer is a transformer designed to provide
a current in its secondary coil proportional to the current
flowing in its primary coil.
Voltage transformers (VTs), also referred to as "potential
transformers" (PTs), are designed to have an accurately
known transformation ratio in both magnitude and phase,
over a range of measuring circuit impedances. A voltage
transformer is intended to present a negligible load to the
supply being measured. The low secondary voltage allows
protective relay equipment and measuring instruments to
be operated at a lower voltages.
Both current and voltage instrument transformers are
designed to have predictable characteristics on
overloads. Proper operation of over-current protective
relays requires that current transformers provide a
predictable transformation ratio even during a short-
circuit.

RF transformers
There are several types of transformers used in radio
frequency (RF) work. Steel laminations are not suitable
for RF.
Air-core transformers
These are used for high frequency work. The lack of a
core means very low inductance. Such transformers may
be nothing more than a few turns of wire soldered onto
a printed circuit board.
Ferrite-core transformers
Widely used in intermediate frequency (IF) stages
in superheterodyne radio receivers. are mostly tuned
transformers, containing a threaded ferrite slug that is
screwed in or out to adjust IF tuning. The transformers are
usually canned for stability and to reduce interference.
Transmission-line transformers
For radio frequency use, transformers are sometimes
made from configurations of transmission line,
sometimes bifilar or coaxial cable, wound
around ferrite or other types of core. This style of
transformer gives an extremely wide bandwidth but only a
limited number of ratios (such as 1:9, 1:4 or 1:2) can be
achieved with this technique.
The core material increases the inductance dramatically,
thereby raising its Q factor. The cores of such
transformers help improve performance at the lower
frequency end of the band. RF transformers sometimes
used a third coil (called a tickler winding) to
inject feedback into an earlier (detector) stage
in antique regenerative radio receivers.

Baluns

Baluns are transformers designed specifically to connect

between balanced and unbalanced circuits. These are
sometimes made from configurations of transmission line
and sometimes bifilar or coaxial cable and are similar to
transmission line transformers in construction and
operation.
 Bibliography

 CBSE Lab Manual

 www.wikipedia.com
 www.google.com
 www.scribd.com
 NCERT Textbook
 School Library