CHAPTER II

Assam’s boundary : Under British Rule and under Ahom Rule

The founder o f the Ahom kingdom Sukapha came upon various tribes as he

marched towards Assam from his kingdom o f Mong-Mit Kupklingdao1.

Throughout this arduous journey across some o f the most formidable terrain, he

came upon some hostile tribes. The tribes, who were hostile were severely dealt

with and this resulted in others submitting voluntarily. But the various Naga

tribes and also Garos revered the names o f Ahom kings Sukapha and Supatpha

(Gadapani) because of the benefits they received from them2. They soon

realized that though Sukapha subjugated them the new regime guaranteed to

them not only greater security and peace but also brought to them a culture and

forms of political and economic organization far more advanced than hitherto

known to them3.

Apart from Nagas, Assamese sources clearly mentions about other tribes like

Chutiyas, Kacharis, Marans and Barahis, who resided in Assam including

North-East Frontier Agency. The Ahoms once they established their kingdom

in the Brahmaputra valley came in contact with both the hill tribes as well as

1P. Gogoi, The Tai and the Tai kingdom, 1968, p. 255.
2 Ibid, p.262.

10
3 Ibid, p. 262.
plain tribes. With both the tribes they implemented different policies taking

into account the political as well as the geographical consequences.

Before going into discussing the tribal policy of the Ahoms, it would be

appropriate to first discuss the Assam’s boundary during the Ahom Rule. When

Sukapha entered Assam in 1228 after crossing the Patkai and reaching Tipam

by 1231 that whole area which was under him extended to the Patkai4. The

following table shows the distribution of races ruling in Assam with their

political boundaries at the advent o f Sukapha.

Races with Political boundaries

territories North South East West
1 .
Chutiya kingdom Mountain Buri Dihing Bralima- Sisi river
river kunda
2. Maran state Buri Disang river Suffiy Brahmaputra
Dihing river river
river
3. Barahi state Disang Dikhau river Nagahat Barahi Fika
river
4. Kachar Kingdom Dikhau Hilis Hills Dhansiri
river river
5. Bara Bhuyan Mountain Brahmaputra Sisi river Gang Bihali
territories river
6. Sungi (Daphla) Mountain Brahmaputra Gang Bhairabi
territory river Bihali river .
7. Darangi king’s Mountain Brahmaputra Bhairabi Manaha
kingdom river river river

4 Ibid, p.265.
11
Among them all, the Chutiyas were the most powerful and ruling the territory

east of the Subansiri and Disang rivers with their capital at Sadiya. The Ahom

first came into contact with them during the reign of Sutupha 1364 - 1376. He

was unfortunately murdered by his Chutiya counterpart during a regatta. Thus,

this enraged the Ahoms and the next king Tyaokhamti defeated the Chutiyas

and then king fled the kingdom. Hostilities therefore continued till reign o f

Suhungmung, who not only defeated the Chutiyas but had the heads o f the

Chutiya ruler and his brother-in-law buried under the steps of Charaideo, so

that he can walk over them whenever he entered the temple. The whole o f the

Chutiya kingdom was annexed to the Ahom kingdom and it was placed under

an officer named Sadiyakhowa Gohain to administer the new territory. The

Ahoms gained control right up to the present district o f North Lakhimpur and

thereby also came into close proximity with the various hill tribes residing

along North & North-East, the old Chutiya kingdom, namely Miris, Abors,

Dallas, Mishmis5. Economically also the Ahoms gained, as Sadiya, the only

area in the plains in Assam having lime springs came under their control. This

meant there was no need of importing it from Bengal.

But after a lull hostilities did resume as the Chutiyas rebelled against the

Ahoms for this humiliating defeat To keep the territory free of further

rebellions, Ahom king Pratap Singha resettled many o f the defeated Chutiyas in

5 Devi, L., Ahom-Tribcd Relations, 1968, p. 66.

12
other parts of the Ahom territory, places which were unfamiliar to them6. Also,

socially too the Chutiyas no longer remained a separate race as intermarriage

with the Ahoms brought both the races more closer thus assimilating the

Chutiyas into their fold.

Another important tribe ruling in Assam at that time was the Kacharis.

According to Sir Edward Gait, at the time the Ahoms entered Assam they had

their kingdom along the south bank of the Brahmaputra from the Dikhu (i.e.

Dikhow) to the Kallang or beyond and included also the valley o f Dhansiri and

the tract which now forms the North Cachar sub-division7.

The first Ahom ruler to come in contact with the Kacharis was none other than

Sukapha at the foot of the Naga hills8, which is presently in the Tirap District

o f the state of Arunachal Pradesh. This was a mere encounter and very soon

Sutenpha son and successor o f Sukapha, who ruled from 1268 - 81 slowly

occupied parts of the territories up to Namdang through fowl means. Military

conflict with the Kacharis started only from 1490 during the reign o f Suhenpha.

This was a disastrous war for the Ahoms as they were totally routed. Again in

the year 1531, Suhungmung, who was expanding his kingdom, was able to

push back the Kacharis to the Dhansiri by applying force as well as

6 S.K. Bhuyan, ed., Assam Buranji, 1945, p. 47.

7 Gait, Sir Edward, History of Assam, 1926, p. 248.
8 S.K. Bhuyan, ed_, Deodhai Assam Buranji, 1932, pp. 90 - 92.
13
diplomacy9. Though hostilities continued, after the death of their king

Detshung, whose head was also buried on Charaideo hill, the Kachans vacated

their capital Dimapur and the Dhansiri valley and established themselves at

Maibong, which was situated on the banks of the river Mahur. Ahoms now

appointed an officer designated as Marangikhowa Gohain to be stationed at

Marangi and administering the territories of the lower valley o f the Dhansiri

and thus for the Ahoms, their boundary in the west extended up to Nowgong.

Unlike Chutiyas, the Ahoms faced continuous hostilities with the Kacharis till

the time of Rudra Singha (1696 - 1714). It was he, who retaliated severely by

defeating the Kacharis in 1615 prior to the Mughal invasion of Assam. Ahoms

allowed the Kacharis to rule over the hilly tracts on payment o f annual tribute

and they were satisfied with wresting the plains territories of Kacharis in

Sibsagar and Nowgong district10.

Unlike the Chutiyas, Kacharis were not assimilated as such because they

maintained allegiance to their Kaehari Raja by paying a tribute*11.

As the Ahoms were expanding westward they came into contact with the

Jayantias, who had their kingdom west of the Kaehari territory. During the

9 L. Devi,Ahom-Tribal Relations, 1968, p. 80.

10 Ibid, p. 104.
11Bhiryan, S.K., ed., Kaehari Buranji, 1936, p. XV.
14
reign o f Pratap Singha (1603 - 41), they first came in contact with the Ahoms.

Initially, they maintained a cordial relation as the Jayantias wanted the

powerful Ahoms as their allies against the Kacharis and secondly for

commercial reasons. But soon, friendly relationship soured and from 1707 -

1729 the Jayantia did not submit to the Ahoms. Also the latter was not

interested in occupying hilly regions. Thus, the Ahoms gave them autonomy to

rule themselves but chastised all attempts at their expansion and

independence12.

Again like the Jayantias, Khyrim was interested in commercial transactions

with the Ahoms and for this purpose diplomatic activities were started. The

Jayantia Buranji first mentions about the state of Khyrim during the reign of

Rudra Singha (1696 - 1714), when a trader by the name o f Santosh Bangal,

who was trading in Sylhet, fled and took refuge in Dimarua13. Dimarua

province had already become an Ahom protectorate in the year 1616. After

suffering a loss in his trade with Bengal he wanted to start afresh with Assam

and asked the ruler of Dimarua to hand him to Kina Barua, a trader of Khyrim

so that he can start his trade under Kina Barua’s patronage14. So, started the

trade links with Assam. And by the time o f Gaurinath Singha, Khyrim became

a protectorate o f the Ahoms.

12 Devi, L. Ahom Tribal Relations, 1968, p. 138.

13Bhuyan, S.K., ed., Jayantia Buranji, 1937, p. 140.
14Devi, L., Ahom-Tribal Relations, 1968, p. 140.
15
Mikir, another tribe o f Assam with whom the Ahoms came in contact mainly

lived on hills, though some did settle in the plains. Their settlements are in the

districts of Sibsagar, Nowgong, North Cachar, the Khasi and Jayantia Hills and

Kamrup15. Many o f the Mikirs even today also inhabit the area bordering the

river Kopili and so according to them their ancestors came from Khasi and

Jayantia Hills16.

Ahom king Jayadhvaj Singha (1648 - 63) allowed twelve Mikir families to

settle in his territory and their relationship has been more or less peaceful

except on one occasion that was during the reign of Rajeswar Singha they did

not pay the annual tribute. But the problem was soon sorted out and so the

Ahoms did not face any problem with the Mikirs, who were law abiding and

peaceful people.

The Ahom - Manipuri relation started as a matrimonial one during the reign of

Suhungmung (1497 - 1539) when he offered the hand o f a girl named

Khukdang to the Raja o f Kochi meaning Manipur17. Tn return the Raja o f

Manipur reciprocated by sending him a princess, but as there are no more

reference o f it in Buranjis, it can be concluded that this did not materialize.

15 Devi, L., Ahom-Tribal Relations, 1968, p. 145.

16 Stack, E. and Lyall, C.J., “The Mikirs'’, 1908, p. 5.
17 Barua, G.C., Ahom Buranji, 1930, p. 77.
16
Manipur comprised of a small but rich alluvial valley surrounded by mountain,

which were inhabited then by barbaric tribes. On the East, it had Burma (now

Myanmar), Cachar on west, Naga hills on north and the Kukis on south18.

Next reference o f the Manipuris was in 1765, when their king, Jai Singha had

to flee his kingdom as the Burmese invaded and took shelter under the Kachari

ruler. He then was escorted to the Ahom King Rajeswar Singha by the

Barbarua and was accompanied by the Kachari king19. At the Ahom court he

requested for help against the Burmese and help was given in the form o f a

force. Therein took place the Lata Kata Ran, which literally means creeper

cutting as the route was absolutely inaccessible and two-thirds o f the force

perished before reaching destination.

But the next expedition in 1767 was successful and the Manipuri Raja got back

his throne. As a gesture o f thanks he offered his daughter Kuranganayani in

marriage to Rajeswar Singha with other offerings. Later Lakshmi Singha too

was offered a Manipuri princess. Apart from matrimonial alliances Ahoms too

had to approach the Manipuris for help against the Moamarias during the reign

o f Gaurinath Singha (1780 - 95). The Manipuri contingent returned without

fighting. Then later when again help was sought the old king Jai Singha himself

18Devi, L., Ahom - Tribal Relations, 1968, p. 151.

19 Barua, G.C., Ahom Buranji, 1930, pp. 286 - 290.
17
proceeded towards Assam after realizing that the situation was grave. But their

forces was completely routed by the Moamarias and this seemed to demoralize

the Manipuri forces and they left without helping the Ahoms.

The Ahoms as mentioned earlier came in contact with some o f the Naga tribes

during their journey through the Patkai. As there were various Naga tribes the

Ahoms had sporadic clashes with the Nagas throughout their entire 600 years

rule. More than the other tribes it was important for the Ahoms to keep a

constant guard on the Naga territory as it was between Assam and Burma and

so the later can easily form a relationship and pose a threat to the Ahom king.

Also for economic purposes the Nagas carried out raids on the villages at the

foothills, especially after the Ahom acquired the salt springs from them. But the

Ahoms never wanted to subjugate the Naga territory. They believed in

following “a policy of conciliation backed by the display of force”20.

Morans and Borahis, who were occupying the territory between Dikhow and

Disang were soon subjugated by Sukapha through diplomatic means. Soon

with inter-marriage with the Morans and Borahis their population too increased

considerably. The Borahis were totally subjugated by the Ahoms and lost their

individual identity. But Morans managed to maintain to do so and finally rose

20 Devi, L., Ahom - Tribal Relations, 1968, p. 47.

18
against the Ahoms in what became famous in history as the Moamaria

rebellion.

The Miris and the Abors or Adis had come in contact with the Ahoms after the

Chutiya kingdom was annexed. These two tribes were living on the northern

border o f the old Chutiya kingdom. O f them, Miris were divided into two

sections based on the area they lived in, that is the Hill Miri, who lived on the

hills west o f Dijmoor and north of Sisi and Dhemaji mouzas o f the Lakhimpur

district and the Miris living on the plains along the course o f the Subansiri21.

Similarly Abors too were divided into two. The Padam Abor are the ones, who

inhabited the territory east of the Dihong river upto Dibong river22. Those

residing on the west o f the Dihong river were known as Mi-Yong, Pasi and

Doba. Though Miris and Abors are of same origin the latter was backward and

savage like. But the intercourse between the Abors and Miris nevertheless were

constant and intimate23.

Ahoms first came into contact with the Miris during the time of Pratap Singha

(1603 - 41), when the Katakis were appointed by the monarch to keep a track

on their movements . ‘Posa system’ was introduced by the Ahoms and then

the Miris accepted the Ahom overlordship. But occasional raids on Ahom

21 Ibid, p. 155-157.
22 Mackenzie Alexandra-, The North-East Frontier of Bengal, 1884, pp. 33 - 34.
23 Ibid, pp. 33 - 34.
24 Barua, Gunabhiram, Assam Bvranji, 1876, p. 40.
19
villages by the M ins continued and this aggravated during the 17 century.

Then by the beginning o f the 18th century, they accepted the Ahom

overlordships after their repeated defeats. Nevertheless, the posa system

definitely was effective as later even the British continued with the system.

Ahom king Sukhampha created the post of Salah Gohain to administer the

territory up to the river Bhoroli, which once were under the Koches. His special

duty was to check the inroads o f Akas and Daflas, with the help o f “Duarias”,

who were responsible in guarding the passes . Akas, who inhabited the region

that o f Bhoroli river and the Tawang principality of Lhasa26, were divided into

two sub-tribes - Kapahchors or cotton thieves and Hazari - Khowas or eaters

o f a thousand hearths . When Pratap Singha introduced the ‘posa’ system, the

Hazari - Khowa were included whereas the Kapachors were not but later they

did ensure that they did get the share from the former. Therefore, Buranji do

not mention about any conflict with the Ahoms as Akas seemed satisfied with

the ‘posa5 system.

On the other hand, the Daflas, who were still not civilized created problems for

the Ahoms by carrying out raids. King Pratap Singha implemented the ‘posa’

system on Daflas to put an end to their raids on Ahom territory but according to

25 Naobaicha Phukan, Assam Buranji (Tr. No. 109, Vol. IX, p. 287)
26 Mackenzie, Alexander, The North-East Frontier o f Bengal, 1884, p, 2 1.
27 Devi, L., Ahom - Tribal Relations, 1968, p. 170.
20
the Jayantia Buranji expeditions against the Daflas were sent even during the

reign of King Rudra Singha. But as with other hill tribes Ahoms had no desire

in acquiring their territory so they continued with their independent

administration.

The Mishmis another of the hill tribe o f Assam inhabited the area strategically

placed whereby ‘it blocks the direct route through the upper end o f the

Brahmaputra valley to China - a route which must inevitably come into

commercial prominence by and by’28. They raided the Ahom kingdom only

once in the year 1675. Also they did not come under the ‘posa’ system as the

other hill tribes.

The Khamtis were Shans just as the Ahoms, and were allowed to settle on the

Tengapani river in the year 175129. Though they belonged to the same race as

the Ahoms they did not help the Ahoms during the Moamaria uprising. Instead,

they took advantage of the weakness and claiming more authority in their

territory. But the Ahoms did not take a retaliatory action instead they followed

a policy of appeasement to re-establish friendly relations. This policy adopted

by the Ahoms proved judicious in the long run as the country’s security was at

threat from the unrest prevailing during the Moamaria uprising.

28 Waddell, L.A., Tribes o f the Brahmaputra valley, J.A.S.B, No. 1,1900, p. 59.
29 Devi, L., Ahom - Tribal Relations, 1968, p. 189.
21
Singphos were a warlike tribe, who inhabited the Sadiya frontier. They had a

friendly relation with the Moamarias and destroyed mnay viollages in the

eastern part of Assam30 in the year 1797. They continued their disturbance even

after the Ahom Prime Minister Pumananda Burhagohain made a pact with

them by offering an Ahom girl named Rangili along with slaves and other

attendant31. But the Singphos very soon broke the pact they made with

Pumananda Buragohain, when they aided the Burmese during the invasion and
t

carried off the Assamese to Burma as slaves thus depopulating the eastern part

o f the state32. Their superior fire power and organized force Captain Neufville,

the British political agent o f Upper Assam brought back many o f the Assamese

subjects, who were forcibly carried off by the Singphos.

Assam and Bhutan had commercial relations and all the trade passed through

the duars. But the first contact with the Ahoms came when Pratp Singh was

ruling the kingdom. The war started because Bhutias wanted the restoration of

Nagamatee district. Though Ahoms defeated the Bhutias, peace was concluded

and the latter gave half of Bharamakunda.

30 Ahomar Sesh Yugar Buranji, Tr. No. 248, Voi. 56, pp. 5 - 6 , D.H.A.S.
31 Bhuyan, S.K., ed., Tmgkhuma Buranji, 1933, p. 207.
32 Mackenzie, Alexander, North-East Frontier of Bengal, 1884, pp. 62 - 64.
22
Also after the introduction of ‘posa’ system the Bhutias o f Charduar came

under this system.

Though there were no long drawn war as such minor battle and encroachment

o f Ahom territories continued by the Bhutias. To improve the stained relation a

first formal embassy from Assam reached Bhutan in the year 1802. As with

other tribes with Bhutias too Ahom was not been an acquiring their territory

and even later when Bhutanese government complained that Ahom officers

transgressed their territory, on enquiry it was found that Bhutias transgressed

their boundary limits and not the Ahoms.

As the Ahoms expanded westward they came in contact with the Koches, who

was then ruled by Vishwa Singha, founder of the Koch kingdom. He marched

against the Ahom ruler Suhungmung but was forced to retreat as provision for
<2*3
his forces exhausted . This, of course, has not been corroborated by all the

Ahom Buranjis. Realising the growing power of the Ahoms the Koch king did

submit to the Ahom ruler but not for long as he did not like being a tributary

ruler under the Ahoms34, and so he led another unsuccessful against the Ahoms

in the year 1537.

33 Gait, Sir Edward, History o f Assam, 1926, p. 49.

34 Barua, G.C., Ahom Buranfi, 1930, p. 77.
23
Hostilities once again increased after Nar Narayan succeeded his father to the

Koch throne. Nar Narayan alongwith his brother Chilarai proved to be a

formidable force against the Ahoms. Though conflicts between these two

powerful neighbours the power of Koches weakened with the internal

dissession among them leading to the division of the once mighty Koch

kingdom into Koch Behar and Koch Hajo.

During the Mughal invasion both the Ahoms and the Koches came together in

1663 to fight a powerful enemy. Diplomatic exchanges in form of letters

exchanged proved that they were successful in restricting the Mughals and after

they left the Ahoms extended their territoiy up to Manah river35.

With the eastern branch of the Koches, the Darrangi Raj family, Ahoms faced,

problem till the end. Taking advantage o f the Moamaria rebellion Hanga

Narayan II the Deka Raja o f Darrang rose against the Ahom king Gaurinath

Singha. But his rebellion was soon crushed and he was put to death. Also his

son Krishna Narayan was not made the Deka Raja of Darrang. This enraged

him and he rose against the Ahom monarch. He and his mercenaries were too

organized and well equipped compared to the beleaguered Ahom forces. Thus,

the latter had to take the help of the British to restore order. Therefore, the

33 Devi, L.,Ahom ~ Tribal Relations, 1968, p. 259.

24
relations of the Ahoms with the Koches, thus simultaneously reveal the

strength and weakness o f the tribal policy of the Ahoms.

As mentioned earlier Ahom - Naga relation goes back to the time of Sukapha.

They are divided into various tribes spreading over a large territory from Patkai

to Dikhow and Buri - Dihing. Ahom - Naga relations was important for two

primary reasons. Finally, because the territory that Nagas inhabited was

strategically placed and secondly for economic reasons as these areas possessed

salt mines.

Though occasional raids were committed once in a while by Ao and Lotha

Nagas, the Noctes, Wanchos, Tangas, Konyak remained peaceful after

submission to the Ahom rulers. Though once deemed ferocious the Nagas

accepted the Ahom suzerainty as the Ahom policy was of conciliation backed

by display o f force. And also they realized that the Ahoms were never keen to

annex their territories. After submission to the Ahom monarch they were given

the autonomy to carry on with their own tribal administration.

0t

The Ahoms followed a dual tribal policy, one for the plains tribes and other for

the hill tribes. With the former, their policy was to gradually occupy their

territory fust by diplomatic means and if it did not work out, then by

employing force. This was because the Ahoms wanted to establish themselves
25
in the Brahmaputra valley and for that it was necessary. The Ahoms, who were

liberal in their outlook intermarried with the plain tribes and slowly succeeded

in assimilating them into the Ahom fold. Also politically, they were very

farsighted and a good example of it was the appointment o f Langi Panisiya,

who was o f Chutiya origin to the post of Barphukan. Then Borahis cooked for

the Ahom monarchs. All these clearly showed to the indigenous people that

there was no prejudices against any caste or creed by the Ahoms. Their actions

were mainly dominated by considerations of practical necessity and political

expediency36.

The Ahom tribal policy was not based on a rigid overlord-vassal relationship

because the aim of the Ahom government was not extension o f its sovereignty

over hill areas but establishment of friendly relationship with them on the basis
'll
o f mutual benefits and understanding . Therefore, when they realized that the

hill tribes was not self sufficient as agriculture did not flourish in the highly

terrain and they came to the plains and raided to fulfill their demands, the

Ahom King Pratap Singha introduced the ‘posa’ system whereby the hill tribes

were allocated land for agriculture and fishing waters along with paiks, who

were villagers of the nearby areas. For this the tribes had to refrain from

committing raids and pay the Ahoms an annual tribute. Whenever these

36 Ibid, p.274.
37 Baruah, S.L., A Comprehensive History o f Assam, 1985, p. 382.
26
promises were broken punitive measures were taken by the Ahoms. But Ahoms

had no intention of even acquiring the land of the hill tribes as they realized it

would prove futile for them and so granted the tribes autonomy to rule in their

respective territories.

No doubt with such a broad outlook the Ahom tribal policy can be said to be

successful on the whole. Through tact, diplomacy and force they kept the

frontier quite except of course occasional raids once in a while. The British too

continued with this tribal policy after they took over Assam. Their frontier

officers were asked to be ‘persistent’ in demanding surrender o f murderers, but

endeavour so to approach the tribes that a basis may be opened for friendly

intercourse in future38. But, o f course, they could not achieve much success as

the Ahoms.

The British came in contact with the frontier states o f Eastern India after the

grant o f the Dewani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the East India Company39

on August 12, 1765. The grant o f the Dewani marked the beginning o f

commercial transactions between some European merchants and Assam.

Slowly as trade flourished the European traders got entangled in the political

affair of the Rajas of these areas. Towards the end o f the eighteenth century

38 Mackenzie, Alexander, North-ea Frontier o/B en g a l, 1884, p. 369.

39 A.C. Banerjee, M.A., Ph. D; The Eastern Frontier o f British India, 1986.
27
 traders like Daniel Raush, Robert Buydie, Thomas Cotton namely a few

powerful ones, even maintained a force for the smooth transaction of their

commercial purposes40. The British Government itself came in direct contact

with the Ahom rulers during the reign o f Gaurinath Singha (1780 - 1794). In

this period the Ahom kingdom was at its declining state with Moamaria

Uprising already weakening the once powerful Ahom rulers. During the growth

o f Neo-Vaishnavite movement in Assam, the Mayamara, a branch o f the Kala-

Samhita became very powerful. Then during the reign o f Lakshmi Singha, they

started their first rebellion against the Ahom monarchy in the year 1769.

Taking advantage o f this situation the various Rajas o f Vassal states and some

tribes were already conspiring against the rulers to declare themselves

independent. Though the political situation was unstable the prospect of trade

in this area seemed very promising for the British. Reports and articles on

Assam, which were published like those of Capt. Welsh, John Peter Wade,

Buchanan Hamilton and others gave a favourable prospect o f trade. Therefore,

the British being a mercantile and imperialist power couldn’t resist the urge,

whereby, the Court of Directors also took much interest in the trade with

Assam and North-east in articles such as silk, pepper and specie41 along with of

course trade in salt for returns maybe in gold dust But with the Ahom kingdom

moving gradually towards its disintegration primarily because o f the growing

40 Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. XII, p. 278.

41 Auber, Rise and Progress o f the British Power in India, Vol. II, p. S3.
28
religious dissension and weak and incapable monarchy, the British had to

intervene as Assam was a frontier state. Gaurinath Singha himself approached

die British Governor-General Lord Cornwallis for help. Thus, Captain Welsh

was sent to Assam at the behest of the Ahom monarch and this constituted a

land mark of the highest importance42.

The political turmoil in the Ahom Kingdom was finally quelled by the British,

who “came as deliverers, stayed on as protectors”43. Assam was another feather

to be added to their imperial empire. After the Brahmaputra valley came under

the British they entrusted the management of its districts to David Scott and

Lieutenant Colonel Richards. While the former was vested with the task of

civil administration and also carrying on necessary political transactions with

the neighbouring Rajas, the latter, Senior Commissioner was given the

authority over the police as well as military aspects in the administration44.

Scott, who was the Senior Commissioner was in charge of Western Assam with

headquarters in Guwahati and Lieutenant Colonel Richards was Junior

Commissioner in charge o f Eastern Assam with headquarters in Rangpur.

The East India Company’s Government instructed David Scott to govern

Assam on basis o f Non-Regulated system. According to this system areas were

42 S.L. Baruah, A Comprehensive History o f Assam, 1985, p. 331.

43 Ibid, p. 457.
44 A.C. Baneijee, TTie Eastern Frontier o f British India, 1 7 8 4 -1 8 2 6 ,1 9 8 6 , p .3 5 4 .
29
to be governed by an “executive composed partly of civilians and partly of

soldiers upon a mixed system into which the spirit o f the Regulations is infused

in such a way as to cause it to harmonise and itself with all that is good in spirit

o f the native institutions”45. This non-Regulation system was to provide the

natives within which a highly personalized administration for the tribal areas of

the North-East Frontier was to evolve. The task of maintaining any necessary

relation with the hill tribes was left to him, because the British knew that unless

and until they maintained a grip on the North-east as it was strategically placed

they might be threatened by the Burmese. Therefore, from 1826, they were

faced by the Herculean task of tackling the constant attacks o f these freedom-

loving hill tribes.

The hill tribes o f the North-east ‘live either inside or on the borders o f the state

o f Assam’46. The total tribal area cover around seven hundred miles o f India’s

frontier land47. Initially, though as mentioned earlier the British Company was

primarily interested in trade and commerce but as peace and security was of

paramount importance for the smooth flow o f commercial activities the British

definitely came into contact with the tribes, who did carry on raids and

incursions. Though tribal customs have been blamed as the root cause o f these

45 Cf Barpujari, Assam in the Days of the Company, 1980, p. 22.

46 B.C. Chakravorty; British Relations with the H ill Tribes o f Assam since 1858, p. 163.
47 B.C. Chakravorty, British Relations with the H ill Tribes o f Assam since 1858, p. 163.
30
bloody raids48 but their origin was because of the ‘oppressive conduct of the

plainsmen or in the petty squabbles at the frontier markets’49.

As Burmese incursions in Assam started increasing the British were keen to

*

end the Non Intervention Policy followed in the eastern frontiers from the time

o f Sir John Shore. Lord Amherst, who was appointed Governor-General soon

realized the underline problem and thus made the British objective clear, which

was to remove the Burmese from the territories they occupied in the frontiers

o f those, which earlier belonged to Assam, Manipur even Arracan. This he

proposed to do by inciting the original inhabitants to restore the then native

princes and thus making the border secure for the British from the Burmese50.

Veiy soon by the year 1824 Cachar and the Jayantia kingdoms became British

protectorates and thus the defensive arrangements for the frontier became

complete51.

Slowly and steadily now the British was strengthening their hold over Assam

and its neighbouring areas and proceeding gradually towards the frontier,

which were once held by the Moamarias, Khamtis and the Singphos. While the

former was against the Burmese the latter too joined the Burmese and

48 C.E. Bucklahd, Bengal under Lieutenant Governors, 180, also Fisher’s ‘Memoir ofSylhet, Kachar
and the Adjacent Districts’, JASB, DC (New Series).
49 H.K. Barpujari ed. The Comprehensive History o f Assam, VoL IV, 1992, p. 129.
50 FSC, 1823; 31 October, No. 17.
51 Aitehison, 1 1 7 - 9 .
31
ruthlessly acted on the Assamese subject o f the Ahom ruler. So, the British

through a policy o f military might and diplomacy was needed to tackle the

Singphos, whose territories was situated at the strategic route through which

the Burmese could enter Assam. Very soon the British were able to sign formal

treaties with the Moamarias and the Khamtis, but with the Singphos they were

still not successful in signing the treaty. Then when the Singphos attacked the

Moamria and Khamti villages the British decided to use force and thereby

bring the Singphos to the negotiating table. But with the Burmese reappearing

in the frontier the hardy Singphos were not keen to accept the British demand

o f releasing their captives. The British forces then entered their territories and

released the captives as they raided village after village52. Finally after applying

force Captain John Bryan Neufviile was able to establish British control over

the Singphos and the entire eastern part of Assam53 and made them agree to

accept British suzerainty, give up captives, assist British force against the

Burmese and in case of disputes refer to the local officers54 for arbitration.

Beesa Gaum was made the ‘paramount chief of the Singphos and he was

entrusted with the responsibility o f maintaining a communication link between

the other gaums and the British55. The British, of course, made agreements with

the Moamaria and Khamti chiefs and provided able bodied men to help the

British garrison during the time o f fighting.

52 For details, Mitchell, Report on the North East Frontier, 140f.

53 H.K, Baspujari, ed. The Comprehensive History of Assam, Vol. IV, 1992, p. 135.
54 Aitchison, 119 —20.
55 FSC 1826; 14 July, Nos. 9 - 10; Scott to Swinton, 12 June.
32
Because of the war Bengal’s Assam frontier comprising around five hundred

miles was pushed eastward surrounding the Brahmaputra valley in which the

tribes had slowly established themselves from concessions given by Ahom

kings to rights to the land for the tribes, so it was left as it was by David Scott

as he was not keen to come into any confrontation. And thus, gradually Scott

moved on acquiring control over the frontier in the East of the Manas river of

which primarily five were in Kamrup and two in Darrang, the South Kamrup,

Naduars held by Khasi chiefs and then o f course came the need to secure the

Khasi frontier with the construction o f the road through the hills56. With some

persuasion from Nongkhlaw Raja Tirot Singh his Durban conceded to the

British terms and the road from Sylhet to Guwahati was completed giving the

latter a strategic position in the hills. But soon after the Khasis under Tirot

Singh joined with Barmanik and other chiefs against the British. Tirot’s

Singh’s disagreement with the British grew when he realized that he had to pay

revenue to the British for the lands which he thought was his and also when

latter went against him by helping his enemy the Rani Raja against him by

providing forces57. Even though the resistant movement by the Khasis under

Tirot Singh had been the most determined and organized resistance against the
fO

British aggression it could not withstand the efficient and organized British

force and by 1832 he had to accept defeat and the British brought the Khasis

56 P.N. Dutta, Impact c f the West on the Khasis and Jaintias, 1982, pp. 57-60.
57 H.K. Barpujari, Problem of Hill Tribes, (ii), 1976, pp. 48 - 50.
58 S.L. Baniah, A Comprehensive History o f Assam, i985, p. 466.
33
under Subsidiary Alliance. Then very soon territories at the frontier, which

even during the Ahom rule was left to some tribes to administer independently

came under the Company’s subordination. With the formation of a Political

Agency, which was separate from Assam, Commission Khasi Hills came into

being in 1835 and by Act VI its criminal and civil jurisdiction came under the

Company Administration and Act XXI was applied to lowland59.

As a measure to secure the frontier, the British continued with their repressive

measures. Sadiya Khowa Gohain was replaced and though the Khamtis were

permitted to manage their own affairs, the Assamese inhabitants residing in

Sadiya and Saikhowa came under the control of the British Officer Lieutenant

Charlton in charge o f Sadiya60. By now the tribes, primarily the Khamtis and

Singphos, who treasured their freedom and were suspicious o f foreigner

attacked the British outposts. Similarly in the South-eastern tracts primitive

measures against the tribes was the root cause of the uprisings. Thus, Cachar,

Manipur, Khasi Hills and even Bhutan duars was annexed. But with the other

tribes still not quelled like Nagas and Garos, the British decided to do away

with the non-intervention policy with active intervention and annexation61. The

Forward Policy evolved by the British from 1860 to 1872 indicates that it was

proving quite difficult for them to keep the frontier peaceful and secure with so

39 A.J.M. M ills, Report on the Khasi and Jaintia Hills (1853).

60 FPC, 1835, 13 March, N o. 42 - 3; White to Charlton, 1 February.
61 H.K. Barpujari, ed. The Comprehensive History o f Assam, Vol. IV, 1992, p. 153.
34
many, heterogenous tribes residing along the border. Though some territories

were annexed, the others could not be subjugated and so the British

Government decided to adopt a policy o f slow but steady penetration into the

hills62.

With the implementation of this new policy by the British, the Angami Nagas

were first to be subjugated after long drawn skirmishes. The Kuki Nagas also

came under the British fold though much later than the former by the year

1917. The Jayantia hills were however, taken over in 1863.

With Bhutan, the British signed the Treaty of Sinchula in 1865, which was
V

considered a landmark in Angio-Bhutan relations63. The British not only gained

economically but also politically by signing this treaty as territories surrendered

by the Bhutanese were o f great value, as this area not only produced timber but

also tea and other agricultural products. Also it provided a road to Lhasa, which

was at such a vantage point that the British could tackle any aggressions

against Assam and North Bengal64.

62 Ibid, p. 154.
63 Barpujari, H.K., ed., The Comprehensive History o f Assam, Vol. IV, 1992, p. 167.
64 Political Letter to the Secretary of State, 22 November, 1865, No. 162; Barpujari, op. cit, 93.
35
 The Garo territory was also taken over and Garo Hills district was formed in
i' C

1869 . But with Ahoms the British followed a policy of conciliation, even

though they too were hostile against the British.

65 Barpujari, H.K. ed., The Comprehensive History o f Assam, Vol. IV, 1992, p. 172.
36