Oxidation Process.

A process in which oxygen is caused to combine with other molecules. The oxygen may be
used as elemental oxygen, as in air, or in the form of an oxygen-containing molecule which is
capable of giving up all or part of its oxygen. Oxidation in its broadest sense, that is, an
increase in positive valence or removal of electrons, is not considered here if oxygen itself is
not involved. See also Oxidation-reduction.

Most oxidations occur with the liberation of large amounts of energy in the form of either
heat, light, or electricity. The stable ultimate products of oxidation are oxides of the
elements involved. These oxidations occur in nature as corrosion, decay, and respiration and
in the deliberate burning of matter such as wood, petroleum, sulfur, or phosphorus to oxides
of the constituent elements.

The principal variables to be considered and controlled in any partial oxidation are
temperature, pressure, reaction time (or contact time), nature of catalyst, if any, mole ratio
of oxidizing agent, and whether the substance to be oxidized is to be kept in the liquid or
vapor phase. Only a narrow range of conditions unique to each substance being oxidized and
each product desired will give satisfactory yields. It is also essential to maintain conditions
outside the range of spontaneous ignition, to avoid explosive mixtures or the accidental
accumulation of unstable peroxides, and to choose materials which not only can resist the
environmental conditions but also which do not have adverse catalytic effects or otherwise
interfere with the desired reaction. See also Combustion.

What is Oxidation?

A freshly-cut apple turns brown, a bicycle fender becomes rusty and a copper penny
suddenly turns green. What do all of these events have in common? They are all examples of
a process called oxidation.

Oxidation is defined as the interaction between oxygen molecules and all the different
substances they may contact, from metal to living tissue. Technically, however, with the
discovery of electrons, oxidation came to be more precisely defined as the loss of at least
one electron when two or more substances interact. Those substances may or may not
include oxygen. (Incidentally, the opposite of oxidation is reduction — the addition of at
least one electron when substances come into contact with each other.) Sometimes
oxidation is not such a bad thing, as in the formation of super-durable anodized aluminum.
Other times, oxidation can be destructive, such as the rusting of an automobile or the
spoiling of fresh fruit.

We often used the words oxidation and rust interchangeably, but not all materials which
interact with oxygen molecules actually disintegrate into rust. In the case of iron, the oxygen
creates a slow burning process, which results in the brittle brown substance we call rust.
When oxidation occurs in copper, on the other hand, the result is a greenish coating called
copper oxide. The metal itself is not weakened by oxidation, but the surface develops a
patina after years of exposure to air and water.
When it involves oxygen, the process of oxidation depends on the amount of oxygen present
in the air and the nature of the material it touches. True oxidation happens on a molecular
level — we only see the large-scale effects as the oxygen causes free radicals on the surface
to break away. In the case of fresh fruit, the skin usually provides a barrier against oxidation.
This is why most fruits and vegetables arrive in good condition at the grocery store. Once the
skin has been broken, however, the individual cells come in direct contact with air and the
oxygen molecules start burning them. The result is a form of rust we see as brownish spots
or blemishes.

Oxidation can also be a problem for car owners, since the outermost layers of paint are
constantly exposed to air and water. If the car's outer finish is not protected by a wax coating
or polyurethane, the oxygen molecules in the air will eventually start interacting with the
paint. As the oxygen burns up the free radicals contained in the paint, the finish becomes
duller and duller. Restoration efforts may include removing several layers of affected paint
and reapplying a new layer of protectant. This is why professional car detailers recommend
at least one layer of wax or other protectant be used every time the car is washed.

The secret of preventing oxidation caused by oxygen is to provide a layer of protection

between the exposed material and the air. This could mean a wax or polyurethane coating
on a car, a layer of paint on metal objects or a quick spray of an anti-oxidant, like lemon
juice, on exposed fruit. Destructive oxidation cannot occur if the oxygen cannot penetrate a
surface to reach the free radicals it craves.

This is why stainless steel doesn't rust and ordinary steel does. The stainless steel has a thin
coating of another metal which does not contain free radicals. Regular steel may be painted
for protection against oxidation, but oxygen can still exploit any opening, no matter how
small. This is why you may find a painted metal bicycle still damaged by rust.

Why do pennies turn brown?

Why do pennies turn brown? When you receive a new penny, you will note how shiny it is.
This is because of the thin copper layer over the zinc, which gives the penny a shiny exterior.

The thin layer of copper is actually a copper alloy. Over time, your pennies turn brown
because they are reacting with the air. The process that occurs is called oxidation.

Oxidation occurs when oxygen is added to a compound, usually by reducing the amount of
electrons in that compound. You see the effects of oxidation frequently in your everyday life.

When you cut open a pear, and leave the pear uneaten for too long, the inner part of the
fruit slowly turns brown. This is because of oxidation. Similarly, the rust that develops on
your iron tools or iron fence is caused by oxidation.

Rust.
Rust is scientifically called oxidation, which occurs when oxygen comes in long-term contact
with certain metals. Over time, the oxygen combines with the metal at an atomic level,
forming a new compound called an oxide and weakening the bonds of the metal itself. If the
base metal is iron or steel, the resulting rust is properly called iron oxide. Rusted aluminum
would be called aluminum oxide, copper forms copper oxide and so on.

The main catalyst for the rusting process is dihydrogen oxide, but we know it better as water.
Iron or steel structures may appear solid, but water molecules can easily penetrate the
microscopic pits and cracks in any exposed metal. The hydrogen atoms present in water can
combine with other elements to form acids, which will eventually cause more metal to be
exposed. If sodium is present, as is the case with saltwater, corrosion will likely occur more
quickly. Meanwhile, the oxygen atoms combine with metallic atoms to form the destructive
oxide compound. As the atoms combine they weaken the metal, making the structure brittle
and crumbly.

Some pieces of iron or steel are thick enough to maintain their integrity even if rust forms on
the surface. Others are protected by water-resistant paints or other chemical barriers such
as oil. The thinner the metal, the better chance rusting will occur. Water alone does not
cause steel to rust, but the acidic reaction allows oxygen to attack vulnerable exposed metal.
Placing a steel wool pad in water and exposing it to air will cause almost-immediate rusting.
The air around the pad will actually feel several degrees warmer. Eventually the individual
iron bonds will be destroyed from the heat and the entire pad will disintegrate. Rust
formation cannot be stopped easily, but metals can be treated to resist the most damaging
effects.

RUST
A red or brown oxide coating on iron or steel caused by the action of oxygen and moisture.

The Rust Process

Rust is the process of iron (molecules) oxidizing into iron oxide, or rust. Rust is the common
name for a very common compound, iron oxide. Iron (or steel) rusting is an example of
corrosion, an electrochemical process involving an anode, an electrolyte and a cathode .
When metal corrodes, the electrolyte helps provide oxygen to the anode. As oxygen
combines with the metal, electrons are liberated. When they flow through the electrolyte to
the cathode, the metal of the anode disappears, swept away by the electrical flow or
converted into rust.

For iron to tranform into iron oxide, three things are needed: iron, water and oxygen.

When water droplets are gathered on an iron object, two things immediately happen. First,
the water combines with carbon dioxide forms a weak carbonic acid, becoming better
electrolyte. As the acid is formed and the iron dissolved, some of the water will begin to
break down into its component pieces -- hydrogen and oxygen. The free oxygen and
dissolved iron bond into iron oxide, in the process freeing electrons. The electrons liberated
from the anode portion of the iron flow to the cathode, which may be a piece of a metal less
electrically reactive than iron, or another point on the piece of iron itself.

The oxidation needs a transfer medium to occur, such as water. Salt in the water speeds up
the oxidation process by acting as a catalyst. The problem with salt is that once the water is
gone; the salt lies in wait to restart the forming of rust once more moisture is present.

To protect your vehicle against the effects of rust, Rustblock® offers a unique formula that
does more than just cover the metal. The Rustblock® rustproofing product is applied as a
high-pressured spray, ensuring protection to your vehicle's most critical areas by
penetrating, displacing existing moisture and protecting the many vulnerable crevices of
your automobile.

Corrosion
Corrosion is deterioration of useful properties in a material due to reactions with its
environment. Weakening of steel due to oxidation of the iron atoms is a well-known
example of electrochemical corrosion. This type of damage usually affects metallic materials,
and typically produces oxide(s) and/or salt(s) of the original metal. Corrosion also can refer
to discolouration and weakening of polymers by the sun's ultraviolet light.

Electrochemical corrosion causes between $8 billion and $128 billion in economic damage
per year in the United States alone, degrading structures, machines, and containers. Most
structural alloys corrode merely from exposure to moisture in the air, but the process can be
strongly affected by exposure to acids, bases, salts and organic chemicals. It can be
concentrated locally to form a pit or crack, or it can extend across a wide area to produce
general deterioration; efforts to reduce corrosion sometimes merely redirect the damage
into less visible, less predictable forms

The Corrosion Process

The following will treat corrosion as a process which cannot occur without the presence of
water and therefore excludes other types of attack, such as those associated with high
temperature oxidation or sulphidation.

Corrosion is a naturally occurring electrochemical process. The presence of a tiny amount of

electrolyte on an unprotected metal surface can cause electrons to flow from a higher
energy area (anode) to a lower energy area (cathode) initiating and sustaining corrosion.
Microscopic droplets of water that are present in the air at 70-85% relative humidity most
commonly serve as the electrolyte.

One way to understand the structure of metals on the basis of particles is to imagine an
array of positively-charged ions sitting in a negatively-charged "gas" of free electrons.
Coulombic attraction holds these oppositely-charged particles together, but there are other
sorts of negative charge which are also attracted to the metal ions, such as the negative ions
(anions) in an electrolyte. For a given ion at the surface of a metal, there is a certain amount
of energy to be gained or lost by dissolving into the electrolyte or becoming a part of the
metal, which reflects an atom-scale tug-of-war between the electron gas and dissolved
anions. The quantity of energy then strongly depends on a host of variables, including the
types of ions in solution and their concentrations, and the number electrons present at the
metal's surface. In turn, corrosion processes cause electrochemical changes, meaning that
they strongly affect all of these variables. The overall interaction between electrons and ions
tends to produce a state of local thermodynamic equilibrium that can often be described
using basic chemistry and a knowledge of initial conditions. -
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion

The presence of Rustblock® on the surface of the metal inhibits the flow of electrons from
anode to cathode thus preventing the corrosion process. Rustblock® is an effective Corrosion
Inhibitor, which is also safe on metals. Rustblock® automatically releases protective particles
into the area around the exposed metal surface. These particles attach themselves to the
metal surface and create a protective layer, thus preventing the catastrophic effects of
corrosion.

More Corrosion Definitions on the WEB

The deterioration of metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction resulting from exposure
to weathering, moisture, chemicals or other agents or media.

A chemical action which causes gradual destruction of a surface of a metal by oxidation,

electrolysis, or chemical contamination.

Chemical or electrochemical attack on the surface of a metal eg rusting. Corrosion is

particularly a problem for marine farms, where annual painting of non galvanised steel or
iron equipment is essential, to prevent equipment failure. Sacrificial anodes are often used
on pumps and other devices to limit corrosion.

The electrochemical degradation of metals due to reaction with their environment.

oxidation-reduction reaction where electrons are released at the anode and taken up at the
cathode.

the general disintegration of surface metal through oxidation

Process by which metals are eaten away by salt water and air.

A complex chemical or electrochemical process by which metal is destroyed through

reaction with its environment, For example, rust is corrosion.

The gradual deterioration of material by chemical processes, such as oxidation or attack by

acids; if caused by an atmospheric effect, a form of weathering. Of great significance is the
corrosion due to the combined effects of atmospheric temperature, humidity, and
suspended impurities, for example, the rusting of iron, the direct effects upon a surface
wetted by acid water. Compare corrosion, erosion. Brooks, CEP, 1951: Climate in Everyday
Life.
Corrosion occurs in all metals at some time and can be divided into four basic forms. Room
temperature oxidation, the most common form, is most obvious in mild and low-alloy steels.
The process is accelerated dramatically by comparatively small amounts of contaminants like
chloride, sulfate, and fluoride. When exposed to high temperatures, metals will almost
invariable result in oxidation of metal surfaces. Chemical corrosion is the result of attack by
acids or alkaline compounds which dissolve the metal surface. Electrolytic corrosion occurs
when two metals in contact with each other have different electrode potentials. It is a major
contributor

Corrosion is the deterioration of a materials useful properties due to reactions with its
environment. e.g. Weakening of steel due to oxidation of the iron atoms. Corrosion also
includes the discolouration and weakening of non-metals by the sun's ultraviolet light.

How does corrosion happen?

Corrosion happens when a piece of metal, especially iron, is exposed to moisture. It is due to
constant exposure to adverse atmospheric conditions and direct contact between the piece
of metal and the various environmental changes that take place. Iron atoms deteriorate or
get corroded because their intrinsic properties are not adequately suited to undergo
oxidation. Constant exposure to oxygen (which is a major element in the atmosphere) and
water does result in electrochemical corrosion of metal.

Electrochemical corrosion of a metallic surface due to constant contact between the metal
and the atmospheric moisture is known in layman's terms as rust and it is reddish-brown in
colour. Corrosion results in the metal rusting and the by-product of the process of corrosion
could be in the form of oxides and/or salts of the metal. Ceramic undergoes corrosion due to
exposure to the harsh ultraviolet rays of the sun and the result is the discolouration of the
ceramic surface, the dissolution of the ceramic particles and the weakening of the ceramic
polymers.

Corrosion can be defined as the degradation of a material due to a reaction with its
environment.

Degradation implies deterioration of physical properties of the material. This can be a

weakening of the material due to a loss of cross-sectional area, it can be the shattering of a
metal due to hydrogen embrittlement, or it can be the cracking of a polymer due to sunlight
exposure.

Materials can be metals, polymers (plastics, rubbers, etc.), ceramics (concrete, brick, etc.) or
composites-mechanical mixtures of two or more materials with different properties.
Because metals are the most used type of structural materials most of this web site will be
devoted to the corrosion of metals.

Corrosion.
Millions of dollars are lost each year because of corrosion. Much of this loss is due to the
corrosion of iron and steel, although many other metals may corrode as well. The problem
with iron as well as many other metals is that the oxide formed by oxidation does not firmly
adhere to the surface of the metal and flakes off easily causing "pitting". Extensive pitting
eventually causes structural weakness and disintegration of the metal. (It should be noted,
however, that certain metals such as aluminum, form a very tough oxide coating which
strongly bonds to the surface of the metal preventing the surface from further exposure to
oxygen and corrosion).

Corrosion occurs in the presence of moisture. For example when iron is exposed to moist air,
it reacts with oxygen to form rust,

The amount of water complexed with the iron (III) oxide (ferric oxide) varies as indicated by
the letter "X". The amount of water present also determines the color of rust, which may
vary from black to yellow to orange brown. The formation of rust is a very complex process
which is thought to begin with the oxidation of iron to ferrous (iron "+2") ions.

Fe -------> Fe+2 + 2 e-

Both water and oxygen are required for the next sequence of reactions. The iron (+2) ions
are further oxidized to form ferric ions (iron "+3") ions.

Fe+2 ------------> Fe+3 + 1 e-

Tthe electrons provided from both oxidation steps are used to reduce oxygen as shown.

O2 (g) + 2 H2O + 4e- ------> 4 OH-

The ferric ions then combine with oxygen to form ferric oxide [iron (III) oxide] which is then
hydrated with varying amounts of water. The overall equation for the rust formation may be
written as :

The formation of rust can occur at some distance away from the actual pitting or erosion of
iron as illustrated below. This is possible because the electrons produced via the initial
oxidation of iron can be conducted through the metal and the iron ions can diffuse through
the water layer to another point on the metal surface where oxygen is available. This process
results in an electrochemical cell in which iron serves as the anode, oxygen gas as the
cathode, and the aqueous solution of ions serving as a "salt bridge" as shown below.
The involvement of water accounts for the fact that rusting occurs much more rapidly in
moist conditions as compared to a dry environment such as a desert. Many other factors
affect the rate of corrosion. For example the presence of salt greatly enhances the rusting of
metals. This is due to the fact that the dissolved salt increases the conductivity of the
aqueous solution formed at the surface of the metal and enhances the rate of
electrochemical corrosion. This is one reason why iron or steel tend to corrode much more
quickly when exposed to salt (such as that used to melt snow or ice on roads) or moist salty
air near the ocean.

Factors affecting rusting.

Everyone knows that iron and steel will go rusty, becoming coated in a reddish orange crust
that will, if left for too long, eat away at the metal to the point of weakening the metal
severely. Rusting is the corrosion of iron and steel, as that is exactly what the rust is doing,
corroding or destroying the metal through a chemical reaction.

Essentially, if water or moisture comes into contact with iron or an alloy of iron, such as
steel, which hasn’t been protected by any form of coating such as paint, a chemical reaction
takes place as the water causes the metal to react with oxygen in the air. This is because
electrons from the iron atoms transfer across to the oxygen atoms. This produces an acid;
iron oxide, which is just the chemical name for rust. As this reaction changes the chemical
structure of iron or steel, over time the metal will deteriorate to a point where no more iron
or steel is left, replaced instead by iron oxide or rust.

owever, there are other kinds of rust, as concrete can also rust if it has been reinforced with
metal reinforcing called rebar. Whilst the reinforcing bars might not be open to the air, the
iron of the rebar can come into contact with chlorine as chlorides attack concrete, and the
chemical reaction between the iron and chlorine will also produce rust, turning the concrete
green.

The main factor which causes rust, then, is moisture. As such, to prevent iron or steel from
rusting, the simplest way is to keep the material away from the elements or the ocean, but
inevitably iron and steel are used to construct objects which are used outside all of the time,
due to the strength of the materials. Pretty much anything you think of which is used
outside, from tools to ships, are made from iron or steel. This is particularly bad news for
ships, as the salt in salt water speeds up the reaction which produces rust, making ships very
susceptible to rust.
By covering iron or steel with a coating, the problem of rusting or corrosion is immediately
removed. If the moisture doesn’t touch the surface of the metal directly, the chemical
reaction which produces iron oxide can’t take place, therefore the metal can no longer rust.
This is why painting metal stops iron or its alloys from rusting. For the same reason,
galvanizing iron or steel will prevent it from rusting. Zinc, used to galvanize steel or iron,
doesn’t react with moisture and oxygen in the same way as iron, so acts to protect metal
from the rusting reaction. Other metals such as aluminium or titanium will also serve to
protect iron, but zinc is most commonly used due to the cheapness of the material. Other
forms of coating, such as oil or wax, will also help to prevent rusting for the same reason.

The size of the piece of metal can also affect rusting, as the larger the piece of iron, the more
likely it is to have small deficiencies from the smelting process which formed it into shape.
The waste product of iron smelting is slag, and many different trace elements will be present
in the iron, such as carbon. These small deficiencies can cause small flaws which make it
easier for the rust to attack the metal. As thinner metal has generally been heated for
longer in order to make it thin, thinner metal will have fewer deficiencies or flaws, so usually
won’t rust as fast.

Any other form of acid will also cause iron or steel to rust. Even blood can cause steel to
rust, as it contains iron, allowing oxidisation, the reaction which produces rust, to occur on
the surface of the metal if no sort of protective layer is applied to the metal. This used to be
an issue when swords were still used, as blood on the blade would almost instantaneously
start the oxidisation reaction, pitting the steel of the blade with small spots of rust as the
iron in the blood reacting on the surface ate into the blade.

So, rust can fairly easily be prevented if the factors which cause rusting are taken into
account. Something as simple as painting iron can prevent the rusting, saving the metal
from the corrosion it would otherwise be subject to.

Metals containing iron, such as most kinds of steel, will rust when exposed to air and water.
Rust is just iron oxide, usually with water molecules incorporated in it too. It usually takes
the form of an orange powder on the surface of the metal. Other metals oxidize or form
other compounds in a similar way, although we usually say they corrode. Rusting is a specific
kind of corrosion which applies to iron-containing metals.

Rusting has a number of effects on metal objects. It makes them look orange and rough. It
makes them weaker, by replacing the strong iron or steel with flaky powder. Some oxides on
some metals such as aluminum form just a thin layer on top which slows down further
corrosion, but rust can slowly eat away at even the biggest piece of iron. If a piece of iron's
strength is important for safety, such as a bridge support or a car's brake caliper, it is a good
idea to inspect it for rust damage every now and then.

Rust also can cause metal parts that are supposed to slide over one another to become
stuck. Just ask someone who has tried to get a rusty nut unstuck from a rusty bolt.

Rust can make holes in sheet metal. Rusty car mufflers sometimes develop holes in them,
and the sheet steel making the outer bodies of cars will often rust through, making holes.
Rust is a lot less magnetic than iron. An iron magnet will probably still work almost as well
when it has a thin coating of rust on it, but if it has rusted so badly that most of the metal is
gone, then it will not work very well as a magnet.