TARLAC STATE

UNIVERSITY
College of Science
Villa Lucinda Campus

Group 1
Antalan, Jasmine
Agustin, Trixie
Arambulo, Angeli Mae
Bernal, Samantha
Capil, Raejen
Concepcion, Queenie Anne
BSN1 – A
Colloids II ......................................................................1-2

Carbohydrates ........................................................... 3-4

Isolation of Casein and Analysis of Milk ................ 5-6

Lipids ............................................................................. 7-8

Soap Preparation and Its Properties .......................... 9

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 Colloids II

RATIONALE
As a child, you may have made suspensions such as mixtures of mud and
water, flour and water, or a suspension of solid pigments in water, known as
tempera paint. These suspensions are heterogeneous mixtures composed of
relatively large particles that are visible (or that can be seen with a magnifying
glass). They are cloudy, and the suspended particles settle out after mixing. On
the other hand, when we make a solution, we prepare a homogeneous mixture
in which no settling occurs and in which the dissolved species are molecules or
ions. Solutions exhibit completely different behavior from suspensions. A solution
may be colored, but it is transparent, the molecules or ions are invisible, and
they do not settle out on standing. A group of mixtures called colloids (or
colloidal dispersions) exhibit properties intermediate between those of
suspensions and solutions. The particles in a colloid are larger than most simple
molecules; however, colloidal particles are small enough that they do not settle
out upon standing.

Colloids and colloidal systems are essential to life. They are extremely
useful, even indispensable, in many commercial and industrial situations as well.
They function in everybody cell, in the blood, and in all body fluids, especially
the intercellular fluids, formerly known as “humours.” Therefore, increased
understanding of colloids and their attendant phenomena, as well as the
application of their operating principles, to enhance human health. Colloidal
science is relatively young, however, and the number of qualified experts is few
compared to other areas of science. In addition, most study in colloids has been
confined to industrial processes. Having found use in agriculture, the concrete
industry, horticulture, the floral industry, mining, electroplating and cosmetics,
to name a few, colloids may have specific application in almost every form of
human endeavor.

APPLICATION TO
NURSING
Solutions used to expand the intravascular space known as colloids, or
plasma expanders. The increase in volume is accomplished by these solutions
pulling fluid from the interstitial spaces. Plasma expanders include albumin,
dextran, mannitol, hetastarch and pentastarch, and gelatins.
Ideal colloid solutions would include the following advantages:
1. Distributed to intravascular compartment only
2. Readily available
3. Long shelf self
4. Inexpensive
5. No special storage or infusion requirements

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 6. No special limitations on volume that can be infused
7. No interference with blood grouping or cross-matching
8. Acceptable to all patients and no religious objections to its use.
For more than 70 years, colloids have been used to maintain intravascular
volume after blood loss from surgery or from other causes of shock. There are
four genera types of colloid products available for clinical use: albumin is the
predominant plasma protein and remains the standard against which other
colloids are compared; dextran and hetastarch, both of which have been widely
used as a plasma volume expander; and gelatin, which is new in the U.S. market.

Albumin
Its major uses are for plasma volume expansion in treating shock or
impending shock related to a circulatory volume deficit. Albumin is used widely
in the management of medical and surgical conditions. The 5% solutions are
generally used to treat hypovolemia, and the 25% solution is usually reserved for
treatment when there are fluid and sodium restrictions.
Dextran
High- molecular weight dextran is used to treat shock or impending shock
related to trauma, surgery, burns or hemorrhage. Dextran solutions should not
be used as substitute for blood and blood products. However, they may be used
on short notice if there is no time for cross-matching or if blood or blood products
or unavailable.
Low molecular weight dextran is used to early fluid replacement and to
treat shock related and vascular volume loss such as that produced by burns,
hemorrhage, surgery and trauma. Because of its action in preventing sludging of
blood, Low molecular weight dextran is used to help prevent venous thrombosis
and pulmonary embolism during surgical procedures.
Mannitol
It is used to promote diuresis in patients with oliguric acute renal failure,
to promote excretion or toxic substances in the body to reduce excess
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), to reduce intraocular pressure, and to treat
intracranial pressure and cerebral edema.
Hydroxyethyl Starches
The hydroxyethyl starches are used for early fluid replacement and to
treat shock related a decrease circulating volume resulting from trauma, burns,
hemorrhage, and surgery. Hydroxyethyl starches are also used with leukopheresis
to help increase the yield of granulocytes by centrifugal means.

Gelatin
They are rapidly excreted by the kidney following infusion. Gelatins (GEL)
have the advantage of their unlimited daily dose recommendation and minimal
effect on hemostasis.
Gelatins are used for replacement of intravascular volume resulting from
acute blood loss. They are also used in priming heart- lung machines.

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 Carbohydrates

RATIONALE
Just like your car needs fuel to make it run, your body needs fuel to make
it go. Of course, your body doesn't run on gasoline - it runs on carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates, found in foods like grains, fruits, beans, milk products and
vegetables, are by far your body's favorite source of energy, yet providing your
body with pep is not the only role carbs play.Aside from being an energy source
for the body, the National Library of Medicine explains that carbohydrates play
a role in glucose and insulin metabolism, as well as cholesterol and triglyceride
metabolism and fermentation. When carbohydrates are digested, they are
broken down into glucose to be either used as energy or stored in the liver and
muscles for future use.

In this lab experiment, we will be concerned with the nature and activities
of the carbohydrates and with their structure. Note: structure dictates how the
carbohydrate will react under certain conditions.

Since carbohydrates are readily identified by color change in specific

reactions, we will explore some of these methods of identification as we carry
out specific tests for particular carbohydrates. Solutions of the following mono-
, di-, and polysaccharides are available: (a) glucose, (b) fructose, (c) galactose,
(d) lactose, (e) maltose and (f) sucrose. These solutions are available at both 1%
and 6% concentrations (percent solutions are by weight/volume, thus 1% is 1
gram in 100 ml of solvent). The determination of the types and concentrations
of carbohydrates in foods is integral for energy evaluation, nutritional labeling,
quality control, and for identifying possible adulteration. It is important to
determine the type and concentration of carbohydrates in foods for a number of
reasons.
 Standards of Identity - foods must have compositions which conform to
government regulations
 Nutritional Labeling - to inform consumers of the nutritional content of
foods
 Detection of Adulteration - each food type has a carbohydrate "fingerprint"
 Food Quality - physicochemical properties of foods such as sweetness,
appearance, stability and texture depend on the type and concentration
of carbohydrates present.
 Food Processing - the efficiency of many food processing operations
depends on the type and concentration of carbohydrates that are present.

Most of the tests of the carbohydrates are based on their reducing

properties (due to the presence of reducing aldehyde or ketone groups).
Fehling’s test, benedict’s test is the example of this. The unspecific Molisch’s

3
test for carbohydrates is one of the examples of some tests which are based on
the formation of furfural or furfural derivatives in presence of concentrated
acids. Specific complex formation is sometimes used as specific test for
carbohydrates. For testing polysaccharides, iodine is found to be very useful.

APPLICATION TO
NURSING
Nursing staff have an important role and clear responsibilities when
treating patients with diabetes or who are having tests to diagnose diabetes. This
role and associated responsibilities will be specified in local workplace guidance
and policies and by each member of the nursing team's level of competence. If
you are not familiar with the guidance in relation to diabetes care in your work
setting, it is important to find out where it is so you can be sure you're providing
safe patient care, particularly if you are required to perform tests and
observations for your patients. To meet your patient’s individual nutritional
needs you should be able to: Identify foods and drinks with high sugar content,
follow the nutritional plan and report any related problems, measure and record
the waist circumference, height and weight of your patient accurately, report if
meals are not eaten, especially carbohydrates, if the patient is using insulin or
blood glucose lowering therapies.

Most nurses involved in diabetes care know it is important for those with
diabetes to control what they eat, and those with type 1 diabetes in particular
need to control their carbohydrate intake. In order to have well-controlled blood
sugars in diabetes, three things need balancing. These are insulin, food
(particularly carbohydrates) and physical activity. These are the fundamentals
of managing both main types of diabetes, and when they are not appropriately
balanced, there will be wide variations in blood sugar levels.

Proper nutrition plays a big role in disease prevention, recovery from

illness and ongoing good health. A healthy diet will help you look and feel good
as well. Since nurses are the main point of contact with patients, they must
understand the importance of nutrition basics and be able to explain the facts
about healthy food choices to their patients. Nutrition classes provide the
information necessary to sort the fact from fiction about healthy eating and pass
that knowledge on to their patients. Not only must nurses be able to explain the
ins and outs of a healthy diet, they must also lead by example.

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Isolation of Casein and Analysis of Milk

RATIONALE
Proteins are macromolecules which have been historically classified as
either fibrous or globular. Fibrous protein is composed of long chain of amino
acids while globular protein is compact and spheroid in shape. Fibrous proteins
are insoluble in water and are not affected by changes in pH or in temperature.
Meanwhile, globular proteins are soluble in water and affected by variations in
pH and temperature. The aim of this experiment is to isolate Casein, which is a
globular protein found in milk, by adding acetic acid and to identify its amino
acid components.

Casein is a name for a family of phosphoproteins which has phosphate

groups attached to the hydroxyl groups of the amino acids side-chains. It exists
in milk as calcium salt or calcium caseinate, commonly found in mammalian milk.
It has an isoelectric point of pH 4.6 hence; casein is insoluble in solutions with
less than 4.6 pH. Milk has, naturally, a pH of 6.6; thus, in this pH, casein has a
negative charge and is solubilized as salt. Casein was neutralized when
hydrochloric acid was added. It is due to the protonation of the phosphate group.
This causes decrease in pH to that of the isoelectric point; therefore, casein
became polar and was precipitated.

There are six tests for the detection of functional groups in amino acids
and proteins. The six tests are: (1) Ninhydrin Test (2) Biuret Test (3)
Xanthoproteic Test (4) Millon’s Test (5) Hopkins-Cole Test and (6) Nitroprusside
Test. These tests are divided into three main classes: carbohydrates, the body’s
most readily available energy source; lipids, the body’s principal energy reserve;
and proteins, the body’s source of energy for growth and cellular maintenance.

The protein test is used to measures the total amount of protein present
in the given blood samples. Usually, Doctors prescribe this test if a patient is
suffering from any of the food deficiency diseases or other disorders like fatigue,
weight loss, kidney or liver disease, etc.

The presence of protein is tested by the Biuret test for proteins. The Biuret
reagent made of sodium hydroxide and copper (II) sulphate helps in determining
the presence of protein in a sample. It is important to identify the proteins to
understand their functions. It helps in characterizing the binding of proteins to
other proteins, to nucleic acids, or too small molecules. It also plays a major role
in drug discovery.

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 APPLICATION TO
NURSING
Protein comes from the Greek word protos, which means “first” or
“primary,” reflecting the body’s fundamental need for this nutrient. Amino
acids, the basic constituents of protein, are required for many wide-ranging body
functions.

The isolation of casein and analysis of milk covers carbohydrates, proteins

and lipids, the indicated tests in this experiment may be a guide to nursing
practice. With the use of the six tests we can identify the nutritional factors of
milk and give the proper intake given to the patients.

Since casein is a slow-digesting dairy protein that people often take as a

supplement. It releases amino acids slowly, so people often take it before bed
to help with recovery and reduce muscle breakdown while they sleep. Several
studies have shown it helps boost muscle growth, along with a ton of other
benefits.
Some preliminary studies have found that casein can have other impressive
benefits, including:
 Antibacterial and immune benefits: Some cell studies suggest it may
provide antibacterial and immune benefits and reduce high blood
pressure.
 Triglyceride levels: One study in 10 overweight individuals found that it
reduced triglyceride levels after a meal by 22%.
 Reduction in free radicals: Some of the peptides in casein protein powder
may have antioxidant effects and fight the buildup of harmful free
radicals.
 Fat loss: One 12-week training study found the average fat loss among
people taking the supplement was three times greater than in a placebo
group.

To promote adequate protein intake, nurses should give patients flexibility

in their diet and encourage them to consume foods they enjoy that are easy to
prepare and economically feasible. A diet that’s too restrictive may seem
unappealing and could lead to decreased intake and unintended weight loss.
Keep in mind that adequate calories are also important for wound healing;
otherwise, the body uses protein calories to provide glucose for energy
production instead of tissue repair.

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 Lipids

RATIONALE
Lipids are nonpolar compounds composed of a glycerol molecule bonded
to three fatty acid molecules. Because lipids are nonpolar, they do not dissolve
in water or other polar liquids. Lipids are soluble in non-polar solvents such as
ether.

Lipid, any of a diverse group of organic compounds including fats, oils,

hormones, and certain components of membranes that are grouped together
because they do not interact appreciably with water. One type of lipid, the
triglycerides, is sequestered as fat in adipose cells, which serve as the energy-
storage for organisms and also provide thermal insulation. Some lipids such as
steroid hormones serve as chemical messengers between cells, tissues, and
organs, and others communicate signals between biochemical systems within a
single cell. The membranes of cells and organelles (structures within cells) are
microscopically thin structures formed from two layers of phospholipids
molecules. Membranes function to separate individual cells from their
environments and to compartmentalize the cell interior into structures that carry
out special functions. So important is this compartmentalizing function that
membranes, and the lipids that form them, must have been essential to the
origin of life itself.

There are 5 tests done to test different reactions in lipids: First is,
Solubility tests that is the preliminary test which detects the presence of all
lipids. This test detects the solubility of lipid in various solvents to check whether
it is miscible or immiscible in polar or non-polar solvents. The second one is,
Acrolein Test, is used to detect the presence of glycerol and fat. Third is,
Rancidity Test that determines the level of oxidation in a sample. Fourth is,
Liebermann – Buchard test that can test the presence of cholesterol. And last
test is the Emulsification of Fats that is used to detect the presence of lipids.

APPLICATION TO
NURSING
Fats and lipids are common components of food and may perform essential
roles. Their types may be more important with regard to health and disease than
their amount. Foods can be regarded as functional if they help in reducing the
risk of disease and promote good health (Roberfroid, 2000). They may provide
means to reduce the increasing burden on the health care system. Although there
is no authoritative definition of functional lipids, one can informally define them
as a subset of functional foods, which are considered to be similar in appearance
to conventional foods consumed as part of a usual diet, but they have been
demonstrated to have physiological benefits and/or reduce the risk of chronic
disease beyond basic nutritional functions (Moreau, 2011).

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 Fats and lipids are important because they serve as energy source, as
well as storage for energy in the form of fat cells. They also have a major cellular
function as structural components in cell membranes. These membranes in
association with carbohydrates and proteins regulate the flow of water, ions,
and other molecules into and out of the cells. Hormone steroids and
prostaglandins are chemical messengers between body tissues. Vitamins A, D, E,
and K are lipid soluble and regulate critical biological processes; other lipids add
in vitamin absorption and transportation. Lipids act as a shock absorber to
protect vital organs and insulate the body from temperature extremes.
It is important to be able to accurately determine the total fat content of foods
for some reasons:
 Economic - not to give away expensive ingredients
 Legal - to conform to standards of identity and nutritional labeling laws
 Health - development of low-fat foods
 Quality - food properties depend on the total lipid content
 Processing - processing conditions depend on the total lipid content

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Soap Preparation And Its Properties

RATIONALE
Soap is a multipurpose cleaning tool of skin, clothes and the area that we
live in. Soap used in daily life, determing its properties and how it made will
make people understand more about soap that they should use in cleaning a
wound, in skin irritation and for bathing soap. This experiment is conducted to
know properties of soap that can cause a harmful effect in human or in the
environment like the soap has a different pH level and Normal healthy skin has
potential of hydrogen (pH) range of 5.4-5.9 and a normal bacterial flora. Use of
soap with high pH causes an increase in skin pH, which in turn causes an increase
in dehydrative effect, irritability and alteration in bacterial flora. The majority
of soaps and shampoos available in the market do not disclose their pH. And
bathing with soap in hard water leaves a film of sticky soap curd on the skin. The
film may prevent removal of soil and bacteria. Soap curd interferes with the
return of skin to its normal, slightly acid condition, and may lead to irritation.
Soap curd on hair may make it dull, lifeless and difficult to manage.

APPLICATION TO
NURSING
Understanding soaps and detergents may assist clinicians in making
intelligent choices when using these agents on their patients as either skin
cleansers or wound cleansers. Understanding the characteristics of soaps and
detergents is especially important when dealing with at-risk patients such as the
elderly.
 Soap cleans and also may hydrate your skin if it includes moisturizers,
which helps keep your skin healthy. Some soaps also include essential oils,
such as lavender, which can be beneficial to promote healthy skin.
Lavender essential oil is an antibacterial that can also combat ringworm
and foot fungus, for example.
 Using soap can help you avoid a bacterial infection without the use of an
antibacterial. Your skin is under a constant barrage and threat of bacteria
from breaks in the skin and this is one of the main reasons to use soap
after you get a cut, scrape or abrasion to the skin. Soap works like an
antibacterial to lift and help flush the skin of the bad bacteria.