Holcim Technical Manual English PDF

Strength. Performance. Passion.
Technical Manual
Cement & Concrete
Holcim (Vietnam) Ltd.

1st edition 2013
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Imprint
Copyright
C2013, Holcim (Vietnam) Ltd
All rights, including the partial re-print of parts or

entire section of the book in Vietnamese version
and/ or English version (including photo copy, micro
copy, CD-Rom, or any other way of copying and
presenting it in public), the storage in date centers
and the translation, are reserved to the authors.
Special permission must be requested in writing to
Holcim (Vietnam)
Authors
Technical consultant team
Holcim (Vietnam) Ltd
A special thank to Silvia Vieiria Mcs, PhD – Holcim

Group Support Ltd
Publication
1st edition 2013 in Vietnamese
1st edition 2013 in English
Disclaimer
Alone the complete standards referred hereto serve

as reference. They can be sourced at the respective
organizations. Holcim (Vietnam) is not liable for
misapplication and/or interpretation of the content
of this manual.
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About Holcim (Vietnam) Ltd.

Founded in 1912 in the tiny Swiss village of Holderbank, Holcim is
one of the world leading cement and construction materials
companies. Holcim operates in more than 70 countries across all
continents and employs around 90,000 people world-wide. Today
Holcim has become synonymous of leadership in the supply of
cement and aggregates (crushed stone, sand and gravel), as well as
readymix concrete and construction-related services.
Holcim (Vietnam), founded in 1993, has the unique network of 4
cement plants in south Vietnam at Hon Chong, Hiep Phuoc, Cat Lai,
Thi Vai, to guarantee the best supply security for each project. To
meet the requirements of every application, Holcim Vietnam has
researched and developed a wide range of cements that offer the
optimal solution for every project.
Established in 2005, Holcim Beton has developed into a leading
readymix supplier in southern Vietnam, offering its customers high
quality, innovative products and services. Over the last years,
Holcim Vietnam has worked with leading national and
international contractors and developers as the preferred partner in
projects in southern Vietnam.

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Preface
To develop Vietnam in the 21st century and to meet the requirements of modern society, many high rise
buildings and infrastructure projects, like ports, roads, bridges… are being designed and constructed by
national and international developers, designers and contractors.
These structures are expected to be in service for long time, sometimes for 100 years, with low maintenance
costs. The durability of concrete as building material is a key element for long lasting projects. This Technical
Manual offers an overview of good practices in concrete as well as an overview of relevant Vietnamese and
international standards.
A better understanding of cement/concrete standards can make it easier for designers, consultants and
contractors to choose the type of cement and concrete, suitable for their specific project. With good concrete
practice at the jobsite, the high quality building material “concrete” will be molded and transformed into
long lasting concrete structures, to build Vietnam for future generations.
As the different standards are complex to summarize and the construction industry changes quickly in
Vietnam, it is possible that there are inaccuracies in this Technical Manual. We are looking forward to any
feedback or input for improvement on technical.service-vnm@holcim.com.
Yours sincerely,
Pieter Keppens
Technical Marketing Manager
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Index
Chapter I
Cement & Concrete 11
A. Components of concrete 11
1. Cement 11
2. Mixing water 12
3. Fine aggregate 13
4. Coarse aggregate 14
5. Admixtures 16
6. Additions 17
B. From fresh concrete to hardened concrete 20

1. Composition of concrete 20
2. Workability 23
3. Concrete strength 27
4. Special characteristics 33
5. Production and transport 37
6. Placing and compaction 38
7. Concreting in hot weather 41
8. Pumped concrete 43
9. Curing 45
10. Influence of formwork 47
Chapter II
Applications with specific requirements 49
A. Infrastructure 49
1. Introduction 49
2. Cement for infrastructure 49
B. Aggressive environments 50
1. Introduction 50
2. Sulfate resistant Portland cement 50
3. Sulfate resistant blended cements 51
C. Massive structure 52
1. Introduction 52
2. Cement for massive structures 52
3. Concrete for massive structures 53
D. High strength concrete 54

1. Introduction 54
2. Production and use of high strength concrete 55
E. Very flowable and self-compacting concrete 56

1. Introduction 56
2. Production of very flowable / self-compacting concrete 57
F. Cement treated aggregates 58

1. Introduction 58
2. Cement for treated aggregates 58
3. Testing procedure for cement treated aggregates 59
4. Optimization of cement treated aggregates 61
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Chapter III
Causes and prevention of concrete defects 62
A. Segregation of concrete 63
B. Cracking 64
1. Plastic settlement cracks 65
2. Plastic shrinkage cracks 66
3. Surface crazing 67
4. Drying shrinkage cracks 67
5. Early thermal cracking 68
C. Carbonation and corrosion of reinforcement 69
D. Degradation in seawater environment 70

1. Chloride-induced corrosion of the steel reinforcement 70
2. Attack by sulfates from seawater 71
3. Preventive measures 71
E. Chemical attack 72
1. Classification 72
F. Alkali – Aggregate Reaction 74
G. Fire Resistance 75
1. Concrete in fire 75
Chapter IV
Overview of cement & concrete standards 76
A. Cement 77
Vietnamese standards – TCVN 77
American standards – ASTM 83
European standards – EN 86
B. Concrete 89
Vietnamese standards – TCVN 89
American standards – ASTM 91
European standards – EN 93
British standards – BS 95
C. Recommendation for limiting values of concrete composition 97

Chloride - induced corrosion in sea water 97
Aggressive chemical environments 97
Reference 98
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Chapter I: Cement & Concrete 11
A. Components of concrete
Testing cement quality and conformity

1. Cement
The quality and conformity of Vietnam cements are
General assured through three types of control:
Cement is a hydraulic binder – a material that
• Control of the product in the plant
hardens after being mixed with water, either in the
• An certified quality-management system
air or under water. The hardened cement paste is
water-resistant and possesses high strength. For • External monitoring
all concrete without specific requirements, the type
of cement generally used in Vietnam is a blended Control of the product in the plant
Portland cement, type PCB 40, according to the At each step of the cement production, from the
Vietnamese standard TCVN 6260. For plaster/mortar quarry to cement delivery, material specimens
in rural areas, PCB30, a lower strength class, is are collected for analysis. Gap-free monitoring of
sometimes used as well. production ensures uniform, high-quality cement.
The testing methods for cement are described in
Several types of blending materials are used, like standard TCVN 6017:1995 and ISO 9597:2008.
limestone, puzzolan or slag, depending on the locally
available materials. Quality management system
Most cement plants have established a quality
International standards, comparable to TCVN 6260,
management system and all are certified according
are:
to the ISO 9001:2008 series of standards. Some
• American Standard ASTM C1157: type GU
cement plants also have a testing center in series of
(General Use)
VILAS according to ISO 17025. This ensures that all
• European Standard EN 197-1: CEM II/A or CEM operational processes are standardized, traceable,
II/B 42.5 and transparent.
Other types of cement, which are used worldwide, like
• Ordinary Portland Cement OPC (TCVN 2682, External monitoring
ASTM C150, EN 197-1 CEM I) In-house testing is supplemented by external
• Blast Furnace Slag cement (TCVN 4316, ASTM monitoring. External monitoring is carried out by a
C1157, EN 197-1 CEM III) testing institute accredited for testing cement. In the
south part of Vietnam, the most referenced external
are not available in Vietnam as general use cement.
monitoring is Quality Assurance and Testing Center 3
The test methods of the TCVN standard are very (QUATEST 3). From November 2012, every cement in
close to the EN standard, with the correction of Vietnam has to carry the CR quality label.
testing temperature (27oC instead of 20oC), to take
the local climate conditions into account. Cement storage and shelf life
If cement is stored unprotected for a long time, it
The ASTM standards use a completely different absorbs moisture, which leads to lumps and may
set of testing methods and the requirements reduce the strength development. If lumps can be
cannot be compared to the TCVN/EN standards. In crushed between the fingers, the loss of strength
Vietnam, several 3rd party laboratories are equipped will be negligible.
to test cement according to TCVN & ASTM, but not
according to the EN standard. Cement can be stored for a limited time in silo or
bags. Bag cement is best stored in dry shelter. Bags
Holcim recommendation stacked temporarily outdoors must be placed on
For general use concrete, standard cement offers timber sleepers for ventilation. The plastic cover
the best supply security for any project: must not be allowed to contact the cement bags,
because condensation would wet the bags.
• TCVN 6260:2009 – PCB 40
• ASTM C1157:2008 – GU
12 Chapter I: Cement & Concrete A. Components of concrete
Requirements for mixing water

2. Mixing water
According to TCXDVN 302:2004, mixing water must
Water for mixing concrete and mortar must comply meet these following requirements:
with TCXDVN 302:2004 or ASTM C1602. Water that • Does not contain oil scum and oily film
meets these requirements, can be used for washing • Organic content < 15mg/l
aggregate and curing concrete sample. According to • 4 < pH < 12.5
these standards, drinking water can be used as • Color free
mixing water without testing. Water from rivers and • Depending on the type of concrete, sulfate and
canals is in most cases not appropriate to make chloride content must follow the requirements
concrete. The use of seawater in reinforced concrete in Table I.1 (TCXDVN 302 : 2004).
is strictly forbidden.
General
Mixing water is the total amount of water contained
in fresh concrete. It is the sum of:
• The water added directly to the mix
• The surface moisture of the aggregates
• The water content of the concrete admixtures
and additions, if applicable
(silica fume, pigment in suspension, etc.)
Mixing water has two functions in concrete
technology. It is required for hydration of the
cement, and for the production of a plastic concrete
that can be well compacted.
Maximum Level
(mg/l)
Purpose of mixing water

Soluble Sulfate Ion Chloride Ion
Insoluble rest
Salt (SO4-2) (Cl-)
1. Pre-stressed concrete. 2000 600 350 200
2. Reinforced concrete. 5000 2000 1000 200
3. Non-reinforced concrete. 10000 2700 3500 300
Table I.1 - Limit sulfate and chloride content in mixing water for different purpose
Chapter I: Cement & Concrete A. Components of concrete 13
3. Fine Aggregate 100

9.50 4.75 2.36 1.18 0.60 0.30 0.15
Grading 90
Fine aggregate shall consist of natural sand, crushed 80 Mekong sand
sand, or a combination thereof. For concrete 70

Manufactured sand
production, fine aggregates must comply with TCVN 60
Passing (%)
7570 : 2006 or ASTM C33 (Standard Specification for 50
Concrete Aggregates). In the south of Vietnam, 3 40
sources of fine aggregates are used in concrete (FM 30
= fineness modulus): 20
• Sand from Dong Nai river : FM = 2.40 (good – not 10

0
available in significant quantity) 10.0 1.0 0.1
Sieve openings (mm)
• Sand from Mekong river : FM = 1.1 -1.6 (too fine)
Coarse limit (ASTM C33) Combination Fine limit (ASTM C33)
• Manufactured (crushed) sand : FM = 4.0 (too
coarse)
Fig I.1 - Good sieve curve of fine aggregate for concrete
Usually when the sand is very fine, the mix is
un-economical because the increase of water
demand will lead to the increase of cement. When it
Akali-Silica Reaction
is very coarse, the mix is harsh and unworkable
For concrete that is subjected to wetting, extended
because there are so much voids between the grains
exposure to humid atmosphere, or contact with
and the cement paste can not fill the voids.
moist ground (for example, foundations, bridges,
According to ASTM C33, a reference for good sieve
tunnels,…), the aggregates (both fine and coarse)
curve of fine aggregates for concrete is like Fig I.1.
shall not contain any materials that are deleteriously
reactive with the alkalies in the concrete to cause
In the south of Vietnam, sand compliant to ASTM
Alkali Aggregate Reaction. This expansive reaction
C33 cannot be found. The current practice is to
can create cracks in the concrete, which reduces
combine Mekong sand with manufactured sand, to
both the concrete strength and the durability.
reach the best performance.
Potential Alkali-Silica Reactivity of Aggregates
should be tested according to standard TCVN 7572-
Organic Impurities
14:2006 (Determination of alkali silica reactivity ) or
Fine aggregate must be free of deleterious amounts
ASTM C289 (chemical method), ASTM C1260 or
of organic impurities. Fine aggregates that contains
ASTM C227 (mortar – bar method).
many organic impurities, will lead to delay in
concrete setting, loss of strength and durability of
concrete. Fig I.2
Organic
Fine aggregate should be tested before use on impurities test
organic impurites according to standard TCVN using organic
plate.
7572-9 : 2006 or ASTM C40 (Standard Test Method
for Organic Impurities in Fine Aggregates for
Concrete). When a sample has a color darker than
the standard color, or Organic Plate No. 3, the fine
aggregate under test contains possible injurious
organic impurities. It is advisable to perform further
tests before approving the fine aggregate for use in
concrete.
Other Impurities
Impurities like silt, dust, clay content also have a
disavantage effect on concrete. It should be tested
before use for concrete according to standard TCVN
7572-8 : 2006 (Standard test method for silt, dust,
clay content) or ASTM C117 (Standard Test Method
for Materials Finer than 75-μm).
Characteristics
4. Coarse aggregate
The most important characteristics of coarse
General aggregates are:
Coarse aggregates form the skeletal structure of the • Specific gravity
concrete and must comply with TCVN 7570 :2006 or
• Bulk density (unit weight) and moisture content
ASTM C33 (Standard Specification for Concrete
• Mineral composition, grain shape, and surface
Aggregates).
texture
• Purity
• Grading (grain size distribution) and aggregate
fractions (range of sizes)
• Soundness
Table I.2
Classification of Aggregate type Specific Gravity (kg/m3) Aggregate Material Application
aggregates by
specific gravity
River or glacial deposits; Reinforced and
Standard aggregate 2700
crushed stone non-reinforced concrete
Barite (heavy spar), iron ore, Concrete for radiation

Heavy aggregate >3000
granulated steel protection
Insulating concrete, concrete

Lightweight aggregate < 2000 Expanded clay, polystyrene
topping, sloped concrete
Quartz, corundum, silicon Hard concrete slabs,

Hard aggregate > 2500
carbide abrasion-resistant concrete
Bulk density (unit weight) and moisture content Specific gravity

Bulk density is the weight of loosely poured material The aggregate specific gravity is the ratio of the
per unit of volume. It is greatly influenced by weight of a given volume of aggregate to the weight
moisture content of the aggregate (Fig I.3). Thus the of an equal volume of water. Aggregate specific
two characteristics, bulk density and moisture gravity is needed to determine weight-to-volume
content, are closely related. Test method of bulk relationships and to calculate various volume-
density according to TCVN 7572-6 : 2006 or ASTM related quantities such as voids in mineral
C29 (Standard Test Method for Bulk Density and aggregate. The test standard for coarse aggregate
Voids in Aggregate). specific gravity and water absorption is the TCVN
7572-4 : 2006 or ASTM C127 (Determination of
The moisture state of aggregates can change apparent specific gravity, bulk specific gravity and
between ovendry and wet aggregates, depending on water absorption).
the situation.
Fig I.3
The moisture Saturated surface dry
State Ovendry Air dry Damp or wet
state of (SSD)
aggregate
Less than potential Equal to potential Greater than

Total moisture None
absorption absorption absorption

Purity Mineral quality, grain shape, and surface texture

Adhesive impurity on coarse aggregate surface, such Porous or overly soft aggregate (for example
as dust from degraded rock, reduces concrete degraded rock) impairs the quality of concrete. Grain
quality, for example, by disturbing setting properties shape largely determines the compactability and
and reducing the contact area between aggregate water requirement of concrete, as does grading and
and cement paste. It is suggested to wash coarse surface texture (Fig I.6).
aggregate before use in concrete (Fig I.4.).
A cubical grain shape is good for concrete mix, it
decreases the water requirement and increases
workability of concrete. In contrast, non-cubical,
grain shape (elongated and flaky- aggregate
particles having a ratio of length to thickness
greater than a specified value) will increase water
demand and decreases the workability of concrete.
Non-cubical grain shape content is measured
according to TCVN 7572-13 (Determination of
elongation and flakiness index of coarse aggregate).
Fig I.4 - Screening and washing aggregate in a gravel plant

Fig I.6
Grading
Grain shapes of
The grading and maximum size of coarse aggregate Desirable
aggregate
is an important parameter in concrete mix. The
grading of aggregate is measured according to
TCVN 7572-2 or ASTM C136 (Standard Test Method
for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates)
Grading, or the distribution of grain sizes – along

with surface texture, specific surface, and grain
shape of coarse aggregate – greatly determines the
water requirement, and thus is one of the most
important characteristics.
The maximum size of aggregate (Dmax) is the

smallest sieve size, through which at least 90% the
aggregate would pass. The maximum size of
aggregates is limited by the application. It depends
Rounded Irregular Angular
on: the distance between reinforcement, size of
elements, and pumpability of concrete. The choice
for maximum size of aggregate follows the Fig I.5.
Less Desirable
The use of smaller aggregates increases the water
demand, increases the cement content to meet the
same strength.
I- d Dmax < 3d/4

c c d Dmax < 3c/4
II- Dmax < e/5

Dmax < f/5
e
a Dmax < a/3

III-
For pumped concrete Dmax < 1/3 diameter of hose

or 37.5mm Flaky
IV- Flaky Elongated
Elongated

Fig I.5 - The choice for maximum size of aggregate
b/ Mid-range water reducing admixture.

5. Admixtures
This type of admixture, based on napthalene
Definition and classification
sulfonate, can be used at dosage 0.7 – 1.2% to
Concrete admixtures are chemical substances that
decreases the water requirements by about 15
are added to concrete to change, through chemical
– 25%.
and/or physical action, some of its properties, such
as workability, setting, hardening. Mid-range water reducers allow larger water
reduction to increase strength or slump/slump
In Vietnam, the performance requirements for retention at jobsite. They can achieve a specific
different types of admixtures comply with standards consistency and workability at a greatly reduced
TCVN 8826 : 2011 or ASTM C494 (Standard amount of water. As with most types of admixtures,
Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete). napthalenes can significantly delay the initial setting
time of concrete, depending on the admixture
Dosage formulation.
Admixtures are added to concrete mainly in liquid
form and in very small amounts. The dosage is c/ High-range water reducing admixture
generally about 0.4 to 2% in relation to the weight
This type of admixture is based on polycarboxylate
of cement. In certain cases the amount will be
base. Common dosages are between 0.8 – 1.8%,
recommended by the manufacturer. If the dosage
depending on the supplier recommendation. This
exceeds about 1%, the water introduced with the
type of admixture can reduce the quantity of mixing
admixture, must be considered as part of concrete
water required (20 - 35%) to produce concrete with
mixing water. Too low dosage can reduce
high consistency, better workability and high
significantly the desired effect, and too high dosage
strength. The optimal dosage needs to be
can produce unwanted effects such as retarded
determined based on the particular concrete mix
setting or loss of compressive strength.
and specific requirements.
The most important and common types of

admixtures Other type of admixtures
According to ASTM C494, there are seven types of Many other types of admixture for concrete are
admixture (from type A through type G). In Vietnam, available:
three types are commonly used: • Accelerators
• Air entrainer admixture
a/ Water reducing and retarding admixture. • Corrosion inhibitor
This type of admixture, based on lignosulphonate,
can be used at dosage 0.4 - 0.6% to reduce the These specific admixtures are rarely used in
quantity of water required (6% - 12%). Vietnam. More information can be found from
Water reducing admixtures require less water to different admixture suppliers.
make a concrete of equal slump which improves the
concrete strength, or increase the slump of concrete
at the same water content.
Retarding admixture is useful for concrete that has

to be transported over long distances, requires a
long slump retention and to retard the setting time
of concrete when placed at high temperatures.
Fig I.7 - Admixture used in concrete.

Fig I.8
6. Additions Polypropylene
Fibers fibers
Polypropylene fibers are organic fibers, used in
concrete to prevent plastic shrinkage cracks. About
0.7kg - 1kg of fibers is required per m3 of concrete
(Fig I.8).
Steel fibers, uniformly distributed in concrete,

improve certain mechanical characteristics,
particularly ductility (toughness) and tensile
strength. The efficiency of steel fibers greatly
depends on their length, diameter, and shape. The
main use of steel fibres is in industrial floors, to Fig I.9
replace the steel mesh in the concrete (Fig I.9). Steel Fiber
Glass fibers are used to reinforce thin prefabricated

sections. Using glass fibers is tricky; it requires the
experience of a recognized expert (Fig I.10).
Silica fume
Silica fume (Fig I.11), also known as silica dust or
microsilica, possesses a high pozzolanic activity due
to extreme fineness and very high amorphous silica
content. Silica fume dosages of 5 to 10% by weight
of cement can produce permanent improvement of
concrete characteristics:
Fig I.10
• Reduction of concrete porosity, thus Glass fiber, cut
improvement of durability; increased resistance and bundled
to salts, sulfates, and other aggressive chemicals.
• Carbonation progresses slower, thus
reinforcement is better protected against
corrosion.
• Contributes to concrete strength; allows the
production of high-strength concrete
(80-100MPa)
Fig I.11
Caution Silica fume
Adding silica fume to a concrete mix reduces
the workability and changes the rheologic
characteristics (flow characteristics)! Adequate
workability can be achieved by adding special
superplasticizers.
As silica fume is very fine, the homogeneous

distribution into the concrete is an important
issue that requires specific attention. If the silica
fume is not well distributed into the concrete,
its efficiency in increasing strength and
durability will be reduced.
Other mineral additions (puzzolan, fly ash) Inorganic pigments

In many countries, high quality fly ash, a by product Inorganic pigments are used to dye concretes and
from thermo power plants, is commonly used in mortars (Fig I.14). Oxide pigments are virtually the
concrete, as this is an active puzzolan that only ones that can meet the demanding criteria of
contributes to the strength of the concrete. stability and grading. Pigments have no chemical
effect on concrete. Because of their high fineness,
In Vietnam, the use of both puzzolan (Fig I.12) and they increase the concrete water demand. This can
fly ash (Fig I.13) is mainly limited to Roller be counteracted by adding a highrange water
Compacted Concrete (RCC) in hydraulic dams. The reducer. Pigment dosage, usually a few percent
available fly ash is not suitable for flowable measured by weight of cement, depends on the
concrete, due to its: desired color intensity. Amounts are recommended
• High loss of ignition (= unburned coal) by the suppliers.
• High water demand

• Issues with admixture compatibility
• Unstable quality, with limited quality control.
Fig I.12
Puzzolan
Fig I.14 - Concrete products made using white portland

cement colored with pigments
Producing flawless colored concrete surfaces

requires great experience. Uniformly colored, bright
concrete surfaces can be achieved only with a
completely homogeneous concrete mix using white
cement and light colored sand. The color of the
gravel is not so important.
Fig I.13
Fly Ash Any residue of colored concrete must be completely
removed from mixers, transport vehicles, and
conveyor equipment, so that subsequent batches of
concrete are not contaminated. Even the best
pigments cannot prevent the color of concrete from
fading somewhat over time.
Cement & Concrete Concrete component 19
20
B. From fresh concrete to
hardened concrete
Importance of the water/ cement (w/c) ratio
1. Composition of Concrete
A central characteristics of concrete, and one that
Concrete is a composite material that consists largely determines its performance, is the water/
essentially of fine and coarse aggregates, glued cement ratio, or w/c ratio (Fig I.16).
together by the cement paste. Aggregates occupy
60-75% of the concrete (measured by weight or by
volume, as Fig I.15 and they are important
constituents from a technical and economical point
of view. Aggregates play a central role in concrete
strength and durability.
Fig I.15 - Composition of Concrete
But the picture looks a bit different when we

consider the so-called internal surface area, that is,
the combined surfaces of all the particles in
concrete. Measured in this way, the dominant
component in concrete is clearly cement and the
cement paste is fundamental in defining many
concrete characteristics.
Concrete mixing
In proportioning the constituents of concrete, or Fig I.16 - Influence of the w/c ratio on concrete properties
determining the so-called concrete mix or mix
design, the producer is primarily concerned with The relationships between the w/c ratio and
optimizing concrete's: required characteristics of concrete are well known
• Workability in practice. Thus, the designing engineer usually
• Strength specifies the w/c ratio when he specifies the type of
concrete.
• Production cost
• Durability
Chapter I: Cement & Concrete B. From fresh concrete to hardened concrete 21
Choosing the water/cement ratio Fig I.17

An appropriate w/c ratio will depend primarily upon Influence of the w/c
ratio on 28-day
environmental exposure and the loads the concrete
compressive
construction will be carrying (Fig I.17). strength of
Recommended maximum w/c for different exposure concrete
conditions are given, for example, in the EN 206 or
in ACI 318.
Minimum cement content in concrete

With sufficient cement in concrete, enough calcium
hydroxide is formed during hydration that the high
alkalinity and low porosity achieved in the concrete
will reliably protect the steel reinforcement from
rusting. On the other hand, overly large amounts of
cement in concrete increases the possibility of cracks
due to shrinkage and increased heat of hydration.
Fig I.18
According to EN 206, reinforced concrete with a
Poor filling of
maximum aggregate size of 32mm should normally void spaces, high
contain at least 300kg cement per m3 compacted permeability
concrete. The dosage may be reduced to 250 kg/m3 concrete with
only if the constructed element is permanently only one size of
protected from environmental action and other aggregate
(schematic)
forms of attack.
TCXDVN 327:2004 - Concrete and Reinforced

Concrete Structures Requirements of Protection
from Corrosion in Marine Environment requires:
Area Minimum cement

Fig I.19
content (kg/m3) Good filling of
void spaces, low
No direct contact 350
permeability
concrete with a
Direct contact 400 smooth grading
curve (schematic)
Table I.3 - Minimum cement content depend on
environmental exposure (TCXDVN 327)
The European standard EN206 increases the

minimum cement content to the environmental
conditions (refer chapter IV.C)
Low porosity in concrete

A well-designed aggregate mix with a smooth
grading curve produces concrete with good
workability and high cohesion, with a high
resistance to segregation. The hardened concrete
will have low permeability, which gives it good
durability (Fig I.18 and I.19).
22 Chapter I: Cement & Concrete B. From fresh concrete to hardened concrete
Proportioning the mix by absolute volume
In practice, the proportions of each constituent of a

concrete mix are determined by calculating their
absolute volumes. The unit volume of each
Mass (kg)
Volume (m3)=
component is calculated based on 1m3 (1000l) of Specific Gravity
compacted concrete, and obtained by dividing the
mass of each component by the specific gravity
(kg/m3)
Example:
Specification: Cement dosage 325 kg/m3

Water/Cement ratio 0.48
Plasticizer 1% based on cement mass ( = ~ 3 kg)
Assumption: Normal porosity 1.5% entrapped air (=15 l)
Specific Gravity
Component Mass (kg) Unit volume (m3)
(kg/m3)
Cement 325 3,100 0.105 
Mixing water 156 1,000 0.156 
Plasticizer 3 ~ 1,000 0.003 
Entrapped air - 0.015 
Subtotal 484 0.279 
Dry aggregate 0.721 x 2,700 = 1947  2,700 1 - 0.279 =0.721 
Fresh concrete 484 + 1947 = 2431  2,431 1
1) Mixing water = water added + moisture of aggregates. The number  through  indicate the sequence of the
calculation.
To calculate the actual amount of aggregate Influence of other factors on the workability &
necessary, the water contained as moisture in the strength of concrete
aggregate (generally 4 to 6% for sand and 1 to 3 %
Besides admixtures, many other factors influence
for gravel) must be added for each fraction.
concrete workability. Changing one or more of these
Subtracting the moisture contained in all the
factors changes not only the workability, but also
aggregates from the total mixing water gives the
other characteristics of concrete, for example
necessary amount of water to be dispensed.
strength. Table I.4 shows how various changes in
concrete constituents and mix affect the
The unit volume of entrapped air bubbles (generally
consistence and 28-day compressive strength of
1 to 2 %) as well as the volume of entrained air must
concrete.
also be considered in proportioning the mix by
absolute volume. The example shows a method of
calculating the “dry“ aggregate amount and the
fresh concrete density.
Table I.4
28-day Effect of various
Change Workability compressive factors on
strength
workability and
Smoother grading strength of
concrete
More rounded aggregate
More crushed (angular) aggregate
More mixing water
Higher concrete temperature
Use of a superplasticizer
Use of an air entrainer

Use of a retarder
positive influence negative influence no significant influence
a. Slump test :
2. Workability
The slump test is the most well-known and widely
To achieve a high quality concrete structure, the used method to characterize the workability of fresh
method of placing and compaction as well as the concrete. This simple test is used at the job sites to
shape of the concrete element and reinforcement quickly determine whether a concrete batch should
arrangement, should be considered to select the be accepted or rejected.
workability of the concrete.
The slump test measures the ability of concrete to
The concrete workability affects the speed of flow under its own weight, without vibration. This
placement and the degree of compaction of method is suitable for medium to high workability
concrete. Inadequate compaction may result in the concrete with slump ranging from 10 to 210 mm
reduction in both strength and durability of (EN 206).
concrete.
The test method is widely standardized throughout
Different test methods for workability are available the world:
including slump, Vebe time, flow table, etc. The • TCVN 3106
choice of the test method depends on the concrete • ASTM C143
workability and its application.
• EN 12350-2
To get reliable results, each test method for The apparatus used in the slump test are: mold,
workability should be applied within its test range tamping rod, measuring equipment (Fig I.20):
(EN206):
Fig I.20
Apparatus to
• Slump ≥ 10 mm and ≤ 210 mm;
determine slump
• Vebe time ≤ 30 sec and > 5 sec;
• Flow diameter > 340 mm and ≤ 620 mm.
TCXDVN 374:2006 specifies:

• For too dry concrete: the vebe time > 50 second.
• For dry concrete: the vebe time > 5 second and <
50 second.
• For plasticized concrete: The slump from 10 to
220 (mm)
• For super-plasticized concrete: the flow from 260
– 400 (mm)
- In EN and TCVN standards, the slump is the - In ASTM standard, the slump is the vertical
vertical difference between the top of the mould difference between the top of the mould and the
and that of the highest point of the slumped test displaced original center of the top surface of the
specimen. specimen.
Fig I.21 - Determine Slump conform to TCVN and EN Fig I.22 - Determine Slump conform to ASTM standard
standard
The slump test is only valid if the concrete cone

stays visible and symmetrical (true slump). If the
concrete cone shears (shear slump), the test needs
to be done again. If it fails again, the slump test is
not applicable for the concrete (EN 12350-2)
True Slump
Fig I.23 - True and shear slump shape
Shear Slump
Depending on the application of concrete, the following slump values are recommended:
Table I.5
Slump range for Slump Range (mm) Application Illustrated photo
different
applications
Elements with intense vibration:

60-80 Precast elements, concrete pavement.
Concrete placed by bucket
Elements with good vibration (compaction

100-160 needles): column, slab, beams etc.
Concrete placed by bucket or pump
Elements with low vibration level:

• Bore piling
180-200 • Retaining wall
• Core wall
Concrete placed by bucket or pump
b. Slump flow: The upright mold (same way as the slump test) is
The slump flow test method is used to determine popularly used in Vietnam. Slump flow is the
workability of very flowable concrete with a very average of the largest diameter of circular spread of
high slump. At this high slump > 200mm, normal the concrete and the circular spread of the concrete
concrete has the tendency to segregate, which at an angle approximately perpendicular to
impacts the concrete quality significantly. To reach a diameter above.
high quality concrete at very high workability, the
mix design needs to be specially developed to avoid Concrete with high workability is used for structure
segregation and achieve the required stability. with dense reinforced steel such as transfer beam,
core walls, pile cap, etc or for the areas that are
Two types of concrete can be distinguished difficult to reach for compaction.
(see Chapter II.E):
- Very flowable concrete (slump flow: 450- 650mm) Fig I.25
- Self Consolidating Concrete (SCC), also known as Structure with
Self Compacting Concrete (slump flow > 650mm). dense reinforce
steel
This test uses the same equipment as the slump

test, but the diameter of the concrete spread is
measured.
Fig I.26
Transfer beam
c. VEBE test:
For semi-dry concrete with a low workability, the use
of the Vebe test is recommended. The Vebe time is
the time needed to level and compact fresh concrete
in Vebe consistometer and ranges from 5s to 30s
(EN 206). Some typical applications are:
Fig I.24 - Determine slump flow for fresh concrete - Roller compacted concrete (RCC) for hydraulic
RCC dams
The test method to determine slump flow is ASTM - Base layers of roads, container ports
C1611 or EN 12350-8. In ASTM standard, there are - Precast products: concrete pipes
two ways to measure slump flow of concrete:
- Upright mold
- Inverted mold
The freshly mixed concrete is packed into a similar d. Flow table test:
cone used for the slump test. The cone stands within The flow table test measures the workability of
a special container on a Vebe table, which is vibrated concrete under the impact of compaction energy.
at a standard rate after the cone has been lifted. The Generally, in Viet Nam, EN 12350-5 standard is used
time taken for the concrete to be compacted is to test flow table of fresh concrete.
measured.
Fig I.27
RCC for hydraulic
dams
General standards which are used to determine

Vebe time:
- TCVN 3107:1993,
- EN 12350-3,
- ASTM C1170.
In Viet Nam, two methods have been applied: TCVN
3107 and EN 12350-3 to test Vebe time of semi-dry
concrete. Basically, both of standards are similar.
However, EN standard is more detailed than TCVN.
Rotating Arm
Moving Vertical Rod
Slump Cone
Clear Plastic Disk

Container
Fig I.29 - Flow table test for fresh concrete

Vebe Table
To perform the test, the cone mold is placed in the
center of the plate and filled in two layers, each of
which is compacted with a tamping rod. The plate is
lifted by the attached handle at a distance of 40 mm
and then dropped a total of 15 times. The horizontal
Fig I.28 - Apparatus spread of the concrete is then measured.
to measure Vebe
time
200mm
30mm
Mold
Clip Handle
Bottom 200mm
Plate Top Plate
40mm Hinge
700mm
Fig I.30 - Apparatus to determine flow table

To obtain accurate test result with cylinder

3. Concrete strength
specimens, the cylinder should be capped with a
One of the most important characteristics of thin layer of stiff Portland cement or sulfur paste
concrete is the strength, as strength is an important which is permitted to harden and cure with the
input parameter to the design of the concrete specimen in accordance with ASTM C 617.
structure. Concrete is a very strong material when it This capping method has to be done carefully,
is used in compression and it is however, less especially for high strength concrete.
resistant to tension. Fig I.33
Equipment for
There are different ways to measure the concrete capping
strength, such as compressive strength, flexural specimen and
strength, and tensile strength tests. the specimen
after capping
and testing
a. Compressive strength:
Compressive strength is the capacity of a material or
structure to withstand axially directed pushing
forces. When the limit of compressive strength is
reached, the concrete fails and breaks.
The compressive strength of concrete is the most

common performance parameter used by the The compressive strength is conventionally
engineer in designing building and other structures. determined on specimens tested at 28 days age. For
The compressive strength is measured in cylindrical particular applications, for example mass concrete,
(150x300mm) or cubical (150mm) concrete RCC etc, the concrete strength can be specified at
specimens that are casted, compacted, cured and later ages, like 56 or 90 days.
tested in standard conditions.
In case early strength is required, to remove the
The type of specimen, as well as sampling method, support frame or formwork, or to prestress the
curing and testing, are specified in the following concrete the compressive strength at earlier ages (1
standards: day, 3 days etc) are commonly specified in addition
- TCVN 3105 :1993 & TCVN 3118:1993 to the 28 days strength.
- BS EN 12390-2 & EN 12390-3
Sometimes, other specimen sizes are used – the
- ASTM C31 & ASTM C39
following correlation factors can be appied to
recalculate into the standard size specimen (cube
150mm):
Shape & size specimen (mm) Correlation factor
100x100x100 0.91
Fig I.31 - Cube and cylinder specimens 150 x 150 x 150 1,00
Cube
specimen 200 x 200 x 200 1.05
300 x 300 x 300 1.1
71,4 x 143 & 100 x 200 1.16

Cylinder
150 x 300 1.2
specimen
200 x 400 1.24
(source: TCXDVN 3118:1993)
Table I.6 - The correction factor to recalculate into the

Fig I.32 - Specimens in a compression-testing machine: standard size specimen (cube 150mm)
cube and cylinder specimens
In Vietnam, the concrete is classified based on grade b. Flexural strength

and class of hardened concrete. The flexural strength of concrete is measured by
loading 150x150mm concrete beams with a span
length at least three times the depth. The flexural
Grade of hardened concrete (TCXDVN 239:2006)
strength is expressed in MPa and is determined by
The grade of concrete is the mean compressive
standard test methods ASTM C78 (four-point
strength in MPa, tested on 150 x 150 x 150mm cube
loading), ASTM C293 (three-point loading) or EN
samples, which are casted, compacted, cured and
12390-1.
tested according to the standard at the age of 28
days. Grade of concrete is prefixed with letter “M”.
1/2 Load 1/2 Load
Class of hardended concrete (TCXDVN 356:2005)
The class of concrete is the compressive strength of
concrete which the reliable probability is 0.95. Class
of concrete is prefixed with letter “B”.
B = M(1 – 1.64v)
With: Fig I.34 - Four point loading
v – variable strength coefficient
Load
Accoding to the European standard EN 206, the
concrete is classified based on compressive strength
at 28 days of 150mm diameter by 300mm cylinders
(fck,cyl) or 150mm cubes (fck, cube). Example:
C30/37 is interpreted as follows:
• C stands for concrete
• 30 is the characteristic strength, determined Fig I. 35 - Three point loading
using test cylinders (d=150mm, h=300mm),

• 37 is the characteristic strength, determined Flexural strength is about 10 to 20 percent of
using test cubes measuring 150mm. compressive strength depending on the type, size
and volume of coarse aggregate used. However, the
EN 206 defines 16 concrete classes, ranging from C
best correlation for specific materials is obtained by
8/10 to C 100/115.
laboratory tests for given materials and mix design.
The flexural strength of specimens shall be prepared
In American standard system, there are two main
and cured in accordance with ASTM C42 or Practices
standards for concrete: ASTM C94 – Standard
C31 or C192 or EN 12350-1 and EN 12390-2.
specification for ready-mixed concrete and ACI 318 -
Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete Pavements are normally designed to achieve a
and commentary. The ASTM/ACI standards do not targeted flexural strength. Therefore, laboratory mix
classify concrete based on compressive strength. design based on flexural strength tests may be
required, or a cement content may be selected from
past experience to obtain the required flexural
strength. Sometimes it is used for field control and
acceptance of pavement or slab. Very few use
flexural testing for structural concrete.
Depending on actual use, it may be necessary to

specify the flexural strength at different ages such
as: 3 days, 7 days, 28 days and 56 days.
c. Assessment of compressive strength test results
Test methods for sampling & testing

General methods for the making of the concrete specimen, their curing and testing are summarized in below
table:
Table I.7
Characteristic EN TCVN ASTM-ACI Test methods for
making, curing
Making EN 12390-2 TCVN 3105:1993 ASTM C31 and sampling
concrete
specimen
Curing EN 12390-2 TCVN 3105:1993 ASTM C31
Compressive strength EN 12390-3 TCVN 3118:1993 ASTM C39
The below 3 steps are very important to assure the Fig I.36
reliability of the result: Satisfactory
failure of cube
• The sampling of the concrete and the making of specimens
the concrete specimens shall be done properly,
so that the concrete cubes are representative of
Fig I.37
the concrete batch. This procedure is sometimes Unsatisfactory
neglected in some job sites, which may lead to failure of cube
low strength of the concrete specimen. specimens
1 2 3
• The curing in water tanks – specific attention
needs to be given to the transport of concrete
cubes at early age. A careless handling can
4 5 6
impact their final strength.
• Finally, the compressive strength of the concrete
specimen is determined in the laboratory.
Experience shows that the skill of laboratory 7 8 9
staff can have a significant impact on the final

test result. Special attention is required for the
Fig I.38
loading speed of the concrete specimen.
Satisfactory
failure of
EN 12390 – 3: 2002 defines the shape of satisfactory cylinder
and unsatisfactory specimens (cube and cylinder) specimens
after the compressive strength test as shown beside:
Fig I.39
When the specimen shows an unsatisfactory failure, Unsatisfactory
the obtained result will not represent the true failure of
compressive strength of the concrete. cylinder
specimens
A B C D
E F G H
I J K
Following causes can lead to unsatisfactory failure of the specimen:

Table I.8
Posible causes of Specimens Cause
unsatisfactory
failures
• The surface of the cube is not flat and parallel
Cube • The cube is not positioned centrally in the test machine
• The fresh concrete has segregated during compaction
• The capping method is not suitable or well-done
Cylinder • The cylinder is not positioned centrally in the test machine
• The fresh concrete has segregated during compaction
• The compression plates are not flat
Compressive machine • Excentric loading of the test machine
• Inappropriate measuring range (20-80 max load)
Assessment of test results operations such as formwork removal or for

The test results from cube or cylinder specimen are evaluating the adequacy of curing and protection
primarily used to determine that the delivered provided to the structure.
concrete mix meets the strength requirements
specified in the technical specification. The test results on concrete specimen, to meet the
required grade of concrete according to a specific
Strength test results may be used for quality control, standard, are evaluated as follows:
acceptance of concrete, or for estimating the
strength in a structure for scheduling construction
Table I.9
Asessment of
test result
TCXDVN 356:2005
TCXDVN 374:2006 ASTM C94:2005 BS 5328:1990 EN 206-1:2000
TCVN 4453:1995
Type of Cube 150mm Cylinder 300x150mm Cube 150mm Cube 150mm

sample For a strength test, at 1 set = 2 specimens Cylinder
1 set = 3 specimens least two standard test 300x150mm
specimens shall be made 1 set = 3 specimens
from a composite sample
secured
Method of Foundation: 1set/100m3 Not less than 1 set for each number of set required: First 50m3: 3 set
Sampling Foundation under 115m3 V ≤ 40m3: 1 / 10m3 Then 1 set / 150m3
machinery: 1set/50m3
V ≤ 80m3: 1 / 20m3 Take 2 or more
Frame and thin structure: specimens per set.
1set /20m3 V ≤ 200m3: 1 / 50m3
Base and sub-base:

1set/200m3
Mass pour:
• V < 1000m3: 1set/250m3
• V ≥ 1000m3: 1set/
500m3
Testing fmin : lowest strength f’c : the specified fmin: lowest strength Measure
specimen compressive strength. specimen compressive strength
fmed: median strength f’cr : the average fmax: highest strength of the specimens.
specimen compressive strength. specimen fmin: strength of
fmax: highest strength the specimen with
specimen fcm = (fmax + fmin) / 2 lowest strength
fmax: strength of
∆1 = fmax - fmed ; the specimen with
∆2 = fmed - fmin highest strength
fcm = average
strength of all
specimens
• If ∆1 and ∆2 are both • If (fmax – fmin) / fcm > 15% • If (fmax – fmin) /
Compliance less than 15% of fmed, then the sample was fcm > 15% then
checking then invalid. the sample was
favg = (fmin + fmed + fmax)/3 • Otherwise, f = fcm invalid.
• If either ∆1 or ∆2 is • Otherwise, f = fcm

larger than 15% of fmed,
then favg = fmed
Compressive favg ≥ fck The average of 3 favg = average strength of all favg = average
strength consecutive strength tests valid sample. strength of all valid
assessment fmin ≥ 85% x fck shall be equal to or greater For C20 or above samples
than specific strength-f'c Criteria 1 (Rolling average):
First 2 samples: favg ≥ fck +1 Criteria 1 (Rolling
• If f'c ≤ 35 MPa:
average):
individual strength test First 3 samples: favg ≥ fck +2
favg ≥ fck + 4
≥ f‘c - 3.5(MPa)
Any consecutive 4 samples:
• If f'c > 35 MPa: individual favg ≥ fck + 3 Criteria 2 (Individual
strength test ≥ 0.9f 'c Criteria 2 (Individual sample): sample):
When meeting failure case, All valid samples: f ≥ fck - 3 All valid samples:
refer to section 19 ASTM f ≥ fck - 4
C94-2005. For C7.5 to C15
Criteria 1 (Rolling average):
First 2 samples: favg ≥ fck
First 3 samples: favg ≥ fck+1
Any consecutive 4 samples:
favg ≥ fck + 2
Criteria 2 (Individual):
All valid samples: f ≥ fck - 2
d. Comparison of strength between different standard into a different standard. To assure the
standards: compliance to the design, the concrete should be
Every standard has its own system to evaluate the tested according the standard set (TCVN, ASTM, EN,
compliance of the test result to the requirement of BS), used for the design.
the standard.
The following graph provides an indication how
It is very difficult to compare the standards. In TCVN, EN and BS are related in terms of cube
principle, it is not recommended to translate one strength (not to scale).
Table I.10
Comparison of
strength between M300 M350 M400 M450 M500
different standards
in terms of cube
TCVN
sample
C30 C35 C40 C45 C50

BS
C25/30 C30/37 C35/45 C40/50

EN 206
b. Air content
4. Special characteristics
Air content of concrete is also an important
a. Concrete density characteristic to indirectly assess the quality of
The density of both fresh and hardened concrete is concrete.
of interest to the engineers for different reasons
including structural design and impact on Fresh concrete always contains a significant amount
compressive strength. of air bubbles. One of the main reasons to compact
the concrete is to remove them. If the concrete is
By choosing suitable aggregates and mix design, the
not well compacted, some air will remain in the
density of concrete can be increased significantly
concrete, reducing the strength significantly.
(heavy concrete) or reduced (light-weight concrete).
Normally, a typical compacted concrete will have air
percentage varies from 0.5 – 2.5%. Concrete with
For fresh concrete:
high slump usually has lower air content than low
The density plays an important role in controlling
slump concrete. Besides, the plasticizer/super
concrete yield (compared to the mix design) at
plasticizer admixture can increase the air content in
readymix batching plant. Typical readymix concrete
concrete, which may lead to lower strength.
density varies from 2200 – 2500kg/m3 (TCXDVN
374:2006), depending on the aggregate type and
mix design. A rule of thumb
1% excessive air
Based on the density of compacted fresh concrete, reduces the concrete strength by 4-5%.
plant operators are able to check if the mix design is
In some cases, the air content in the concrete is
over- or under yielding: this means that the mix
increased with an air-entraining admixture up to
design gives more or less than 1m3 concrete after
4-6%, to improve the resistance of the concrete
compaction. Fresh concrete density test method
against deterioration caused by freeze-thaw. For the
complies with ASTM C138; EN 12350 – 6; TCVN
tropical climate in southern Vietnam, air entrained
3108:1993.
concrete is normally not used for this purpose.
For hardened concrete:

Air content test method is complied with ASTM
Before testing the compressive strength, the density
C231, TCVN 3111:1993
of concrete samples (cube, cylinder) should be
checked and compared with the mix design to
confirm the sampling, compaction, presence of Pump Main air valve
entrained air. Petcock B Pressure gage
Petcock A Air bleeder valve

Air chamber
Example: A mix design shows that the density of
Clamping device
concrete is 2450 kg/m3; however, the hardened Extension
concrete sample only measures 2370 kg/m3 .The tubing for
calibration
strength of this sample will be much lower than the checks Bowl
design strength. Hardened concrete density is
determined either by simple dimensional checks,
followed by weighing and calculation or by weight in
air/water buoyancy methods (comply with EN
12390-7).
Fig I.40
illustration of the
pressure method
for air content
c. Bleeding d. Setting time of concrete

Bleeding is a particular form of segregation, in After cement and water are mixed, they react
which the water from the concrete appears on the chemically, the concrete sets and changes to the
surface of the concrete. Bleeding is predominantly hardened state. Concrete setting time is defined as
seen in very wet mixes with high workability. the time taken for the concrete to change from the
Excessive bleeding can have a negative impact on fresh to the hardened state. Setting time of concrete
the quality of the concrete: is defined by 2 two parameters: (ASTM C403 – Test
• Dusty surface, linked to cement particles that are method for setting time of concrete):
carried to the top of the concrete layer • Initial set: the period time from mixing until the
• Discolorations of the concrete surface penetration resistance of equals 500psi (3.5
• Reduction of the bond between large aggregates MPa).
/ steel bars and mortar. • Final set: the period time from mixing until the
Not all bleeding is harmful for the concrete. A penetration resistance equals 4000psi (27.6 MPa).
limited amount of bleeding protects the concrete
surface against plastic shrinkage, in hot and windy
Fig I.43
weather. Apparatus to
determine the
For concrete floors, the bleeding of concrete is a very setting time of
important characteristic: concrete
• A limited bleeding reduces the risk of early

cracking
• Too much bleeding water delays the finishing of
the concrete floor and can lead to delamination
problems
The bleeding of concrete can be reduced by:
• Lowering the water/cement ratio
• Intense and uniform mixing
• Adapting the sand fraction of the concrete
• Increasing the cement content in the mix
5000
Final Setting
4000
Penetration Resistance, psi
3000
2000
Fig I.41 - Bleeding of fresh concrete (good and bad)

1000
Initial Setting Outlier
Bleeding of concrete test method is specified in
ASTM C232 (or TCVN 3109:1993). Bleeding of 0
concrete is determined by the percentage of water 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420
coming out the concrete. Elapsed Time, min
Fig I.42
Concrete Fig I.44 - Diagram to determine the setting time of concrete
bleeding meter
The setting time of concrete should not be confused e. Permeability

with the slump retention or early strength of the To determine the durability of concrete, the concrete
concrete. These three characteristics are very permeability is more important than the
different properties of concrete, even if they compressive strength.
sometimes move in similar directions.
There are two types of concrete permeability,
frequently used in Vietnam:
The setting time is heavily influenced by the type of
• Water permeability – for water-tightness of concrete
admixture, as some plasticizers act as a retarder for
concrete. • Chloride permeability – for concrete in aggressive
Thus, for specific application with different setting environment (seawater, brackish water)
time requirement, the admixture (compatible with
cement, dosage) and concrete workability (slump, Permeability to Water:
flowability, mixing water) should be controlled very For specific structures which directly get in contact
carefully. with water such as : basement for high rise building,
dams, dikes…, the water tightness of concrete is
required, in addition to strength.
Warning
The overdosage of admixture may delay the
The concrete to permeability to water is classified
setting time of concrete up to 1 day or even
into 6 levels: B2, B4, B6, B8, B10 and B12 and the
longer.
testing method is specified in TCVN 3116:1993.
The level for permeability to water is the maximum

water pressure for which water has not gone
through 4 in 6 test samples.
Fig I.45
3 The test method
to determine the
6 5 water
permeability of
1 2 concrete
4 4 4 4 4 4
4
4
In general, concrete with a higher strength will have

a lower water permeability. So from the grade of
concrete, the level of permeability to water can be
estimated.
Table I.11
Concrete Grade Estimated Level of Water Estimation of
Permeability water permeability
base on concrete
30 B6 grade
35 B8
40 B10
45 - 50 B12
Fig I.46 - Water permeability test machine

Permeability to chlorides As the ASTM C1202 specification, the rapid chloride

The permeability of concrete to chloride ions is an penetration ability of concrete is classified into 5
important indicator to measure the durability of levels:
concrete in aggressive environment. At a low
chloride permeability, the steel reinforcement will Charge passed Chloride Ion
be protected against the chloride-linked pitting (coulombs) penetrability
corrosion and the durability of concrete will be > 4000 High
increased.
2000 – 4000 Moderate
The method to measure the rapid chloride 1000 – 2000 Low
permeability of concrete is specified in ASTM C1202
100 – 1000 Very low
or TCXDVN 360:2005.
< 100 Negligible
The test method consists of monitoring the amount
Table I.12: Classification of the rapid chloride penetration
of electrical current which passes through 51 mm ability of concrete
thick slices of 102 mm nominal diameter cores or
cylinders during a 6 hours period. The total charge
passed, in coulombs, has been found to be related to
The chloride permeability of concrete can be
the resistance of the specimen to chloride ion
improved by:
penetration.
• Using blended cements, with a high percentage
of blended material
• Reduction of water/cement ratio, to make a
Fig I.47
more compact concrete
The rapid
chloride • Efficient compaction and curing
permeability test
equipment
Fig I.48
5. Production and Transport Homogeneity of
Dosage of the components the mix as a
function of
The production of concrete is closely linked to the
mixing duration
technology and equipment used. The task of dosage
is to dispense the components of the concrete mix –
aggregate, cement, additions, mixing water,
admixtures – in controlled amounts, to produce the
specified mix proportions with great accuracy. Two
systems are used, dosage by volume and dosage by
mass. Dosage by mass gives more accurate results.
Every batching plant must establish sequencing for
adding the material through systematic pretests.
Sequencing is critical for:
• The dispersion
• The mixing effect
• The optimal effect of admixtures
• Plant efficiency
• Mechanical wear Readymix concrete should be brought to the
construction site immediately after production at
Mixing the components the concrete plant and placed without delay in order
The mixer must blend the separate components into to preserve quality. There is a certain danger of
a homogeneous mix. The mixer must also satisfy the segregation during transport, so truck mixers are
following requirements and tasks: used when the concrete is of highly plastic
• High mixing intensity consistence, for long hauls, or when traffic
conditions are poor.
• Short mixing duration
• Dispersion of the cement and the additions
During the trip, concrete must be protected from
• Optimal coating of the aggregates with fines rain, exposure to sun, wind blast, and the like.
mortar (fines paste) Depending on the prevailing weather conditions on
• Fast discharging the day of concreting, suitable measures should be
• Low wear taken (covering the concrete, reducing the
temperature of fresh concrete, etc.).
At ready-mix plants the paddle mixer is the most
common type, used discontinuously for mixing
For delivery by truck mixer, the concrete should be
single batches. Each type of mixer requires a
mixed an additional one to two minutes after arrival
minimum batch size, below which the quality of the
on site and immediately before pouring. Adding
fresh concrete is reduced.
more water should be avoided, because such
additions are uncontrolled and the water cannot be
Mixing duration
mixed in thoroughly. If the delay becomes too long,
The duration of mixing depends on the type of
the concrete may be used only for less critical
mixer (drum or paddle mixer). Mixing duration
applications (fill, lean concrete, etc.).
should be determined by testing.
Definition:
Mixing duration = “Wet-mixing duration”
starts when all components are in the mixer.
If a small additional dosage of water is necessary

during mixing to achieve the specified concrete
consistence, the mixing duration must be
appropriately extended. Plotting homogeneity of the
mix as a function of mixing duration gives a curve that
increases rapidly at first and asymptotically
approaches the ideal line as mixing advances (Fig I.48)
6. Placing and Compaction

Conveying and depositing
In Vietnam there are three main means of conveying used: chute, bucket and pump. Depend on local
circumstances, kind of structure, workability of fresh concrete, economy and progress of project , the method
of conveying will be chosen. Show in table I.13
Table I.13
Method of Workability of concrete
Method of conveying Structure Picture
conveying (Slump)
Some small structures like

8 -10 cm Fig I.49
foundation, ground slab, floor...
Chute
Bore piling > 18 cm Fig I.50
Column, beam and floor… in

Bucket 8 - 14 cm Fig I.51
highrise building
Pump Floor slab, foundation... 12 - 18 cm Fig I.52
Fig I. 49 Fig I.51 Fig I.52
Fig I.50
Delivery volume and placing capacity must be Fig I.55

coordinated. Concrete should be deposited at a The structure
with good
constant rate, in horizontal layers of uniform
compaction
thickness. To prevent segregation, the concrete
should not be dropped more than 50 to 70 cm. Drop
heights greater than 1,5 m require the use of a drop
chute or feed hose.
Method of compaction
Selecting the best method of compaction will
depend on the workability of the concrete and the
reinforcement density/rebar spacing of the element.
The most common effective method of compaction
is vibrating. Vibrating is most often done with
internal vibrators (poker-type vibrators) or external
Fig I.53 - Segregate concrete because of too high drop
vibrators (form vibrators or surface finishers with
surface vibrators).
Compaction
Good compaction is the prerequisite for durable
Vibration almost completely overcomes the internal
concrete. The advantages of well-compacted
friction between the aggregates. The separate
concrete are:
particles move closer together, and entrapped air
• Higher density escapes to the surface in the form of air bubbles
• Improved durability (the content of entrapped air after compaction is
• Good compressive strength about 1.5 % by volume). The voids become filled
• Better bond between reinforcement and concrete with fines paste and the fresh concrete is
consolidated under its own weight.
Effective range of electrical high-frequency vibrator

heads (Table I.14).
Table I.14
Spacing
Diameter of Effective range Reference values
between
vibrator head diameter for the effective
inserrtion
(mm) (mm) range diameter
points (cm)
and spacing of
< 40 30 25 insertion points
40 bis 60 50 40
> 60 80 70
Experience shows that a frequency of about 12,000

CPM is best for normal concrete. The vibration
frequency should be increased (up to 18,000 CPM)
for fine-aggregate concretes.
Fig I.54 - Honeycomb on concrete

Rules for good compaction

• The vibrator head should be quickly immersed in
the concrete, held briefly at the lowest point and
slowly extracted. The concrete surface must
close behind. If the surface no longer closes,
either the consistence is too stiff, the concrete
has already begun to set, or the duration of
vibration has been insufficient. Spacing between
the insertion points should be uniform.
• The vibrator head should not be used to
distribute the concrete.
• Vibration should be stopped when a thin film of
fine mortar forms on the surface and larger air
bubbles surface only occasionally.
• The insertion points should be spaced close
enough that the effective range diameters of the
vibrator overlap.
• If concrete is deposited in several layers “fresh on
fresh“, the vibrator head should extend through
the layer to be compacted and about 10 to 15 cm
into the underlying layer of fresh concrete. This
ensures a good bond between the two layers
(Fig I.56).
Rule of thumb
Spacing between insertion points =
8 to 10 times the diameter of the vibrator head
Fig I.56 - Concrete compaction by vibrating method
Fig I.57
Spacing between
insertion points,
Right Wrong
insertion point
300-400 mm
depositing “fresh
on fresh“ I II III
I II III
150 mm
1-2xD 8-10 D 8-10 D

Methods of controlling the temperature of concrete

7. Concreting in hot weather
• The temperature t of fresh concrete can be
Vietnam is a country located in hot climates, it roughly estimated using the formula:
effects directly to the placing and quality of
concrete.
tconcrete = 0,7 · taggregate + 0,2 · t water + 0,1 · t cement
• With hot weather, the workability of fresh
concrete drops faster so the placing of concrete
becomes harder. In spite of warnings not to add • Base on this formula, controlling the
extra water to the mix on the construction site, temperature of aggregate and water has the
this pratice is still often used to improve highest impact on the temperature of concrete.
consistence. Water addition at the jobsite The effect of cement temperature to fresh
increases the w/c ratio, lowers the strength and concrete temperature is relatively small.
durability of the concrete. It can lead to strength
failures at the project. Methods of lowering the temperature of fresh
concrete:
Rule of thumb • Cooling the aggregate by shading or spraying
10 liters of extra mixing water per m3 concrete with water (*)
causes a 10-percent drop in 28-day strength. • Cooling the mixing water with ice or water
chiller (*)
• Cooling the concrete mix with liquid nitrogen
• To keep the drop in concrete strength due to hot (*) The amount of mixing water is to be reduced
weather within narrow limits, the temperature accordingly.
of fresh concrete should be controlled carefully.
Some projects in Vietnam require the tempera- Fig I.58
ture of fresh concrete from 30 to 32oC. Aggregate
In addition to the decrease in strength and shading
durability, higher concrete temperatures produce

other negative effects:
• Faster hydration of the cement causes faster
setting of the concrete – or even premature
setting – greatly impairing workability, to the
point of making the concrete unworkable.
• The concrete, specifically the surface layer, dries
out faster – especially under strong winds,
intensive sun, and low relative humidity.
Fig I.59
Cooling concrete
Water loss must be prevented by curing. If water is
by liquid
lost, plastic shrinkage will occur cracks (see Chapter nitrogen
III.B). Additionally, cement hydration will remain
incomplete. This further reduces final strength in
the prematurely dehydrated outer layer, which
further impairs durability.
Concreting in hot weather requires good planning Placing and compaction

and preparation • The shortest waiting time and fastest possible
• The delivery of fresh concrete must be well placement of fresh concrete are the cardinal
coordinated with the concreting work so that it rules.
can be poured without delay. • The contractor’s personnel should be
• Sufficient equipment and personnel must be familiarized with the special aspects and
planned so that the concrete can be placed and requirements of concreting at high
compacted without delay. temperatures.
• The substrate and forms must not extract water • If sudden stops cannot be avoided, any concrete
from the fresh concrete. Forms should be in the truck and in the delivery equipment must
moistened before pouring the concrete (Fig I.60). be protected from the effects of direct wind and
But excessive soaking of forms and substrate sun. Truck mixers can be hosed down on the
should be avoided; no puddles should form. outside with water.
• If the conditions for successful concreting at • Adding extra water on the construction site is to
high temperatures cannot be achieved for any be strictly prohibited. Compliance with this rule
reason, concrete work must be rescheduled to a must be checked.
cooler hour of the day, for example at night.
• Retarders can be used to largely eliminate the
disadvantages of fast cement hydration, but they
do little against premature setting of concrete.
Retarders also require extended curing times, as
they increase the risk of plastic shrinkage cracks.
Fig I.60
Wetting the forms
8. Pumped concrete
Application Range
The use of pumps is recognized as a modern and
efficient method of transport and placing concrete.
Pumped concrete can be used for practically any
construction task, and is particularly useful when
high performance in placing is required or when the
pouring location is poorly accessible. In general,
there are two types of concrete pumps: stationary
and mobile.
Fig I.62
Casting a large
• Admixtures concrete floor
The rules that apply to using admixtures in concrete slab. Mobile
also apply to pumped concrete. It should be kept in pump fed by a
truck mixer
mind when using air entrainers, that fresh concrete
with an air content greater than 4% can reduce the
delivery capacity of concrete pumps.
• Consistence
Pumped concrete must have a plastic to soft
workability.
The required workability can depend greatly on the

characteristics of the sand, and must be adjusted
Fig I.61 - Pump concrete by mobile pump
when necessary as indicated by pretests.
Requirements for pumped concrete

Pumped concrete is “pushed“ like a “plug“ through a
pipeline. The key is to keep the concrete from
segregating under the forces acting upon it.
• Cement
Practically any standard cement is suitable for use in
pumped concrete. A fresh concrete that can be
efficiently moved through a pipeline should have a
cement content of at least 320 kg/m3.
• Aggregate mix
Experience shows that increasing the fines
(≤ 0.125mm, including cement) to about 400 kg/m3
considerably improves pumpability without
compromising durability of the hardened concrete.
Thanks to improvements in pump design, the grain

shape of coarse aggregate has only a minor
influence on pumpability.
Tips for pumping concrete

• A smooth process must be ensured by good Safety aspects of using concrete pumps
planning between the concrete pump operator, Delivering and placing pumped concrete can
the building contractor, and the concrete be dangerous.
supplier. The following must be ensured:
• The setup and operation of the pumps is the • Formwork for walls and columns must be
responsibility of the pump operator. strong enough to handle the increased
• The rate of delivery and the delivery rating of the pressure of pumped concrete.
concrete pumps should be suited to the working • No overhead power lines should be in the
capacity of the crew placing the concrete. working area.
• The concrete should be delivered to the concrete • The load-bearing capacity of the pump
pump with truck mixers to prevent any platform must be adequate. Directives of
segregation. Hopper trucks or silo trucks may be the pump personnel must be strictly
used for short hauls. followed.
• The construction contractor is responsible for the
proper placement and curing of the concrete.
• About 0.5–2.0m3 of a cement-rich mortar serves
as a lubricating mix to prime the pumping
system. This material may not be used as
structural concrete.
Fig I.63
9. Curing
Purpose and objectives
The purpose of curing is to protect concrete from
water loss and harmful influences during the early
hardening period. Compressive strength alone does
not guarantee durability; the concrete must also be
dense. Especially in the surface layer, hardened
cement paste with high density and low-as-possible
permeability is very important.
This gives better resistance to carbonation and other

Fig I.64
types of attack. Curing includes all the measures
taken to protect freshly placed, young concrete
while it develops adequate strength. The chief
objectives of curing is to protect the concrete from:
• Evaporation due to wind, sun, dry cold
• Extreme temperatures (cold or heat) and rapid
temperature change
• Heavy rain
• Early influences of foreign substances (oil etc.)
Premature drying
Protection against premature moisture loss is
especially important. Protective measures must be
taken immediately after concrete is placed.
The consequences of premature water loss in the

surface layers are:
• Heavy plastic-shrinkage cracking (see Chapter III)
• Low strength
• Tendency to surface dusting
• Lower density and durability
• Faster corrosion of steel reinforcement
• Lower abrasion resistance
Preventive measures
• Leaving forms in place
• Covering with a membrane (Fig I.63)
Fig I.65
• Wrapping with insulating material (Fig I.64)

• Covering with water-retaining fabrics
(burlap, geotextiles)
• Application of a liquid curing compound
(Fig I.65)
• Continuous spraying with water
• Keep under water
• A combination of these measures
Rate of drying Typical effects of these factors are shown in Fig I.66
The rate of drying depends on: and Fig I.67 and Fig I.68 shows the correlations
• air temperature among the factors mentioned. The chart can be used
to estimate the rate of drying.
• concrete temperature
• relative humidity
• wind speed
kept constantly unprotected concrete,

Compressive strength [N/mm2]
Plastic shrinkage [mm/m]

moist wind speed 20 km/h
4
40
kept moist 3
30 for 7 days unprotected concrete,
wind speed 10 km/h
20 2
not
kept moist concrete protected
10 1 with a curing compound
0 0
1 3 7 28 90 0 6 12 18 24
Testing age [days] Time [hours]
Fig I.66 - Influence of water retention on strength Fig I.67 - shows the correlations among the factors
development in the surface layer of concrete mentioned. The chart can be used to estimate the rate of
drying.
Fig I.68 - Chart for calculating the rate

of drying of exposed concrete
surfaces. Example illustrated: air relative humidity concrete temperature
temperature: 28°C relative humidity:
50% concrete temperature: 28°C wind % 'C
speed: 5m/sec. result: rate of drying = 100
0.8 kg/m2 hr.
80
40
60
35
40 30
25
20 20
15
10
0
10 20 30
ambient temperature (0C)

wind speed 10
4
m/sec
8
rate of drying 6
(kg/m2 hr.)
2
4
1 2
0
10. Influence of Formwork Fig I.69

Results of a leaky
Formwork plays an important role in a successful form
construction project. It gives the concrete surface its
form, texture, and color. It gives the concrete
structure, correct dimensions, and the proper form.
Formwork often does not receive the attention it
deserves.
Selection of forms
The construction contractor usually selects forms
based on the following criteria: Fig I.70
• Building structure / construction task Peeled-off
concrete skin
• Specified surface quality of the concrete
• Number of potential reuses
• Labor required for erection
• Thermal insulation characteristics
• Price
Common facing materials for forms

• Raw, rough-cut wooden boards treated wooden
Fig I.71
sheets
Concrete skin
• Plastic-laminated forms (polyester, polystyrene, adhered to
linoleum, elastomers, etc.) wooden forms
• Steel, aluminium
Requirements for forms

• Dimensional accuracy
• Watertightness (Fig I.69)
• Stiffness, no deformation
• Cleanness Fig I.72
Example of a
• Low adhesion to hardened concrete successful
(Fig I.70 and Fig I.71) textured
• Attractive surface texture (Fig I.72) concrete surface
Form types
Absorptive forms usually produce a smooth, closed
concrete surface, because they absorb surplus water
and air bubbles. The face of wooden forms should
include only boards which have been used for an
equal number of times, because the absorption Fig I.73
capacity of the wood decreases with each use, which Non-uniform
absorbency of
has an effect on the color of the concrete surface.
wood used in
Raw wooden boards should be coated with cement forms affects the
paste before initial use to remove the wood sugar concrete surface
that disturbs hydration of cement. This coating also
evens out any variations in absorbency of the boards
(Fig I.73).
Non-absorptive, water-repellant forms promote the

partial accumulation of mortar paste. This leads to
irregularities in the color of the concrete surface
(clouding). Strong surface segregation can lead to
reduced durability (see Chapter III.A “Segregation of
Concrete“). Thus for exposed surfaces it is
advantageous to use absorptive forms or water-
conducting form liners of polypropylene fibers, etc
Form-release agents
Form-release agents make it easier to loosen the
form faces from the concrete surface. At the same
time, they protect and preserve the form material.
They are to be applied thinly and uniformly,
normally before the reinforcement is put in place.
Surplus chemical should be wiped away with a cloth
(Fig I.74). Staining, and irregular gray color of the
concrete surface, can frequently be traced to
improper application of a form-release agent.
Fig I.74
Effect of form-release agents on the concrete surface:
- Left: surplus form-release agent removed with a cloth
- Right: excessive form-release agent used
Applications with
Chapter II:
49
specific requirements
A. Infrastructure
1. Introduction 2. Cement for infrastructure
To support the growth of the economy in Vietnam, In south Vietnam, the cement, used for
both public and private funds invest important infrastructure, is Blended Portland Cement (PCB40),
amounts of capital into infrastructure projects, like compliant to TCVN6260, ASTM C1157 with low
roads, bridges, dams, ports, tunnels, power plants… alkali content (Na2O-eq < 0.60%) to prevent alkali
aggregate reaction.
As this infrastructure is the backbone of the
economy, the design life of these projects is The alkali-aggregate reaction – or “concrete cancer”
significantly longer than normal buildings (houses, in laymen’s terms – is a reaction between
schools). With proper maintenance, a bridge should aggregates, the alkali in the concrete and water to
be used for at least 50 years up to 100 years and form an expansive gel that creates cracks in the
even longer! concrete. This reaction is a very slow process over
years, but can become visible in 5 to 10 years after
To meet this long service life, the concrete for construction.
infrastructure projects requires special attention for
durability, with careful selection of the concrete In case of aggressive environment (presence of
components. chlorides, sulphates, seawater,…), additional
precautions have to be taken (see chapter II.B).
Holcim recommendation
Cement PCB 40 according to TCVN 6260:2009
or ASTM C1157 - GU, with low alkali content
(Na2O-eq M 0.60%)
50
B. Aggressive environments
(sulfate, seawater ...)
1. Introduction 2. Sulfate resistant Portland
To assure the long life of the construction in cement
aggressive environments, special care has to be
Main characteristic of sulfate resistant Portland
taken for the concrete: cement choice, mix design,
cement is a lower C3A content, a specific cement
placing and compacting, and last but not least,
mineral, as this component will react with sulfates
curing.
in the environment to ettringite, that expands in the
concrete pores to create tensions and cracks in the
A key element is the choice of cement, as concrete
concrete.
can be exposed to different aggressions:
• Sulfates in the environment attack the cement The C3A-content of cement can only be measured on
matrix (C3A cement mineral) and create cracks in Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). For blended
concrete cement, the addition materials will change the
• Chlorides penetrate into the concrete pores and chemistry of cement and the calculated C3A –
can lead to the dangerous pitting corrosion of content (based on the Bogue formula C3A = 2,65
steel reinforcement of the structure Al2O3 – 1,692 Fe2O3) is not valid any more.
• Other aggressive elements (low pH, acids,..) can
attack the cement matrix, by dissolving its This type of cement complies to following standards:
constituents • TCVN 6067
• ASTM C150 – Type II (Medium Sulfate MS) or
For aggressive environments, 2 main types of type V (High Sulfate HS)
cement are generally specified: • BS 4027
• Sulfate resistant portland cement (only for
sulfate attack) The maximum value of C3A depends on the standard
• Sulfate resistant blended portland cement used:
Normal Cement
Attention TCVN
Durability of concrete is a lot more complex ASTM

Type II (MS)
than the use of sulfate resistance cement.
ASTM
Type V (HS)
To improve concrete durability, the ‘Four C’ can
be used as a rule of thumb: BS 4027
% C 3A
• Cement choice, 3.5 5 7 8 9
adapted to the aggressive environment Note: According TCVN 6067, OPC type II (comply with ASTM
• Water/cement ratio, C150) does not classify as sulfate resistance cement
to reduce pore space
Fig II.1 - The maximum value of C3A depends on the
• Concrete cover, standard used
to protect steel reinforcement
• Curing of concrete, By limiting the C3A mineral, sulfate resistant
for high quality concrete cover Portland cement offers protection to sulfate attack
from the environment only. It does not offer
additional protection to chloride penetration or
other aggressive elements (low pH, acids…),
compared to a concrete with general use cement
PCB40.
Chapter II: Applications with specific requirements B. Aggressive environments (sulfate, seawater ...) 51
The lower permeability of the concrete can be

3. Sulfate resistant blended
measured by the rapid chloride permeability test
cements (ASTM C1202 or TCXDVN 306:2005), on the specific
With specific additions in cement, the concrete has a concrete mix, to be used on the project.
more dense structure, with a lower permeability to
water and chloride, which protects the The rapid chloride permeability test measures how
reinforcement steel to corrosion and increases the fast the chloride-ions can penetrate into the
service life of the construction. concrete, to attack the steel reinforcement.
The results are classified into 4 categories:
This type of cement complies to following standards:
• TCVN 7711:2007
VERY LOW LOW MODERATE HIGH
• ASTM C1157 – type HS
• EN : CEM III/ CEM IV - type SR
Coulomb
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
The ASTM standard verifies the sulfate resistance Chloride Permeability
with a performance test on mortar samples. During
6 months, a mortar bar is exposed to a sulfate
Fig II.3
environment (ASTM C1012). The swelling is The rapid
measured and determine the percentage expansion chloride
at 6 and 12 months of the mortar bar which is permeability test
immerged in the sulfate solution. equipment
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
7d 14d 21d 28d 56d 91d 105d 112d 180d
Limit of Moderate Sulfate Resistance Normal Cement
Limit of High Sulfate Resistance Holcim Extra Durable (HS) cement Indicative reference values for 35-40MPa concrete:
• Normal cement PCB40 : > 5000 Coulomb (high)
• Sulphate resistant blended cement : 1000 – 1500
Coulomb (low)
The use of waterproofing admixture does not reduce

significantly the chloride permeability of concrete,
as chloride ions move within the water-saturated
pores.
Holcim recommendation
For concrete in aggressive environments
(seawater, brackish water, waste water,..),
Fig II.2: Test method to determine the expansion of the Holcim recommends to use a sulfate resistant
mortar bar in sulfate solution blended cement, type TCVN 7711:2007
or ASTM C1157- HS, as it offers several
advantages:
According the EN 197-1:2011 standard, specific
types of blended cement are considered to be • Better protection of steel
sulfate resistance, based on long-term experience reinforcement against corrosion
with these cements. • High sulfate resistance of concrete
• Higher resistance against other
aggressive elements (acids, low pH etc)
52
C. Massive structure
To reduce these risks, specific measures have to be
1. Introduction
taken, for example:
In massive concrete elements, the heat of hydration
• Limit the maximum temperature difference
of cement will increase the concrete temperature at
ΔT < 200C or limit the maximum temperature
the center of the mass element significantly. During
gradient between two points ΔT/m < 500C
the hardening phase, the temperature can rise up to
(TCVN 305:2004)
85 – 100oC for thick elements, with general use
• Limit the maximum temperature in the core Tmax
concrete. When the hardened concrete in the center
< 700C
then cools down, the thermal shortening of the
• Insulation formwork is often used to warm the
concrete creates stresses in the element, which can
concrete surface and reduce temperature
lead to thermal cracking.
difference. It should stay in place for several days
Fig II.4
Heat of until ΔT < 200C. Removing it too soon can cause
the surface to cool quickly and crack.
hydration
development
inside mass These measures should be considered when the
concrete can lead concrete thickness > 1.5m.
to thermal
cracking
For specific concrete structures, these requirements
can be imposed from thickness > 1m, when the
consequence of cracks can lead to significant
damages (example: tunnel elements, gas storage
tanks…)
2. Cement for massive

structures
To manage the heat development in massive
concrete elements, specific cements are available
The high concrete temperature in the center has a with a low heat of hydration:
significant impact on the structure: • TCVN 7712 : 2007
• Above 700C, there is a risk for Delayed Ettringite • ASTM C1157 – type Low Heat (LH)
Formation (DEF) in the concrete, which can lead
• BS-EN – type Low Heat
to long-term cracking in the concrete.
• High concrete temperature reduces the concrete The EN standard uses a different test method from
strength at 28 days, especially above 700C. the ASTM standard – the EN method is not available
in Vietnam.
80
Tmax < 700C
70
ΔT > 200C (surface cracking)
Temperature rise, 0C
60 Inside
Surface
40
Form
removal
20
ΔT > 200C
Unprotected surface no cracking Fig II.5
cools fast
0 Timing of
formwork removal
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
impacts the risk of
Days
thermal cracks
Chapter II: Applications with specific requirements C. Massive structure 53
3. Concrete for massive

structures
To meet the temperature limits on the concrete
structure, additional measures on concrete are
required, as many parameters play a role in the final
results:
• Heat of hydration of the cement
• Design strength of concrete, which decides the
mix design (include cement content)
• Thickness of the concrete element
The mix design of the concrete can be optimized as

follows: Fig II.7 - Mock-up at jobsite
• Optimize cement content, by using more After execution of the concrete pour, suitable curing
advanced admixtures with insulation material (5cm minimum) is very
• Use larger size aggregates important to reduce the temperature difference
• Compressive strength requirement at 56 days between surface and core. Water curing should not
instead of 28 days. be used as it cools down the surface. For the same
reason, the slab has to be protected from heavy rain,
The fresh concrete temperature should be as low as as this will cool down the surface suddenly and
technically possible. In South Vietnam, maximum increases the risk of thermal cracks.
temperature of 30 – 320C can be obtained using
standard practices: During the hardening phase, the temperature of the
• Cover aggregates to reduce their temperature concrete is measured every two hour for at least 3
days. For this purpose, thermo-couples are placed on
• Sprinkle coarse aggregates regularly
different locations in the concrete element.
• Use of chilled water and ice.
Before the start of the concrete pour, a mock-up with

the casting thickness is strongly recommended to
check the compliance to the specifications. This
mock-up is insulated on the sides (5cm minimum) to Holcim recommendation
simulate the real dimensions of the pour. To reduce the risk of cracks in
massive elements, a combination of
several measures is required:
polystyrene
• Low heat cement compliant with TCVN
7712:2007 or ASTM C1157 type LH
5T
to reduce risk of thermal cracks.
4T
1T • Fresh concrete temperature
2T
3T should be < 300C
5M • Protect the concrete element
4M 1M 2M with insulation (5cm minimum)
against heat loss
3M
5B Before execution of the pour, a suitable
mock-up of the concrete pour verifies the
1B 2B
4B compliance to the temperature requirements.
3B • Maximum concrete temperature < 700C

• Maximum temperature difference < 200C
Fig II.6 - Trial mock-up

54
D. High strength concrete
1. Introduction
High strength concrete offers significantly higher
strength and stiffness (higher E modulus) than the
conventional concrete. A concrete is considered to
be high strength concrete from 60MPa to 100MPa.
Above 100MPa, the concrete is classified as ultra
high strength concrete.
High strength concrete is mainly used for elements

in compression, like columns and core walls in high
rise buildings. Other applications are prestressed
beams for bridges.
Because of its high strength, the column size can be

reduced up to 45%, compared to standard concrete.
This gives a number of benefits:
During construction:
• Savings in steel & reduced cost /m column
• Reduced weight and savings on foundation
For the building:

• Thinner columns, more architecturally pleasing
• More available floor space
Reduction of column section

6000 100%
90%
5000
80%
70%
Section area (m2)
Section area (%)
4000
60%
3000 50%
40%
2000
30%
1000 20%
10%
0 0%
B40 B60 B80 B100
Concrete grade
Source: BCA Pillars on Safe Built Environment (Singapore)
Fig II.8 - The correlation of concrete grade and column size

reduction
Fig II.9 - Slender columns in high rise buildings

Chapter II: Applications with specific requirements D. High strength concrete 55
Some recommendations to maintain the quality:

2. Production and use of high
• Control of moisture in the aggregates, especially
strength concrete sand (moisture probe)
In general, high strength concrete is produced with • Automatic dosing system for silica fume, to
specially selected high quality components: control and track the quantity
• High quality cement at dosage 450-500kg/m3 • Comprehensive quality management system, to
• Low water/cement-ratio < 0,35 assure the regularity of the supplied concrete
• Optimized aggregate grading, with selected and to reduce the risk of strength failures.
aggregates • The internal laboratory has been assessed and
• Use of very fine filler (silica fume, ultrafine slag) found to conform with the requirements of ISO/
to optimize fine fraction IEC 17025. The reliability of the internal quality
tests is very important to assure a stable
• Use of last generation super plasticizer
concrete quality at the project
admixture
High strength concrete has a very high fines content
Because of its low water/cement ratio, high strength
with a low water/cement ratio, and has the
concrete has a higher tendency to cracks than
tendency to be sticky. To be able to pump and place
normal concrete. So curing is very important:
this concrete, a high workability with slump >
180mm is normally used. • At initial phase, use curing compound for
exposed surfaces
For thick elements (>1m), special care is required to • As soon as possible, curing with wet cloth at
reduce the heat development in the concrete during least 7 days
hardening. In that case, the mix design needs to be
adapted in a similar way as for massive concrete
structures. Holcim recommendation
High strength concrete (60MPa – 100MPa)
For the concrete supplier, the main challenge of high
• Strength class: B45-B80 (TCXDVN 356:2005)
strength concrete is to maintain the quality over
or C50/60 – C80/95 (EN 206)
time – every single concrete truck - and avoid
strength failures on the project. • Slump : > 180mm
To control the quality of the concrete, the

readymix plant is equipped with:
• Moisture probe in sand bin
• Automatic dosing system for silica fume
• Comprehensive quality management system
• The internal laboratory has been assessed and found
conform with requirements of ISO/IEC 17025
56
E. Very flowable and
self compacting concrete
The benefits of very flowable and self-compacting
1. Introduction
concrete are diverse:
Very flowable and self compacting concrete offers a
a/ Saves construction time and costs
significantly higher workability than traditional
concrete, which allows a fast and easy concreting of • Faster placing with less labor
thin walls, columns and beams, with better surface • Easier to pump over higher and greater distances
finishing. • Easier to finishing surface
• Less to no compaction required – no noise
• Complex elements can be concreted in one time
• Avoid loss of time and cost to repair concrete
defects
b/ Increased construction quality

• Homogeneous concreting of zones with dense
steel reinforcement
• Perfect bond between concrete and steel
reinforcement
• No repairs for concrete voids and honeycombs
Fig II.10 - Determine flow of self compacting concrete needed
• Smooth surface finishing
Very flowable concrete and self compacting concrete

can be differentiated from normal concrete through
its workability (flow) and need for vibration to
compact the concrete :
Concrete Flow Applications
No vibration
Self compacting 660
required during
concrete – 850mm
casting
Easy casting for

structures with
Very flowable 450
high density of
concrete – 650mm
rebars.
(limited vibration)
Compaction is
Normal concrete <450mm
required
Table II.1 - Flow range with different types of concrete
Within self compacting concrete, different classes

can be distinguished (see European Guide on Self
Fig II.11 - Placing self compacting concrete Compacting Concrete)
• 550 – 650mm (SF1) : slabs with limited
reinforcement
• 660 – 750mm (SF2) : columns, walls
• 760 – 850mm (SF3) : complex shapes, filling
under formwork
Chapter II: Applications with specific requirements E. Very flowable and self compacting concrete 57
When using very flowable or self compacting

2. Production of very flowable
concrete, special attention has to be given to the
/ self compacting concrete formwork:
Generally speaking, this high performance concrete • The formwork should be completely tight, to
is produced with specially selected high quality avoid mortar loss
components: • The concrete pressure is higher than
• High quality cement, with stable quality conventional concrete, especially for vertical
• Optimized aggregate grading, with selected elements. The formwork should be designed
aggregates specifically to resist this hydrostatic pressure.
• Use of filler (limestone filler or other) to increase

the fines content
• Use of last generation super plasticizer
admixture
• Addition of a Viscosity Modifying Agent (VMA)
When designing the mix, special attention has to be

given to the stability of the mix:
• Impact of small changes in water content
• Presence of segregation & segregation
resistance (sieve test)
• Passing ability through reinforcement (L Box - for
self compacting concrete) Fig II.12 - L-box and J-ring test for self compacting concrete
For thick elements (> 1.5m), special care is required

to reduce the heat development in the concrete Holcim recommendation
during hardening. In that case, the mix design needs Very flowable concrete / self compacting
to be adapted in a similar way as for massive concrete
concrete structures.
• Strength class: B25-B45 (TCXDVN
356:2005) as required for the construction
For the concrete supplier, the main challenge of very
flowable / self compacting concrete, is to maintain • Flow: as required by application +/- 50mm
the quality over time – every single concrete truck - To control the quality of the concrete,
and avoid segregation / honey combs in the finished the readymix plant is equipped with:
element.
• Moisture probe in sand bin
Some recommendations to maintain the quality: • Comprehensive quality

management system
• Control of moisture in the aggregates, especially
sand (moisture probe) • The internal Laboratory has been assessed
• Comprehensive quality management system, to and found conform with

assure the regularity of the supplied concrete requirements of ISO/IEC 17025
and to reduce the risk of strength failures.
• The internal laboratory has been assessed and
found to conform with the requirements of ISO/
IEC 17025:2005.
The reliability of the internal quality tests is very

important to assure a stable concrete quality at the
project.
58
F. Cement treated aggregates
There are 2 main types of cement treated
1. Introduction
aggregates:
Cement treated aggregates can be used in different
• sand/cement - without any coarse aggregates
applications:
• cement treated aggregates 0/25
• Base layer for roads and highways
• Heavily loaded storage industrial platforms,
container ports etc
• Load distribution layer on top of CDM columns
(CDM: cement deep mixing as soil improvement
method)
Pavement
Base course Fig II.15 - Sand/ cement layer

Road
Loading structure
Subbase
Soil
Soil
stabilized
by CDM
Fig II.16 - Cement treated aggregates

Fig II.13 - Typical road structure
When aggregates are treated with a small quantity 2. Cement for treated
of cement, the bearing capacity and the stiffness aggregates
(E-modulus) of the layer increases resulting in a
longer service life of the structure. The cement used for the treated aggregate layer
must ensure a high efficiency to develop strength as
For the same bearing capacity, the addition of well as a long workability of the mix. The
cement to aggregates will reduce the required optimization tests in the laboratory will determine
thickness of the aggregate layer, which reduces the the compatibility of the cement and the aggregates.
use of natural resources and expensive aggregates.
In general, the cement complies to:
• TCVN 6260 : 2009, type PCB40
or
• TCVN 4316 : 2007, type PCBBFS40
Fig II.14 - Compaction of road base layer

Chapter II: Applications with specific requirements F. Cement treated aggregates 59
3. Testing procedure for 2.16
cement treated aggregates 2.14
2.12
Dry Density (g/cm3)

Cement treated aggregates are tested as following:
2.10
• Determine optimal moisture and max dry
density by proctor method, according to: 2.08
o 22TCN 333-06 2.06
or 2.04
o ASSHTO T180 - ASSHTO T99 2.02
Optimal moisture
2.00
Vary the moisture of mixture (Aggregate + Cement) 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 10% 11% 12% 13% 14%
Moisture
until the dry density of mixture reach highest value.
The moisture which gives the maximum dry density
Fig II.19 - The correlation between moisture and dry density
would be the optimal moisture (Fig II.18)
• In function of the aggregate size, the mould can

be choosen as follows:
o Coarse aggregates
22TCN 246/ASTM D558
or
o Fine aggregate (pass 4.75mm)
ASTM D1632
Sample 22TCN 246 - ASTM D558 Sample ASTM D1632
Fig II.17 - Apparatus to determine optimal moisture 101.6 x 116.4 mm 71 x 142 mm
Fig II.20 - Different sample size to determine compressive

strength
Note: When a different standard/test method is

applied, the measured strength will be different for
the same mix design. ASTM D1633 recommends a
correlation factor between different mould size.
Table II.2
Ratio of Length to Strength Correction
Strength
Diameter (L/D) Factor correlation factor
for different
2.0 1.0
sample size
1.75 0.98
1.50 0.96
1.25 0.93
1.00 0.87
Fig II.18 - Determine optimal moisture by proctor method

60 Chapter II: Applications with specific requirements F. Cement treated aggregates
• Curing • The workability is specified in accordance with

o The specimens are cured in the moulds in the standard EN 13286-45
moisture room for 12h o The bulk density of the mix is determined
o The specimens are removed from the moulds immediately after mixing (p(0)) and after
by the extruder defined intervals of waiting time (for
example 30min)
o The specimens are returned to moist room
o The workability period is the time which
o At the end of the moist–cure period, the
corresponds to the dry bulk density p(t) equal
specimens are immersed in water for 4 hours
to 98% of p(0)
• Unconfined compressive strength is than tested p (t)
according to the standard ASTM D1633 p (0)
o A screw power testing machine, with the 0,98p (0)
moving head operating at approximately

0.05 in. (1 mm)/min when the machine is
running idle, may be used
o With hydraulic machines, adjust the loading
to a constant rate within the limits of (140 ±
0
70 kPa/s)
fs f
Wpc
• Workability period of cement treated aggregates

Fig II.21 - The diagram to determine workability period for
o Just like normal concrete, cement treated cement treated aggregate layer
aggregates have a workability period, during
which the material has to be transported,
placed, leveled and compacted. Said differently, the standard allows a maximum
loss of 2% density after compaction, which will
o The workability period will depend strongly
already reduce the strength of the layer. After the
of the type of cement and aggregates, the
workability period, the loss of density will increase,
mix design and the temperature of the mix.
which reduces the compressive strength further.
It can range from 2-3 hours up to 10 hours
and even more.
The aggregate/cement mix, with a longer initial
setting time, allows more time for transport,
leveling and compaction and assures a better quality
of the compacted layer.
Chapter II: Applications with specific requirements F. Cement treated aggregates 61
4. Optimization of cement MPa

Mix Crushed + Sand (50:50)
treated aggregates 6.00
5.52
In South of Vietnam, there are many types of sand
5.00
with variable quality so the selection of sand is very
important, as well as the choice of cement that
4.00
offers a good compatibility with the selected 3.03
aggregate. 3.00
2.57
1.83
To optimise the cement content, laboratory tests are 2.00
1.19 1.43
required at different dosages e.g: 3%, 5% and 7% 1.50
1.02
(ratio of cement to aggregate on dry weight). 1.00
0.67
Based on project requirements for a targeted 0.00
strength, the optimal cement dosage can be

3% 3.6% 4% 5% 7%
Cement dosage
determined through regression analysis. 7 Days
28 Days Required strength

Additionally, an in-situ test at the project needs to
be conducted to confirm the laboratory tests with This experiment was carried out as follows :
Optimal moisture AASHTO T180
the real mixing and compaction equipment, before Sample moulding ASTM D558
execution. Compressive strength test ASTM D1633
After compaction of the layer, a suitable curing layer Fig II.23 - Relation between cement dosage and strength
(sprayed bitumen + sand) is recommended to:

• Avoid early dehydration of the layer and loss of
strength
• Reduce damage from rainfall, especially within
hours of compaction Holcim recommendation
For cement treated aggregates, Holcim recommends to use
cement PCB40 according to TCVN 6260:2009 or TCVN 4316:2007.
Before execution of the project, a laboratory study is required to
optimize the mix design:
• Determine optimal water content and optimal density of
the mix
• Test the compressive strength of at least 3 different cement
dosages
• By regression, determine the optimum cement dosage, to
reach the design strength
Fig II.22 - Laying and compaction sand/ cement layer

62
Causes and
Chapter III:
prevention of concrete
defects
Concrete in the construction can show different types of defects:
• Segregation of concrete
• Different type of cracks
• Carbonatation and corrosion of reinforcement
• Degradation in seawater environment
• Attack by chemical component in ground water or soil
• Attack by fire
A correct identification of the defect and its root cause will allow the user to take
appropriate measures to avoid them in future and improve the quality and durability of
the construction.
A. Segregation of Concrete 63
Various types of segregation can occur when Causes and remedial actions:
concrete is transported, conveyed, poured and The most important causes of concrete segregation
compacted. Segregation impairs the quality and /or (which also point to the remedies) are:
appearance of concrete to varying degrees. • Too high consistency of the fresh concrete
Segregation can occur: • Excessive dosage of a superplasticizer
• between different aggregate fractions • Improper placement or compaction of the
• between aggregate and cement paste concrete (failure to use vertical pipes for
• between fines and water excessive drop heights, concrete deposit points
In practice these types of segregation cannot be spaced too far apart, excessive vibrating)
clearly distinguished. • Unsuitable concrete composition (poor grading,
insufficient cement dosage)
The most important forms of segregation: • Maximum aggregate size too large for section
• Stone pockets, or concentrations of coarse poured
aggregate in the concrete (honey-comb)
• Mixing time too short
• Local concentrations of surplus water with fine
• Leaky forms, allowing cement paste to escape
cement and aggregate particles at vertical
(sieve effect)
surfaces of forms
• Bleeding or surplus mixing water that rises to • Reinforcement too dense (sieve effect)
the surface of the concrete. Bleeding causes
irregular, powdery porous surfaces.
• Micro-segregation or separation of cement and
sand/ fines. This blemishes the appearance of
concrete surfaces
Fig III.1 - Honey comb on concrete Fig III.2 - Stone pockets formed by segregation due to excessive
drop height and/or reinforcement that is too dense
64
B. Cracking
Control of Cracking Cracks Classification
Why control the cracks in concrete? A fundamental There are many types of cracks in a concrete
requirement of any concrete structure is its structure, but they can be classified into 5 main
performance over its intended design life. Concrete types: plastic settlement, plastic shrinkage, early
must be able to withstand wear and deterioration thermal, drying shrinkage, surface crazing (Fig III.3).
given the environment and maintenance regime for
which it was designed. If a concrete structure meets 9 4
its intended design life when exposed to its 4
anticipated environment, then it can be described as 13 2 8 8
being durable. 10
3 6
The most common form of concrete defect is

cracking. It becomes more vulnerable to the 5
11
penetration of damaging elements and is more 5

12
prone to spalling, wear and abrasive damage.
1
Therefore, through the control of the cracks, the 14
8 7
servicelife of concrete structures can be improved,

8
saving cost for repair and replacement.
Fig III.3 - Cracking location in concrete structure:

Allowed crack width a. Plastic settlement : 4, 5, 6, 13
For reinforced concrete sections without b. Plastic shrinkage : 1, 2 , 3
specific requirements, a maximum crack width
c. Early thermal : 11, 12
up to 0.3mm is allowed in ACI 224R and BS
d. Drying shrinkage : 8
8110. Bigger crack width must be repaired by
e. Surface crazing : 9, 10
epoxy injection.
Each type of those cracks occurs in concrete at

different moments from placing to hardening of the
elements (Fig III.4)
Hours Days Weeks Months Years
Plastics Settlement
Plastics Shrinkage
Early thermal
Drying Shrinkage
Fig III.4 – Time period of cracking occurrence

Chapter III: Causes and prevention of concrete defects B. Cracking 65
1. Plastic settlement cracks Preventive measures

In plastic concrete, bleed water surfaces due to • More cohesive mix, with enough fines and
gravity. If the accompanying settlement is restricted low tendency to segregation
by form work or reinforcement, cracking may occur. • Increase the ratio of cover to reinforcing
bar diameter, by increasing the cover or
The cracks occur while the concrete is plastic and decreasing the size of the bars.
frequently while bleed water is still rising and covers
• Set all formwork accurately and rigidly.
the surface. They tend to roughly follow the
• Good compaction of the concrete
restraining element, for example reinforcing bars, or
changes in the concrete section. They can be quite • Cure the concrete promptly and properly.
wide at the surface, tend to extend only to the
reinforcement or other restraining element and
taper in width to that location (Fig III.5). In exposed
situations, this may increase the risk of corrosion of
the reinforcement and pose a threat to durability.
Cracks may develop further, due to subsequent

drying shrinkage, leading to possible cracking
through the full depth of the concrete member. This
type of cracking is often caused by insufficient
consolidation (vibration) and high slump (overly wet
concrete).
Typical plastic settlement is approximately 6-8mm

per meter depth of the concrete element
(corresponding to a typical bleeding rate of 6-8 liters
per cubic meter). Common elements that often
crack, are deep sections, top of column, suspended
floor…
Fig III.5
Plastic
Settlement cracks
Differential settlement cracks settlement
cracking
direction in
concrete
structure
Reinforcing Large aggregate
bar particles
SECTION A-A SECTION A-A
Differential
A A A settlement A
Settlement cracks
cracks
(a) (b)
66 Chapter III: Causes and prevention of concrete defects B. Cracking
2. Plastic shrinkage cracks Preventive measures

Plastic shrinkage cracks occur on the surface of • Use of anti-evaporation curing agent after
freshly placed concrete during finishing or soon screed or floating and before finishing
afterwards (but before final set of concrete). This • Avoid the windiest and/or driest part of the
type of cracks is normally random, without a clear day
orientation.
• Start curing as soon as possible after
finishing
Cracks due to plastic shrinkage are caused by rapid
• Dampen formwork, sub grade and
loss of mixing water once the concrete is in place.
reinforcement
This can be due to excessive water evaporation or
excessive water absorption by the formwork or • Cover with plastic sheet prior to finishing
earth. This causes the concrete to shrink locally, • Use of polypropylene fibers in the concrete
while other areas without water loss, hardly shrink
at all. This induces tensile stresses within the
concrete. If the stresses exceed the tensile strength
of the concrete (naturally very low at the beginning)
cracks will form (Fig III.6). They can exceed 1mm.
Horizontal concrete slabs can be particularly
susceptible to plastic shrinkage (Fig III.7)
Fig III.6 – Surface cracks caused by plastic shrinkage due to Fig III.7 – Extensive plastic shrinkage cracking in concrete
excessive water loss in the surface layer of the concrete
Chapter III: Causes and prevention of concrete defects B. Cracking 67
3. Surface Crazing 4. Drying Shrinkage cracks

Crazing is the development of a dense network of Once the concrete has set, drying shrinkage
fine random cracks on the surface of concrete continues for weeks and months before finally
caused by shrinkage of the surface layer. They are coming to a virtual end (Fig III.9). Drying shrinkage
more likely to occur on steel trowelled surfaces. (also called hydraulic shrinkage) is caused by:
These cracks rarely compromise structural integrity • hydration of the cement, which binds part of the
of the concrete. mixing water
• evaporation of mixing water from the concrete
Crazing occurs when good concrete practice is not
surface
followed, for example poor curing, wet mixes, rapid
• initial adjustment of the temperature of the
surface drying or when concrete is finished too early
concrete to that of the environment
while bleed water is still present. This phenomenon
often occurs on “fair-faced” concrete element (Fig. Drying shrinkage of concrete occurs at a rate of 0.3 –
III.8) and can be recognized as: 1.0 mm/m, depending on mix design, aggregate
type, w/c ratio and the degree of drying out. If the
• A network of fine random cracks on the surface
humidity of concrete increases, due to exposure to
• Rarely more than 2mm depth
rain for example, the concrete section will expand a
• Typically form hexagonal shaped areas no more bit, meaning that drying shrinkage will be
than 40mm across somewhat set back. After further drying, shrinkage
will return to the previous level.
Drying shrinkage leads to cracking because the

concrete section is typically unable to contract as
shrinkage would dictate. Contraction may be
prevented by the reinforcement, by the substrate, or
by a concrete section being fixed in some way to
other members (restrained shrinkage cracks).
Fig III.8 – Surface crazing on concrete
Preventive measures
• Avoid mortar-rich concrete mix (lower
sand/aggregate ratio)
• Use coarse sand, avoid very fine sand, if
possible
• Keep setting time of concrete under control
• Cure the concrete as soon as possible.
• Don’t finish concrete while bleed water
exists
• Never sprinkle or trowel dry cement or a
mixture of cement and fine sand to absorb
Fig III.9 – Typical drying-shrinkage cracks in a concrete slab
bleeding water
• Avoid overcompaction of concrete
68 Chapter III: Causes and prevention of concrete defects B. Cracking
Typical examples are long slabs and walls (Fig III.10).

5. Early Thermal Cracking
Cracks can form due to thermal shrinkage if a
significant temperature differential exists within a
concrete body. Temperature differences can arise
due to the relatively low thermal conductivity of
concrete. Such differences develop frequently in
massive sections when the heat of hydration is
released and the core temperature increases
significantly. When temperature equalization within
the concrete section occurs, internal stresses will be
induced, because high-temperature areas contract
more than low-temperature areas. If the stresses
exceed the tensile strength of the concrete, cracks
will form (Fig III.11).
The thermal cracks can occur on pile caps,

foundation blocks, massive columns.
Fig III.10 – Restrained drying shrinkage in a wall
Preventive measures
At least for reinforced concrete and larger
concrete sections, there is no way to allow the
concrete to freely shrink – cracking is
unavoidable. But by taking suitable measures,
relatively wide cracks, the damaging cracks,
can be avoided, and in their place numerous,
harmless, barely visible hairline cracks will
form. The preventive measures:
• Proper installation of shrinkage reinforcement
• Installing contraction joints in large
horizontal slabs or long walls at every 6-9m
length according to TCXDVN 313:2004 Fig III.11 - Early thermal cracking on concrete
• Optimize the w/c ratio within the range
0.40 – 0.50
• Reduce the paste volume, use larger size
aggregates Preventive measures
See chapter II.C – Mass Concrete structures
C. Carbonation and corrosion 69
of reinforcement
How does carbonation phenomenon occur?
Carbonation is a chemical reaction between the
carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air with calcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) in the concrete. The process
begins on the surface of concrete and progresses
slowly toward the interior. Carbonation has a
positive influence on the concrete itself, making it
more compact.
Effects of carbonation on reinforced concrete

On the other hand, carbonation of concrete can
result in serious damage of steel reinforcement. In
Fig III.13 - Concrete cover over reinforcement spalled due to
non-carbonated concrete, the high alkalinity (pH >
carbonation and rusting
12) protects the steel from corrosion. Carbonation
reduces the alkalinity (pH < 9), so corrosion starts as The rate at which the carbonation front penetrates
soon as the carbonation front (Fig III.12) reaches the concrete is proportional to the permeability of the
reinforcement. Corrosion causes the steel to expand, concrete. The rate decreases gradually with the time
which leads to scaling of the concrete covering the (Fig III.14). The rate of carbonation, and thus the
reinforcement (Fig III.13). This greatly accelerates depth are also influenced by number of other factors
further corrosion of the reinforcing steel, and the such as cement content, concrete strength, curing
concrete rapidly loses its load-bearing capacity and time and exposure to moisture, which may be
serviceability. permanent, alternating or totally lacking.
cacbonat hóa(mm)
carbonation
Chiềuofsâu
Depth (mm)
ThờiTime
gian (năm)
(years)
Fig III.14 - The depth of carbonation varies widely as a

function of time, depending on other influencing factors
Preventive measures
To prevent corrosion of reinforcement by
carbonation, the carbonation front must be
prevented from reaching the reinforcement.
This is achieved by:
Fig III.12 - Carbonation front made visible by a • Sufficient concrete cover all around the
phenolphthalein test on a cut into the concrete. The
reinforcement, generally at least 30 mm.
concrete dyed violet by phenolphthalein has not yet been
carbonated. • Good curing of the concrete, so that after
removal of formwork, the surface concrete
hydrates well and the rate of carbonation is
minimized
70
D. Degradation in seawater
environment
In seawater, concrete can be degraded by two main In presence of chlorides in the concrete, steel
attack mechanisms: reinforcement can corrode locally, even when the
• Chloride-induced corrosion of the steel concrete pH is still high (pH>12). This mechanism is
reinforcement called “pitting corrosion” (Fig III.16), which is very
different from the distributed corrosion, linked to
• Sulphate attack of the cement matrix
carbonation of concrete. This process can be
described according to the reaction:
In general, the degradation from chloride-induced
corrosion advances significantly faster than the Fe2+ + 2Cl- ---> FeCl2
sulphate attack of the cement matrix, and is the
biggest threat for concrete structures in contact The effects of chloride attack are:
with seawater. • Significant and fast reduction of the steel section
For this reason, Ordinary Portland Cement OPC with (locally)
a low C3A-content (sulfate resistant OPC according • Risk for failure of construction
TCVN 6067 or C150 – OPC type V) is not • Does not create significant cracks in concrete, so
recommended for seawater environment, as it has a it is less visible
lower chloride resistance, compared to standard
cement PCB40 (Refer Chapter 4 of ACI 201.2R-01).
Submerged wetting and drying of concrete, for

example in the tidal zone, accelerates the
degradation of concrete in sea water.
1. Chloride-induced corrosion
of the steel reinforcement
Concrete in contact with sea water or close to the
sea can be damaged by attack by the chloride ions in
sea water (Fig III.15). Chloride ions can also be
introduced into concrete by the mixing water, by
contaminated aggregates (for example: marine Concrete carbonation Chloride corrosion
aggregates) or chloride-based accelerators (which (distributed corrosion) (concentrated pitting corrosion)
are forbidden in most countries).

Fig III.16 – Mechanism of attack reinforcement steel by
chloride and CO2
Fig III.15
– Corrosion of
steel
reinforcement in
concrete in sea
water
Chapter III: Causes and prevention of concrete defects D. Degradation in seawater environment 71
2. Attack by sulfates from 3. Preventive measures

seawater Refer chapter II.B (Application for aggressive
environment)
In seawater, sulfate attack can occur at the surface
of the concrete, with the same mechanism as
mentioned in the chapter on chemical attack
(see chapter III.E)
As this reaction is slower than choride-induced

corrosion, it mainly appears as secondary reaction:
first the concrete is degraded by the corrosion of the
reinforcement, then additional damage is done by
sulfate attack.
72
E. Chemical attack
1. Classification
The durability of concrete does not only depend on the mix design but as well on the environment where the
concrete is exposed. An in-depth analysis on the aggressive environment is crucial to guarantee a long life
time of the concrete structure. According to standard EN 206, we can classify three levels of aggression
chemical environment following sign XA1, XA2 and XA3 (Table III.1 - Limiting value for exposure class for
chemical attack from natural soil and ground water)
Chemical Reference
XA1 XA2 XA3
Characteristic test method
Ground water
SO4 -2 (mg/l) EN 196-2 ≥ 200 and ≤ 600 >600 and ≤3000 > 3000 and ≤ 6000
pH ISO 4316 ≤ 6,5 and ≥ 5,5 < 5,5 and ≤ 4,5 < 4,5 and ≥ 4,0
CO2 Pr EN 13577 : > 100 up to

> 15 and ≤ 40 > 40 and < 100
(mg/l aggressive) 1999 saturation
+ ISO 7150-1 or
NH4 (mg/l) > 15 and < 30 > 30 and < 60 > 60 and < 100
ISO 7150-2
> 3000 up to
Mg (mg/l) ISO 7980 ≥ 300 and ≤ 1000 > 1000 and < 3000
saturation
Soil
≥ 2000 and > 3000(*) and > 12000 and

SO4 -2 (mg/kg total) EN 196-2
≤ 3000(*) ≤ 12000 ≤ 24000
> 200 Baumann

Acidity (ml/kg) DIN 4030-2 Not encountered in practice
Gully
XA1 : Slightly aggressive chemical environment; XA2 : Moderately aggressive chemical environment
XA3 : Highly aggressive chemical environment
(*) : The 3000mg/kg limit shall be reduced to 2000mg/kg, where there is a risk of accumulation of sulfate ions in the
concrete due to drying and wetting cycles or capillary section
Table III.1 - Limiting value for exposure class for chemical attack from natural soil and ground water
according to standard EN-206 (attack from seawater is discussed separately)
Depending on the type of chemical attack, concrete

can either remain stable or degrade more or less
rapidly. There are two basic types of damage:
a. Chemical decomposition:
Chemical decomposition of concrete is characterized
by the degrading of one or more constituents of
the hardened cement by external chemicals (Fig
III.17). The decomposed constituent is leached out of
the concrete. The concrete becomes gradually more acid attack
porous, loses strength, and loses protection of the
reinforcement against corrosion. The process always
begins at the interface between concrete and the
aggressive chemical, and progresses (usually slowly)
toward the concrete interior. Fig III.17 - Cement mortar prism attacked by acid
Chapter II: Applications with specific requirements E. Chemical attack 73
b. Swelling due to chemical reaction

2. Preventive measures
The second type of chemical attack is caused by the
reaction of a chemical with one or more Protecting concrete from external chemical attack
constituents of the hardened cement in the requires a dense concrete:
presence of capillary water. If the reaction produces • Suitable cement choice
a solid compound with a greater volume than the • Low porosity, with a maximum w/c ratio
component solids, the concrete will swell. The
For external chemical attack, blended cements offer
stresses produced will soon exceed the tensile
significant benefits over Ordinary Portland Cement
strength of the concrete, and cracks will form,
OPC, as the blending materials (for example slag) will
expanding slowly but steadily.
reduce the pore size of the concrete and improve the
resistance to chemical attack.
An example is sulfate attack - sulfates in soil or
groundwater can attack hardened concrete. Sulfates
If attack by dissolved sulfates is expected, these
combine with tricalcium aluminate (C3A) in cement
measures must be combined with the use of cement
to form the compound ettringite. This reaction
with high sulfate resistance.
involves a significant increase in volume and
degradation of the concrete.
Additional measures include:
• Increased concrete cover over reinforcement
(“sacrificial layer”)
• Special attention to curing
Concrete is relatively resistant to weak acids (XA1) only.

Moderately strong acids and strong acids can attack
concrete to the point of unserviceableness. In case of
strong acids or when no degradation is allowed,
additional acid-resistant coating (synthetic resin,
ceramic, etc.) should be considered by the designer.
Fig III.18
Prefabricated
jacking pipe
elements for
waste water
tunnel
74
F. Alkali – Aggregate Reaction
Alkali-aggregate reaction is a slowly progressing
chemical reaction between certain so-called reactive Preventive measures
aggregate and alkalis that are present in the • Use a cement with low alkali content (%
concrete or that penetrate into the concrete from Na2O eq = % (Na2O + 0.658xK2O) < 0.6%)
the environment. This reaction involves swelling of • Determination of the potential reaction of
the concrete, leading ultimately to heavy cracking these aggregate, through various tests
and significant loss of strength. (chapter I). This should be done extensively
for different layers of the quarry, used at
Alkali-aggregate reaction is known in many the project.
countries. It is difficult to recognize the reaction
with certainty, partially because the processes
involved can extend over a period of time from one
year up to fourty years (Fig III.19)
Conditions that induce alkali-aggregate reaction

Alkali-aggregate reaction can occur only when all
of these conditions are simultaneously met:
• Presence of reactive aggregate
• Sufficient moisture in the concrete
(almost always the case)
• Sufficient alkali in the concrete
Fig III.19
Heavy cracking
due to swelling
of concrete
caused by
alkali-aggregate
reaction
G. Fire Resistance 75
1. Concrete in fire
Concrete has a high resistance against fire. Even
when exposed to extremely high temperatures,
concrete emits no smoke or toxic gases. Rather,
concrete prevents fire from spreading. When fire
impacts concrete, the temperature of the concrete
increases slowly. Therefore concrete offers excellent
protection against the spread of fire, without
requiring any fire-resistance treatment. Only after
long and intensive exposure to fire, portions of the
concrete may delaminate or spall off (Fig III.20).
Fig III.21 - Penetration depth of the critical temperature

(300°C) in concrete exposed to 1000°C heat.
2. Preventive measures
Concrete offers excellent intrinsic protection against
fire and high temperatures.
In most buildings, no additional precautions or

coatings are required to resist fire.
In specific cases, the protection can be enhanced by

increasing the reinforcement cover.
For high strength concrete, the addition of

polypropylene fibres may be required to avoid
excessive spalling.
Fig III.20 – Steel reinforcement exposed after the concrete
cover was spalled off in a fire. The load-bearing capacity of
the concrete structure is undiminished.
Critical temperature:
Reinforced and non-reinforced concrete can
withstand temperatures up to 300°C without
damage. This critical temperature of concrete is
reached only very slowly with exposure to fire.
Studies show that it takes one hour for the critical
temperature of 300°C to penetrate 2 cm into the
concrete when the surface is exposed to a flame
temperature of 1000°C (Fig III.21). This temperature
roughly corresponds to that of a blazing wood fire or
gas flame. Under these test conditions, the critical
temperature reaches a depth of 5 cm after 2 hours.
76
Overview of cement
Chapter IV:
and concrete standards

To understand quickly the requirements of each standard, this chapter gives an overview of the main
referenced standards in this manual. For the complete details of each standard, please refer to the official
standard itself.
As worldwide there are many standards available, this overview only lists the standards that are currently
used in Vietnam.
A. Cement B. Concrete
VIETNAMESE STANDARDS – TCVN VIETNAMESE STANDARDS – TCVN
• Portland Blended Cement – Specifications • TCXDVN 374:2006
TCVN 6260 : 2009
• Portland Cement – Specifications AMERICAN STANDARDS – ASTM
TCVN 2682 : 2009
• ASTM C94
• Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement
TCVN 4316 : 2007
EUROPEAN STANDARDS – EN
• Sulfate Resistant Portland Cement
TCVN 6067 : 2004 • EN 206-1:2000
• Sulfate Resistant Blended Portland Cement

TCVN 7711 : 2007 BRITISH STANDARDS – BS
• Low Heat Blended Portland Cement • BS 5328
TCVN 7712 : 2007
AMERICAN STANDARDS - ASTM

• Standard Performance Specification For
Hydraulic Cement C. Recommendation for
ASTM C1157 : 2008
• Ordinary Portland cement – Specifications
limiting values of concrete
ASTM C150 : 2011 composition
• Chloride - induced corrosion in sea water
EUROPEAN STANDARDS - BS-EN (EN 206-1:2000)
• Composition, Specifications and Conformity • Aggressive chemical environments
Criteria for Common Cement (EN 206-1:2000)
EN 197-1: 2011
A. Cement 77

VIETNAMESE STANDARD - TCVN
PORTLAND BLENDED CEMENT – SPECIFICATIONS

TCVN 6260 : 2009 (Old version: TCVN 6260 : 1997)
1. Composition 2. Classification
Portland blended cement is produced by Portland blended cement consists of 3 grades:
• Grinding portland clinker with a necessary PCB30, PCB40 and PCB50 with
gypsum content and mineral additives. Grinding • PCB is defined sign of portland blended cement
aid can be used in the grinding process if
• 30, 40 and 50 is the minimum compressive
necessary.
strength of standard mortar sample at 28 days in
MPa, testing method complies with TCVN 6016 :
1995 (ISO 679 : 1989)
3. Physical Specification
No Characteristics Unit Requirement Test Method PCB30 PCB40 PCB50
Compressive Strength
min 14 18 22
1 - 3 days MPa TCVN 6016:1995
min 30 40 50
- 28 days
Setting time
min 45
2 - Initial set minute TCVN 6017:1995
max 420
- Final set
Fineness
- Retained content on % max 10
3 TCVN 4030:2003
sieve 0.09mm 2800
(cm2/g) min
- Specific surface - Blaine
4 Soundness mm max TCVN 6017:1995 10
5 Autoclave (1) Expansion % max TCVN 7711:2007 0.8

(1)
Apply when customers require
4. Chemical Specification
No Characteristics Unit Requirement Test Method PCB30 PCB40 PCB50
1 Grinding Aid Content % max - 1.0
- Mineral additives
Content % max 40
2 -
- Filler Content (in % max 20
mineral additives)
3 MgO Content in Clinker % max TCVN 141:2008 5.0
4 SO3 content % max TCVN 141:2008 3.5

78 Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards A. Cement/ Vietnamese standard - TCVN
ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT – SPECIFICATIONS

Portland cement is produced by grinding portland Portland cement consists of 3 grades: PC30, PC40
clinker with a necessary gypsum content (comply and PC50 with
with TCVN 5438 : 2007). Grinding aid can be used in • PC is defined sign of portland cement
the grinding process if necessary.
MPa, testing method complies with TCVN 6016 :
1995 (ISO 679 : 1989)
No Characteristics Unit Requirement Test Method PC30 PC40 PC50
min 16 21 25
1 - 3 days MPa TCVN 6016:1995
min 30 40 50
- 28 days
Setting time
min 45
max 375
- Final set
Fineness
3 TCVN 4030:2003
sieve 0.09mm (cm2/g) min 2800
4 Soundness (mm) mm max TCVN 6017:1995 10
No Characteristics Unit Requirement Test Method PC30 PC40 PC50
1 Grinding Aid Content % max - 1.0

3 MgO Content % max TCVN 141:2008 5.0
4 Loss of ignition % max TCVN 141:2008 3.0
5 Insoluble rest % max TCVN 141:2008 1.5
Alkali content (1)
6 %Na2O eq = %Na2O + % max TCVN 141:2008 0.6

0.658%K2O
(1)
Define for Portland Cement when using with aggregate which may cause alkali-silica reaction
Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards A. Cement/ Vietnamese standard - TCVN 79
PORTLAND BLAST FURNACE SLAG CEMENT

Portland blast furnace slag cement is produced by Portland blast furnace slag cement is classified into
• Grinding clinker portland cement with a 2 types:
necessary gypsum content and Blast Furnace • Type I: slag content is from 40 % to 60% - signed
Slag (comply with TCVN 4315 : 2007) PCBBFSI
• Or well mixing ground blast furnace slag with • Type II: slag content is from 60 % to 70% - signed
Portland Cement PCBBFSII
Type I Type II
Test
No Characteristics Unit Requirement PCBBFS PCBBFS PCBBFS PCBBFS PCBBFS PCBBFS
Method
30 40 50 30 40 50
Compressive
Strength min TCVN 14 18 22 12 16 20
1 MPa
- 3 days min 6016:1995 30 40 50 30 40 50
- 28 days
Setting time
min TCVN 45
2 - Initial minute
max 6017:1995 10
- Final
Fineness
TCVN
3 - Specific (cm2/g) min 3300
4030:2003
surface -Blaine
TCVN
4 Soundness mm max 10
6017:1995
No Characteristics Unit Requirement Test Method PCBBFS
2 MgO Content % max TCVN 141:2008 6.0
3 Loss of ignition % max TCVN 141:2008 3.0

SULFATE RESISTANT PORTLAND CEMENT

Sulfate resistant portland cement is produced by Portland cement consists of 3 grades: PCSR30, PCSR40
grinding sulfate resistant portland clinker with a and PCSR50 with
necessary gypsum content • PCSR is defined sign of sulfate resistant portland
cement
MPa (testing method complies with TCVN 6016 :
1995)
No Characteristics Unit Requirement Test Method PCSR30 PCSR40 PCSR50
min 12 16 20
1 - 3 days MPa TCVN 6016:1995
min 30 40 50
- 28 days
Setting time
min 45
max 375
- Final set
Fineness
- Retained content on sieve % max 12 10 8
3 TCVN 4030:2003
0.08mm (cm2/g) min 2800 3000 3200
4 Soundness mm max TCVN 6017:1995 10
5 Sulfate Expansion at 14 days % max TCVN 6068:2004 0.04(1)
No Characteristics Unit Requirement Test Method PCSR30 PCSR40 PCSR50

2 MgO Content % max TCVN 141:2008 5
3 Loss of ignition % max TCVN 141:2008 3
4 C3A content % max see Note 1 3.5 (2)
5 (C4AF + 2C3A) content % max see Note 2 25 (2)
Alkali content
6 %Na2O eq = %Na2O + % max TCVN 141:2008 0.6
0.658%K2O
7 Residue insoluble % max TCVN 141:2008 1
8 BaO content % max TCVN 141:2008 1.5 – 2.5 (3)
Note 1 : (C3A) = (2.650 x %Al2O3) - (1.692 x %Fe2O3)
Note 2 : (C4AF + 2C3A) = (3.043 x %Fe2O3) + 2C3A
Note:
• Only require (1) or (2)
• (3) only require for sulfate resistant portland cement consist of BaO
Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards A. Cement/ Vietnamese standard - TCVN 81
SULFATE RESISTANT BLENDED PORTLAND CEMENT

TCVN 7711 : 2007
Sulfate resistant blended portland cement is Sulfate resistant blended portland cement is
produced by grinding portland cement clinker with a classified into 2 types: PCBMSR30, PCBMSR40, PCBMSR50,
necessary gypsum content and: PCBHSR30, PCBHSR40, PCBHSR50.
• Blast furnace slag (comply with TCVN 4315 : • PCBMSR is defined sign of moderate sulfate
2007) resistant blended portland cement
• Other mineral additives (comply with TCVN 6882 • PCBHSR is defined sign of high sulfate resistant
: 2001) blended portland cement
MPa (testing method complies with TCVN 6016)
Level
Test
No Characteristics Unit Requirement PCBMSR PCBHSR
Method
30 40 50 30 40 50
min TCVN 18 20 22 16 18 20
1 - 3 days MPa
min 6016:1995 30 40 50 30 40 50
- 28 days
Setting time
min TCVN 45
2 - Initial set minute
max 6017:1995 375
- Final set
Fineness
% max
- Retained content on 10
TCVN
3 sieve 0.08mm
4030 :2003
- Specific surface-Blaine cm2/g min 2800
Sulfate durability
(Defined by the
expansion of mortar
bar in sulfate TCVN
4 solution): 7713 :2007
- 6 months max 0.10 0.05

%
- 12 months max - 0.10
The expansion of
TCVN
5 mortar bar in water % max 0.02
6068 :2004
after 14 days
The expansion by TCVN

6 % max 0.8
autoclave method 7711 :2007
LOW HEAT BLENDED PORTLAND CEMENT

TCVN 7712 : 2007
Low heat blended portland cement is produced by Low heat blended portland cement is classified into
grinding portland clinker with a necessary gypsum 2 types: PCBMH, PCBLH
content and: • PCBMH is defined sign of moderate heat of
• Blast furnace slag hydration blended portland cement, it consists:
(comply with TCVN 4315 : 2007) PCBMH30, PCBMH40
• Other mineral additives • PCBLH is defined sign of Low heat of hydration
(comply with TCVN 6882 : 2001) blended portland cement, it consists: PCBLH30,
PCBLH40
• 30 and 40 is the minimum compressive strength
of standard mortar sample at 28 days in MPa
(testing method complies with TCVN 6016)
Level
Moderate heat Low heat

No Characteristics Unit Requirement Test method
PCBMH PCBLH
30 40 30 40
Heat of hydration
kJ/kg max TCVN 290 (70) 250 (60)
1 - 7 days
(cal/g) max 6070:2005 335 (80) 290 (70)
- 28 days
Compressive strength
min TCVN 18 24 18 24
2 -7 days MPa
min 6016:1995 30 40 30 40
-28 days
Setting time 45
min TCVN
3 - Initial set minute
max 6017:1995 375
- Final set
Fineness
TCVN
4 sieve 0.08mm
4030 :2003
- Specific surface-Blaine cm2/g min 2800
The expansion by TCVN

5 % max 0.8
autoclave method 7711 :2007
Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards A. Cement/ American standard - ASTM 83
AMERICAN STANDARD – ASTM
STANDARD PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION FOR HYDRAULIC CEMENT

ASTM C1157: 2008 (Old version: ASTM C1157: 2002)
1. Composition
Blended hydraulic cement – a hydraulic cement consisting of two or more inorganic ingredients which
contribute to the strength-gaining properties of the cement, which or without other ingredients, processing
additions, and functional additions
2. Classification
No Type of Cement
Hydraulic cement for general construction.
1 Type GU
Use when one or more of the special types are not required
2 Type HE High early strength
3 Type MS Moderate sulfate resistant
4 Type HS High sulfate resistant
5 Type MH Moderate heat of hydration
6 Type LH Low heat of hydration
No Cement type Unit Requirement Test methods GU HE MS HS MH LH

Strength range
- 1 day - 10 - - - -
ASTM C109/
1 - 3 days MPa min 13 17 11 11 5 -
C109M
- 7 days 20 - 18 18 11 11
- 28 days 28 - - 25 - 21
Autoclave length
2 % max ASTM C151 0.8
change
Time of setting,
3
Vicat test min
minute ASTM C191
- Initial max 45
- Initial 420
4 Heat of hydration
- 7 days kJ/kg max ASTM C186 - - - - 290 250
- 28 days max - - - - - 290
Mortar bar
5 % max ASTM C1038 0.02
expansion 14 days
Sulfate expansion
6
(sulfate resistant)
% ASTM C1012
- 6 months max - - 0.1 0.05 - -
- 1 year max - - - 0.1 - -
“-” : Not required
84 Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards A. Cement/ American standard - ASTM
PORTLAND CEMENT – SPECIFICATIONS

ASTM C150: 2011 (Old version: ASTM C150: 2007)
1. Classification
• Portland cement – a hydraulic cement produced by pulverizing clinker consisting essentially of hydraulic
calcium silicates, usually containing one or more of the forms of calcium sulfate as an inter ground
addition.
• There are five types of portland cement in this specification.
No Type of cement
1 Type I For use when the special properties specified for any other type are not required
For general use, more especially when moderate sulfate resistant

2 Type II
or moderate heat of hydration is desired
3 Type III For use when high early strength is desired
4 Type IV For use when a low heat of hydration is desired
5 Type V For use when high sulfate resistance is desired
When air-entraining is desired, cement type IA, IIA and IIIA are specified
2. Physical specification
No Characteristics Unit Requirement Test methods I II III IV V
Air content of mortar,

1 % max ASTM C185 12 12 12 12 12
volume
min - - - - -
Fineness, specific surface m /kg
2
min ASTM C115 150 150 - 150 150

- Turbidiameter test
2 max 245
min ASTM C204 260 260 - 260 260
- Air permeability test
max 430
3 Autoclave expansion % max ASTM C151 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
Compressive strength MPa
- 1 day - - 12 - -
ASTM
4 - 3 days 12 10 24 - 8
C109/C109M
- 7 days 19 17 - 7 15
- 28 days - - - 17 21
Time of setting minute
- Vicat test
5 ASTM C191
- Time of setting min 45 45 45 45 45
- Time of setting max 375 375 375 375 375
“-” : Not required
Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards A. Cement/ American standard - ASTM 85
3. Chemical specification
No Characteristics Unit Requirement Test methods I II III IV V
1 Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) % max ASTM C114 - 6.0 - - -
2 Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) % max ASTM C114 - 6.0 - 6.5 -
3 Magnesium oxide (MgO) % max ASTM C114 6.0
Sulfur trioxide (SO3)
4 - When (C3A) is 8% or less % max ASTM C563 3.0 3.0 3.5 2.3 2.3
- When (C3A) is more than 8% 3.5 - 4.5 - -
5 Loss on ignition % max ASTM C114 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.5 3.0
6 Insoluble residue % max ASTM C114 0.75
7 Tricalcium silicate (C3S) % max ASTM C114 - - - 35 -
8 Dicalcium silicate (C2S) % min ASTM C114 - - - 40 -
9 Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) % max ASTM C114 - 8 15 7 5
(C4AF+2(C3A))content or
10 % max ASTM C114 - - - - 25
(C4AF+C2F), as applicable
86 Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards A. Cement/ European standard - EN
EUROPEAN STANDARD – EN
COMPOSITION, SPECIFICATIONS AND CONFORMITY CRITERIA

FOR COMMON CEMENTS
EN 197-1: 2011 (Old version EN 197-1:2000)
1. Composition 2. Classification:
Depend on type of cement, which cement comply Standard strength :
with EN standard can consist of different main • There are 3 classes of standard strength at 28
constituents as: days: class 32,5 class 42,5 and class 52,5.
• Portland cement clinker
• Three early strength classes are provided for
• Blast furnace slag
each class of standard strength.
• Pozzolan
- Class with ordinary early strength, indicated by N.
• Fly ash
- Class with high early strength, indicated by R.
• Burnt shale
- Class with low early strength, indicated by L.
• Limestone
• Silica fume
Beside the minor additional constituents can be
used to improve the physical properties of the
cement.
Requirements
Test Cement
No Characteristics Strength class
methods Type (1)
32.5N 32.5R 32.5L* 42.5N 42.5R 42.5L* 52.5N 52.5R 52.5L*
2
- ≥ 10.0 - ≥ 10.0 ≥ 20.0 - ≥ 20.0 ≥ 30.0 ≥ 10.0
Early strength days
(MPa) 7
≥ 16.0 - ≥ 12.0 - - ≥ 16.0 - - -
1 days EN 196-1 All
Standard 28 ≥ 32.5 ≥ 42.5 ≥ 52.5

strength (MPa) days
≤ 52.5 ≤ 62.5 -
Initial setting time

2 EN 196-3 All ≥ 75 ≥ 45
(min)
Soundness /Expansion
3 EN 196-3 All ≤ 10
(mm)
EN 196-8
at 7 days
4 Heat of hydration(J/g) LH ≤ 270
EN 196-9
at 41 h
(1): Types of cement were given below about the composition of each of the 27 products in the family of common cements
(*): Strength class only defined for CEM III cements.
Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards A. Cement/ European standard - EN 87
Requirements
Cement
No Characteristics Test reference Strength class
type
32.5N 32.5R 42.5N 42.5R 52.5N 52.5R
Loss on ignition CEM I
1 EN 196-2 ≤ 5%
(% by mass) CEM III
Insoluble residue CEM I
2 EN 196-2 ≤ 5%
(% by mass) CEM III
CEM I
CEM II (1)
Sulfate content ≤ 3.5% ≤ 4.0%
3 EN 196-2 CEM IV
(as %SO3 by mass)
CEM V
CEM III (2) ≤ 4.0%
Chloride content
4 EN 196-2 All (3) ≤ 0.1% (4)
(% by mass)
5 Pozzolanicity EN 196-5 CEM IV Satisfies the test
(1)
Cement type CEM II/B-T may containt up to 4.5 % sulfate for all strength classes.
(2)
Cement type CEM III/C may containt up to 4.5% sulfate.
(3)
Cement type CEM III may containt more than 0.1 % chloride but in that case the maximum chloride content
shall be stated on the packaging and/or the delivery note.
(4)
For pre-stressing applications cements may be produced according to a lower requirement. If so, the value
of 0.1% shall be replaced by this lower value which shall be stated in the delivery note.
88 Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards A. Cement/ European standard - EN
The composition of each of the 27 products in the family of common cements
The 27 products in family of common cements
Notation of the 27 products Composition [percentage by mass (a)]
Main constituents
Minor additional
constituents
(types of common cement) Silica
Main types
Clinker Slag fume Pozzolana Fly ash Burnt shale Limestone

(b)
Natural
Natural Siliceous Calcareous
calcined
K S DM P Q V W T L LL
Portland
CEM I
CEM I 95-100 - - - - - - - - - 0-5

cement
Portland-slag CEM II/A-S 80-94 6-20 - - - - - - - - 0-5

cement CEM II/B-S 65-79 21-35 - - - - - - - - 0-5
Portland-
silicafume CEM II/A-D 90-94 - 6-10 - - - - - - - 0-5
cement
CEM II/A-P 8 -94 - - 6-20 - - - - - - 0-5

Portland- CEM II/B-P 65-79 - - 21-35 - - - - - - 0-5
pozzolana
cement CEM II/A-Q 80-94 - - - 6-20 - - - - - 0-5
CEM II/B-Q 65-79 - - - 21-35 - - - - - 0-5
CEM II/A-V 80-94 - - - 6-20 - - - - 0-5
Portland-fly CEM II/B-V 65-79 - - - - 21-35 - - - - 0-5

CEM II
ash cement CEM II/A-W 80-94 - - - - - 6-20 - - - 0-5
CEM II/B-W 65-79 - - - - - 21-35 - - - 0-5
Portland CEM II/A-T 80-94 - - - - - - 6-20 - - 0-5

-burnt shale
cement CEM II/B-T 65-79 - - - - - - 21-35 - - 0-5
CEM II/A-L 80-94 - - - - - - - 6-20 - 0-5

Portland CEM II/B-L 65-79 - - - - - - - 21-35 - 0-5
limestone
cement CEM II/A-LL 80-94 - - - - - - - - 6-20 0-5
CEM II/B-LL 65-79 - - - - - - - - 21-35 0-5
Portland- CEM II/A-M 80-88 <------------------------------ 12-20 ------------------------------> 0-5

composite
cement (c) CEM II/B-M 65-79 <------------------------------ 21-35 ------------------------------> 0-5
CEM III/A 35-64 36-65 - - - - - - - - 0-5

CEM III
Blast furnace
CEM III/B 20-34 66-80 - - - - - - - - 0-5
cement
CEM III/C 5-19 81-95 - - - - - - - - 0-5
CEM IV/A 65-89 - <------------------ 11-35 -----------------> - - - 0-5

CEM IV
Pozzolanic
cement (c)
CEM IV/B 45-64 - <------------------ 36-55 -----------------> - - - 0-5
CEM V/A 40-64 18-30 - <---------- 18-30 ----------> - - - - 0-5

CEM V
Composite
cement (c)
CEM V/B 20-38 31-50 - <---------- 31-49 ----------> - - - - 0-5
(a)
:The values in the table refer to the sum of the main and minor additional constituents.
(b)
:The proportion of silica fume is limited to 10 %
(c)
:In portland-composite cement CEM II/A-M and CEM II/B-M, in pozzolanic cement CEM IV/A and CEM IV/B and in composite cements CEM
V/A and CEM V/B the main constituents other than clinker shall be declared by designation of the cement.
B. Concrete 89

VIETNAMESE STANDARD - TCVN
I. Workability
1. Classification (TCXDVN 374:2006)
Method of testing workability

Grade of fresh concrete Plasticity (mm)
in workability Vebe (second)
TCVN 3107 : 1993 Slump test (mm) Flow test (mm)
TCVN 3106 : 1993 TCVN 3106 : 1993
Super dry concrete
SC > 50 - -
Dry concrete
C4 31-50 - -
C3 21-30 - -
C2 11-20 - -
C1 5-10 - -
Plastic concrete
D1 ≤4 10-40 -
D2 - 50-90 -
D3 - 100-150 -
D4 - 160-220 260-400
2. Specification requirement (TCXDVN 374:2006)

Acceptable deviation for workability of fresh concrete
Grade of fresh concrete in Maximum acceptable deviation compared to required value

workability Lower limit Upper limit
SC - 20 seconds -
C4 - 15 seconds + 10 seconds
C3 – C1 - 10 seconds + 5 seconds
D1 – D2 - 10mm + 20mm
D3 – D4 - 20mm + 30mm
90 Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards B. Concrete/ Vietnamese standard - TCVN 374:2006
II. Compressive strength

Concrete with density (from 1800 – 2500 kg/m3)
1. Grade of hardened concrete

• Definition (TCXDVN 239:2006)
The grade of concrete in compressive strength is the mean compressive strength in MPa, tested on 150 x
150 x 150mm cube samples, which are casted, compacted, cured and tested complying with the standard
at the age of 28 days. Grade of concrete is prefixed with letter “M”.
• Designed Grade: M100, M150, M200, M250, M300, M400, M500, M600 (if higher strength of construction
is required, higher design grade (Ex: M700, M800) is accepted.)
2. Class of hardened concrete

• Definition (TCXDVN 356:2005 & TCXDVN 239:2006)
Class of Concrete in compressive strength is the compressive strength of concrete which the reliable
probability is 0.95. Class of concrete is prefixed with letter “B”.
B = M (1 – 1.64v)
With:
v – Standard deviation
When the variable strength coefficient can not be determined and the quality of concrete is accepted at
medium level, v = 0.135 (TCXDVN 356:2006), then B = 0.778M. Correlation between B and M comply with
TCXDVN 356:2006:
Average compressive Average compressive
Class of Grade of Class of Grade of
strength of standard strength of standard
concrete concrete concrete concrete
sample, MPa sample, MPa
B3.5 4.50 M50 B35 44.95 M450
B5 6.42 M75 B40 51.37 M500
B7.5 9.63 M100 B45 57.80 M600
B10 12.84 M150 B50 64.22 M700
B12.5 16.05 M150 B55 70.64 M700
B15 19.27 M200 B60 77.06 M800
B20 25.69 M250 B65 83.48 M900
B22.5 28.90 M300 B70 89.90 M900
B25 32.11 M350 B75 96.33 M1000
B27.5 35.32 M350 B80 102.75 M1000
B30 38.53 M400
3. Assessment
• Concrete which is considered to meet the required grade of concrete (M) must satisfy 2 below conditions:
• The mean compressive strength of one set (3 samples) is not less than designed grade of concrete
• Strength of each sample in set is not less than 85% designed grade of concrete
• Concrete which is considered to meet the required class of concrete (B) must satisfy 2 below conditions
at once:
• With the initial period or without standard deviation:
- The mean compressive strength of one set (3 samples) is not less than 1.3 times designed
class of concrete (MPa)
- Strength of each sample in set is not less than 1.1 times designed class of concrete (MPa)
• In case standard deviation (v) is able to be determined:

- The mean compressive strength of one set (3 samples) is not less than:
B
MPa
1 - 1,64v
- Strength of each sample in set is not less than:
B
0.85 MPa
1 - 1,64v
Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards B. Concrete/ American standard - ASTM C94 91
AMERICAN STANDARD – ASTM
I. Workability (ASTM C94)

Tolerances in slump
Specified slump
If 75 mm or less If more than 75mm
Plus tolerance 0 0
Minus tolerance 40mm 65mm
Tolerances for normal slumps
For specified slump of Tolerance
50mm and less +/- 15 mm
More than 50 to 100mm +/- 25 mm
More than 100 mm +/- 40 mm

1. Requirement of design compressive strength
The strength is determined by a test on cylinder specimens (150x300 mm) at 28 days after sampling, curing
according to ASTM C31.
Due to variations in materials, operations, and testing, the average strength necessary to meet these
requirements will be substantially higher than the specified strength. This higher strength amount depends
upon the standard deviation of the test results and the accuracy with which that value can be estimated
from prior data as explained in ACI 318 and ACI 301.
Appendix part of this standard give the guide to calculate the average strength, necessary to meet the
specification:
A. When historical statistical data are available
Specified strength Required average strength

f ‘c, MPa f ‘cr, MPa (use the larger from 2 formulas)
f ‘c equal to f ‘cr = f ‘c + 1.34s (*)
or less than 35 f ‘cr = f ‘c + 2.33s – 3.45 (**)
f’cr = f ‘c + 1.34s (*)
Greater than 35
f ‘cr = 0.90f ‘c + 2.33s (***)
With:
• f ‘c = the specified compressive strength
• f ‘cr = the required average compressive strength
• s = the standard deviation
(*): Formula to achieve the satisfactory average of three consecutive strength tests.
(**), (***): Formulas for the minimum strength test result of an individual strength test (average of two
cylinders test) result.
92 Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards B. Concrete/ American standard - ASTM C94
B. When a new mix design or strength level and no standard deviation data is available. Required average
strength for mix design
Specified strength Required average strength

f ‘c, MPa f ‘cr, MPa
Less than 21 f ‘cr = f ‘c + 7

21 to 35 f’cr = f ‘c + 8.5
Greater than 35 f’cr = 1.1f ‘c + 5
C. When having selected standard deviations and specified strength levels
f’c, MPa Standard deviation from fields data, MPa No SD data

specified 2.0 3.5 5.0 6.0 7.5 unknown
strength
f’cr, required average strength, MPa
Less than 21 f’c + 7

21.0 24 26 29 32 35 29.5
35.0 38 40 43 46 49 43.5
50.0 53 55 57 59 62 60.0
60.0 63 65 67 68 71 71.0
75.0 78 80 82 83 85 87.5
90.0 93 95 97 98 100 105.0
100.0 108 105 107 108 110 115.0
120.0 128 125 127 128 130 137.0
Bold numbers identify levels of specified strength where the standard deviation should be considered
unusual or inappropriate.
2. Strength assessment (ASTM C94)
Assess compressive strength
The average of 3 consecutive strength tests shall be equal to or greater than specific strength – f 'c
- If f 'c < 35 MPa: individual strength test ( average of two cylinder tests) ≥ f'c-3.5(MPa)
- If f 'c > 35 MPa: individual strength test (average of two cylinder tests) ≥ 0.9f 'c
Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards B. Concrete/ European standard - EN 206-1:2000 93
EUROPEAN STANDARD – EN 206-1:2000
I. Workability
Workability Test methods Requirement
Slump EN 12350-2 ≥ 10 mm and ≤ 210mm
Vebe EN 12350-3 ≤ 30 sec and > 5sec
Degree of compactability EN 12350-4 ≥ 1.04 and < 1.46
Flow table EN 12350-5 > 340mm and ≤ 620mm
The consistence of concrete is classified, Tables 1,2,3 or 4 apply.
Note: the classes of consistence in Tables 1 to 4 are not directly related. In special cases, consistence may also be
specified by target value. For earth moist concrete, i.e concrete with low water content designed to be
compacted in special processes, the consistence is not classified.
Table 4:
Table 1: Table 2: Table 3: Flow diameter in mm
Slump classes Vebe classes Compaction classes Flow diameter
Class
in mm
Vebe time in Degree of

Class Slump in mm Class Class F1 ≤ 340
seconds compactability
S1 10 to 40 V0 ≥ 31 C0 ≥ 1.46 F2 350 to 410

S2 50 to 90 V1 30 to 21 C1 1.45 to 1.26 F3 420 to 480
S3 100 to 150 V2 20 to 11 C2 1.25 to 1.11 F4 490 to 550
S4 160 to 210 V3 10 to 6 C3 1.10 to 1.04 F5 560 to 620
S5 ≥ 220 V4 5 to 3 F6 ≥ 630
The consistence may be specified either by reference to a consistence class according to table 1, 2,3 and 4 or,
in special cases, by a target value. For target values, the related tolerances are given in table 5.
Table 5: Tolerances for target values of consistence

Slump
Target value in mm ≤ 40 50 to 90 ≥ 100
Tolerance in mm ± 10 ± 20 ± 30
Vebe time
Target value in sec ≥ 11 10 to 6 ≤5
Tolerance in sec ±3 ±2 ±1
Degree of compact ability
Target value ≥ 1.26 1.25 to 1.11 ≤ 1.10
Tolerance ± 0.10 ± 0.08 ± 0.05
Flow diameter
Target value in mm All values
Tolerance in mm ± 30
94 Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards B. Concrete/ European standard - EN 206-1:2000

The strength is to be determined on test carried out either 150 mm cubes or 150/300 mm cylinders
conforming to EN 12390-1 and made and cured in accordance with EN 12390-2 from samples taken in
accordance with EN 12350-1.
The compressive strength is determined on specimens tested at 28 days. For particular uses, it may be
necessary to specify the compressive strength at ages earlier or later than 28 days or after storage under
special conditions.
The characteristic strength of concrete shall be equal to or greater than the minimum characteristic
compressive strength for the specified compressive strength class, see tables below.
Compressive strength class for normal-weight and heavy-weight concrete

Minimum characteristic cylinder Minimum characteristic cube
Compressive strength strength
strength class fck, cylinder fck, cube
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
C8/10 8 10
C12/15 12 15
C16/20 16 20
C20/25 20 25
C25/30 25 30
C30/37 30 37
C35/45 35 45
C40/50 40 50
C45/55 45 55
C50/60 50 60
C55/67 55 67
C60/75 60 75
C70/85 70 85
C80/95 80 95
C90/105 90 105
C100/115 100 115
• Strength assessment
- Criteria 1 (rolling average) : favg ≥ fck + 4

- Criteria 2: (individual sample) : f ≥ fck - 4
With:
fck: specific strength of concrete.
favg: The average strength of all valid samples.
f: Any individual test result.
Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards B. Concrete/ British standard - BS 5328 95
BRITISH STANDARD – BS 5328
From December 2003, the standards BS-EN 206-1 and BS 8500 replace the BS 5328 series of standards.
However, some projects in Vietnam still refer to BS 5328, to specify concrete.
I. Workability
• Guidance on the workability appropriate to different uses
Workability suitable for different uses of concrete
Nominal Slump (1)

Use of concrete Form of compaction Workability
mm
Pavement placed by power operated

Heavy vibration
machines
Very low See NOTE 1
Kerb bedding and backing Tamping
Floors and pavements not placed by

Poker or beam vibration Low 50
power-operated machinery
Strip footings
Mass concrete foundations
Blinding
Normal reinforced concrete in slabs,
Poker or beam vibration
beam, walls and columns Medium 75
and/ or tamping
Sliding formwork construction
Pumped concrete
Vacuum processed concrete
Domestic general purpose concrete
Trench fill
Self-weight compaction
In situ piling
High 125
Concrete sections containing
Poker
congested reinforcement
Diaphragm walling
self-levelling super plasticized Self-levelling Very high See NOTE 2
concrete
(1) Cohesive mixes may give adequate place ability at lower values of slump than those given here.
NOTE 1. In the "very low" category of workability where strict control is necessary, e.g. pavement quality
concrete placed by "trains", measurement of workability by determination of compacting factor or Vebe
time (see BS 1881:parts 103 and 104) will be more appropriate than slump.
NOTE2. In the "very high" category of workability, measurement and control of workability by
determination of flow is appropriate (see BS 1881: part 105).
96 Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards B. Concrete/ British standard - BS 5328

Compressive strength grade of hardened concrete:
The strength is tested with cube specimens at 28 days made to the requirement of BS 1881. The strength
grade of concrete should be selected from table below as appropriate. Minimum grades for particular types
of work such as reinforced concrete, pre-stressed concrete and for durability under particular environmental
conditions are given in the appropriate code of practice.
Grade of hardened concrete
Characteristic compressive strength at 28 days

Grade
MPa
C7.5 7.5
C10 10
C15 15
C20 20
C25 25
C30 30
C35 35
C40 40
C45 45
C50 50
C55 55
C60 60
• Strength assessment
Criteria 1 Criteria 2
Average strength of
Specified grade Group of samples Any individual test
samples,
result, f (MPa)
favg (MPa)
First 2 samples
favg ≥ fck + 1 f ≥ fck - 3
First 3 samples
C20 to above favg ≥ fck + 2 f ≥ fck - 3
Any 4 consecutive
samples
First 2 samples
favg ≥ fck f ≥ fck - 2
First 3 samples
C7.5 to C15 favg ≥ fck + 1 f ≥ fck - 2
Any 4 consecutive
samples
fck : specific strength of concrete.

C. Recommendation for limiting 97
values of concrete composition

These two table provide recommendations for the choice of the limiting values of concrete composition and
properties in relation to exposure classes. The values recommended below, are based on the assumption of
an intended working of the structure of 50 years.
CHLORIDE - INDUCED CORROSION IN SEA WATER

(EN 206-1:2000)
Exposure Classes of Chloride – induced corrosion in sea water
XS1 XS2 XS3
Maximum w/c 0.50 0.45 0.45
Minimum Strength Class C30/37 C35/45 C35/45
Minimum cement
300 320 340
content (kg/m3)
XS1 - Exposure to airborne salt but not in direct contact with sea water
XS2 - Permanently submerged
XS3 - Tidal, splash and spray zones
AGGRESSIVE CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENTS

(EN 206-1:2000)
Exposure Classes – Aggressive chemical environments
XA1 XA2 XA3
Maximum w/c 0.55 0.50 0.45
Minimum Strength Class C30/37 C35/45 C35/45
Minimum cement
300 320 360
content (kg/m3)
Other requirements Sulfate-resisting cement *
XA1 - Slightly aggressive chemical environment

XA2 - Moderately aggressive chemical environment
XA3 - Highly aggressive chemical environment
* When SO2 leads to exposure classes XA2 and XA3, it is essential to use sulfate-resisting cement. Where
4
cement is classified with respect to sulfate resistance, moderate or high sulfate-resisting cement should be
used in exposure class XA2 (and exposure class XA1 when applicable) and high sulfate-resisting cement should
be use in exposure class XA3.
98
Reference
A. Components of concrete:
Cement
Specific requirement
Cement Type Vietnamese standard American Standard European Standard

Portland Cement TCVN 2682: 2009 ASTM C150 EN 197
Portland Blended cement TCVN 6260: 2009 ASTM C1157 EN 197
Sulfate resistance Portland Cement TCVN 6067: 2004 ASTM C150 BS 4027
Sulfate resistance Blended Portland Cement TCVN 7711:2007 ASTM C1157 EN 197
Low Heat Blended Portland Cement TCVN 7712: 2007 ASTM C1157 -
Blast Furnace Slag Portland Cement TCVN 4316: 2007 - EN 197
Test methods of physical characteristics
Characteristic Vietnamese Standard American Standard European Standard

Compressive strength TCVN 6016:1995 ASTM C109 EN 196-1
Setting time TCVN 6017:1995 ASTM C191 EN 196-3
ASTM C115
Fineness TCVN 4030:2003 -
ASTM C204
Soundness TCVN 6017:1995 EN 196-3

Autoclave expansion TCVN 7711:2007 ASTM C151
The expansion of mortar in sulfate solution after

TCVN 7713:2007 ASTM C1012 -
6 months and 1 year
The expansion of mortar bar in water after 14

TCVN 6068: 2004 ASTM C1038 -
days
EN 196-8
Heat of hydration TCVN 6070: 2005 ASTM C186
EN 196-9
Chemical analysis TCVN 141: 2008 ASTM C114 EN 196-2
Water
Specific requirement: TCXDVN 302:2004, ASTM C1602
Admixture
Specific requirement: TCVN 8826:2011, ASTM C494
Aggregate
Specific requirement: TCVN 7570: 2006, ASTM C33
Test methods
Characteristic Vietnamese Standard American Standard

Fine aggregate
Grading TCVN 7572-2:2006 ASTM C136
Organic impurities TCVN 7572-9: 2006 ASTM C40
Material finer than 75 μm TCVN 7572-8: 2006 ASTM C117
ASTM C227
Potential Alkali Reactivity TCVN 7275-14:2006 ASTM C289
ASTM C1260
Coarse aggregate
Grading TCVN 7572-2:2006 ASTM C136
Specific gravity TCVN 7572-4:2006 ASTM C127
Bulk density and moisture content TCVN 7572-6:2006 ASTM C29
Elongation and flakiness index TCVN 7572-13:2006 -
Cement & Concrete Reference 99
B. Concrete
Specification for ready-mix concrete: TCXDVN 374:2006, ASTM C94, EN 206-1:2000
Test Methods
Fresh concrete
Slump TCVN 3106:1993 ASTM C143 EN 12350-2
Slump flow - ASTM C1611 EN 12350-8
Vebe Test TCVN 3107:1993 ASTM C1170 EN 12350-3
Density TCVN 3108:1993 ASTM C138 EN 12350-6
Air content TCVN 3111:1993 ASTM C231 -
Setting time - ASTM C403 -
Hardened concrete
Making and curing sample TCVN 3105:1993 ASTM C31 EN 12390-2
Compressive strength TCVN 3118:1993 ASTM C39 EN 12390-3
Bleeding TCVN 3109:1993 ASTM C232 -
Permeability to water TCVN 3116:1993 - -
Permeability to Chlorides TCXDVN 306:2005 ASTM C1202 -
Other standards for concrete
Specification for mass concrete TCXDVN 305: 2004
Concrete and reinforced concrete structure-

TCXDVN 306:2005 BS 8110
Design standard
C. Cement treated aggregate

Specific requirement: 22 TCN 245, 22TCN 246
Test Methods
ASSHTO T180
Optimal moisture& max dry density 22 TCN 333-06 -
ASSHTO T99
ASTM D1632
Making compressive strength sample 22 TCN 246 -
ASTM D55
Workability period - - EN 13286-45
Unconfined strength - ASTM D1633 -
D. Other relevant sources

Concrete Practice: Holcim (Schweiz) AG
Concrete Practice: Holcim Sri Lanka
100 Cement & Concrete Reference
E. Source of figures
Figure number Source
Figure: Fig I.1, Fig I.2, Fig I.3, Fig I.5, Fig I.6, Fig I.7, Fig I.9, Fig I.11, Fig I.12, Fig I.13, Holcim Vietnam
Fig I.15, Fig I.16, Fig I.21, Fig I.22, Fig I.23, Fig I.24, Fig I.25, Fig I.26, Fig I.27, Fig I.30,
Fig I.31, Fig I.32, Fig I.33, Fig I.34, Fig I.35, Fig I.36, Fig I.37, Fig I.38, Fig I.39, Fig I.40,
Fig I.41, Fig I.42, Fig I.43,Fig I.44, Fig I.45, Fig I.46, Fig I.47, Fig I.48, Fig I.49, Fig I.50,
Fig I.51, Fig I.52, Fig I.53, Fig I.55, Fig I.56, Fig I.58, Fig I.60, Fig I.61, Fig I.62, Fig II.1,
Fig II.2, Fig II.3, Fig II.4, Fig II.5, Fig II.6, Fig II.7, Fig II.8, Fig II.9, Fig II.10, Fig II.11, Fig II.12,
Fig II.13, Fig II.14, Fig II.15, Fig II.16, Fig II.17, Fig II.18, Fig II.19, Fig II.20, Fig II.21, Fig II.22,
Fig II.23, Fig III.1, Fig III.3, Fig III.4, Fig III.5, Fig III.6, Fig III.7, Fig III.8, Fig III.9, Fig III.10,
Fig III.11, Fig III.14, Fig III.15, Fig III.16, Fig III.18
Fig I.4, Fig I.8, Fig I.10, Fig I.65, Fig III.17 Holcim Swiss
Fig I.14, Fig I.17, Fig I.18, Fig I.19, Fig I.20, Fig I.28, Fig I.29, Fig I.63, Fig I.64, Fig I.66, Fig Holcim Sri Lanka
I.67, Fig I.68, Fig I.69, Fig I.70, Fig I.71, Fig I.72, Fig I.73, Fig I.74, Fig III.2, Fig III.12, Fig
III.13, Fig III.20, Fig III.21
Fig I.54, Fig III.19 Antoine Carnot
Fig I.57, Fig I.59 Lubica Pistanska

101
102
Holcim (Vietnam) Ltd.
Fideco Tower, 9th & 10th Floors

81 - 85 Ham Nghi Street, District 1
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Phone: +84 8 39149000
Fax: +84 8 39149001
Email: technical.service-vnm@holcim.com
Website: www.holcim.com.vn
Printed on PEFC standard sustainable paper.

Publishing licence number: 97-2012/CXB/239/01/VHTT.

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Strength. Performance. Passion.

Holcim (Vietnam) Ltd.

C2013, Holcim (Vietnam) Ltd

All rights, including the partial re-print of parts or

Technical consultant team

Holcim (Vietnam) Ltd

A special thank to Silvia Vieiria Mcs, PhD – Holcim

1st edition 2013 in Vietnamese

1st edition 2013 in English

Alone the complete standards referred hereto serve

About Holcim (Vietnam) Ltd.

one of the world leading cement and construction materials

companies. Holcim operates in more than 70 countries across all

continents and employs around 90,000 people world-wide. Today

Holcim has become synonymous of leadership in the supply of

cement and aggregates (crushed stone, sand and gravel), as well as

readymix concrete and construction-related services.

Holcim (Vietnam), founded in 1993, has the unique network of 4

meet the requirements of every application, Holcim Vietnam has

researched and developed a wide range of cements that offer the

optimal solution for every project.

Established in 2005, Holcim Beton has developed into a leading

readymix supplier in southern Vietnam, offering its customers high

quality, innovative products and services. Over the last years,

Holcim Vietnam has worked with leading national and

international contractors and developers as the preferred partner in

projects in southern Vietnam.

B. From fresh concrete to hardened concrete 20

D. High strength concrete 54

E. Very flowable and self-compacting concrete 56

F. Cement treated aggregates 58

C. Carbonation and corrosion of reinforcement 69

D. Degradation in seawater environment 70

F. Alkali – Aggregate Reaction 74

C. Recommendation for limiting values of concrete composition 97

Testing cement quality and conformity

Requirements for mixing water

Purpose of mixing water

1. Pre-stressed concrete. 2000 600 350 200

2. Reinforced concrete. 5000 2000 1000 200

3. Non-reinforced concrete. 10000 2700 3500 300

3. Fine Aggregate 100

Fine aggregate shall consist of natural sand, crushed 80 Mekong sand

sand, or a combination thereof. For concrete 70

Concrete Aggregates). In the south of Vietnam, 3 40

sources of fine aggregates are used in concrete (FM 30

• Sand from Dong Nai river : FM = 2.40 (good – not 10

Barite (heavy spar), iron ore, Concrete for radiation

Insulating concrete, concrete

Quartz, corundum, silicon Hard concrete slabs,

Bulk density (unit weight) and moisture content Specific gravity

Less than potential Equal to potential Greater than

Purity Mineral quality, grain shape, and surface texture

Fig I.4 - Screening and washing aggregate in a gravel plant

Grading, or the distribution of grain sizes – along

The maximum size of aggregate (Dmax) is the

I- d Dmax < 3d/4

II- Dmax < e/5