Immunity through vaccination: - Vaccination is the process of developing immunity against a disease by

the vaccine. In this process the weakened or dead pathogens are injected into the body, so that immunity
develops against the pathogen in him but the disease is not caused. Vaccination can be injected e.g. pox
vaccination or can be given orally e.g. the oral polio vaccine (OPV). Ex: BCG vaccine (Bacille Calmette
Guerin) for Tuberculosis.

PPT vaccine – Diphtheria Pertussis Tetanus. Salk vaccine – Polio (injected)

Sabin vaccine (oral) - Polio.

Interferon: - Interferon is a protein produced & released in small quantities when the cells are invaded by
virus & it is effective in inhibiting the viral growth. It is non – specific i.e. effective against a wide range of
viruses.

Immunization: - Immunization is the process by which a person is made to become immune or resistant to
an infectious disease by the administration of a vaccine.

The vaccine stimulates the body’s own immune system to protect the person against the same infection or
disease.

Immunization can be achieved in an active or passive manner. Vaccination is an active form of

immunization.

Passive immunization occurs physiologically when antibodies are transferred from mother to the fotus
during pregnancy to protect the fotus before & shortly after birth.

Allergies: - allergies are the disorders in which the body becomes hypersensitive to particular antigens
called allergens. These disorders are caused due to abnormal immune response to the allergens introduced
into the body through contact, inhalation or through injection. Ex: - Asthma is a respiratory disorder that can
caused breathing problems & it involves an allergic response by the lungs.

Auto immune diseases: - autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system starts attacking body’s own
cells because it cannot differentiate the self cells from non self ones.

Ex: i. SLE (Systemic Lupus Erythematosus): A chronic autoimmune inflammatory disease involving
multiple organ systems & marked by periods of exacerbation (make something bad worse) and remission.

iv. Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis: - A common type of arthritis in children.

Scleroderma: - A chronic & persistent hardening & contraction of the body’s connective tissue.
AIDS: - AIDS (Acquired Immune – deficiency Syndrome) is caused by the virus, named human immune
deficiency virus (HIV). The virus was discovered by Robert Gallo & his party in 1981 in USA. The first
case of AIDs was reported in India in 1986.
Structure of HIV: - HIV is a retrovirus which means that its genetic material is RNA. From outside it
remains surrounded by a capsid shell composed of protein. Inside the protein coat it has a nucleoprotein core
containing single stranded RNA & proteins it contains reverse transcriptase enzyme. The RNA of the virus
undergoes reverse transcription in presence of the enzyme reverse transcriptase to from DNA.

Mode of transmission: - It is transmitted by the following ways – during sexual contact blood transfusion
the use of contaminated needles & syringes. During parturition or birth (mother to baby) the infection
mainly spreads when the secretions of the body of the infected person comes in contact with the blood the
recipient either through a break in the skin or in the mucous membrane.

Symptoms: - The person suffers from persistent fever. Oral candidiasis or infection of mucosa of mouth by
yeast like fungus of the genus candida. Diarrhoea, leucopenia, anaemia, thrombocytopenia & loss of body
weight. Cough with thick expectoration.

Diagnosis: - Infection can be confirmed by ELISA Test Western Blot Test & Immunofluorescence Test.

Treatment: - No specific treatment has been found to cure AIDs. Antiviral therapy against the causative
agent & immunostimulative therapy may be helpful. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have
approved certain drugs such as Zidovudine, Didanosine, Zalcitabine & stavudine.

Combination therapy appears to give a better result than using a single drug.

Control: - people should be aware about the disease for this purpose it 1st of December every year is treated
as the world AIDS Day. Only disposable syringe & needle to be used. Blood of the donor is to be tested
before transfusion.

Cancer:- cancer is caused due to uncontrolled mitotic division of cells known as cancer cells which invade
& destroy the surrounding tissues. The cells in the human body grow in a well regulated way, but when
cancer sets in a group of these cells start multiplying irregularly & form tumours (abnormal growth of
tissue).

Types of tumours: - a tumour may be benign or malignant.

Benign tumour: - when tumour does not destroy the tissue in which it originates or does not spread to the
distant parts of the body, then it is known as the benign tumour. Such type of tumor can be cured easily it do
not cause death.
b. Malignant tumour: - when a tumour destroys the tissue in which it originates or spreads to distant
parts of the body, it is known as the malignant tumour. Such tumour is not cured easily & may cause death.

Types of cancer: - Cancer may be: i. Carcinoma, ii. Sarcoma, iii. Leukemia, iv. Lymphoma.

i. Carcinoma: - Malignant tumour in the epithelia tissue

ii. Sarcoma: - Malignant tumour of connective tissue sarcomas develop in the connective tissue including
fibrous tissues, adipose or fatty tissues, muscles, blood vessels, bone and cartilage. In fibrous tissue is called
fibro sarcoma. Sarcoma in bone is called as osteosarcoma. When a cancer develops in both epithelial &
connective tissue is called as carcinosarcoma.

Leukemia: - A type of cancer of the blood, it is caused when the bone marrow & other blood forming
organs produce increased number of leucocytes.

iv. Lymphoma:- it is caused when the immune cell of the body become cancerous & multiply in a lymph
node. Lymphoma may develop in many parts of the body, including the lymph nodes, spleen bone marrow,
blood or other organs.

Symptoms of cancer: - Presence of persistent lump or thickening anywhere in the body. A sore, if formed
does not heal up. In females there occurs unusual uterine bleeding & discharge. Hoarseness of voice &
difficulty in swallowing. There occurs sudden & rapid change in size and appearance of wart or mole. Loss
of body weight.
Cancer can occur to persons of any age group, but the incidence is higher in persons over 50 years of age.
Certain types of cancers are hereditary i.e. – in the stomach and colon.
Cause of cancer :
(i) Physical Agents : The agent which induces cancer is carcinogenic or oncogenic. The physical
carcinogenic agents are ultraviolet rays, ionizing radiation, solar radiation and continued heat.
(ii) Chemical Agents : The carcinogenic chemical agents are tar; dyes; aromatic amines; urethane; various
metals like Nickel, Beryllium, Arsenic and Chromium; asbestos; hormones and aflatoxin. In the cigarette
smoke there are no less than 15 chemical carcinogens.
(iii) Nutritional Agents : Deficiency of proteins, vitamins and minerals are also known to cause cancer.
(iv) Biological Agents : Many types of cancers are known to be causd by viruses. Hepatitis B causes
primary liver cancer.
(v) Mechanical Factors : Severe friction, trauma and irritation have also been identified to cause
malignancy.
(vi) Other Factors : Other factors responsible for cancer are the host and the environmental factors
Diagnosis :
Methods used for diagnosis are
(a) Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology (FNAC)
(b) Biopsy of tissues (Histopathological examination)
(c) PAP test (Cytological staining) used for detection of cervix cancer.
(d) X-rays, CT scans, MRI scans detect cancers of internal organs.
(e) Mammography for detection of breast cancer.
(f) Abnormal count of WBCs in Leukemia.
(f) Monoclonal antibodies along with radio-isotopes can detect cancer specific
antigens as those in prostate cancer and thyroid cancer.
Prevention :
Prevention is “the elimination of, or protection against, factors known or believed to be involved in
carcinogenesis and the treatment of precancerous conditions”.
The preventive measures are :
(1) Cancer Education :
It is to motivate people to go for early diagnosis and early treatment for better chance
of survival. The possible symptoms of the initiation and progression of cancer are:
(a) a lump or hard area in the breast;
(b) a change in wart or mole;
(c) a persistent change in digestive and bowel habit;
(d) a persistent cough or hoarseness;
(e) excess loss of blood at the monthly period or loss of blood outside the usual dates;
(f) blood loss from any natural orifice;
(g) a swelling or sore that does not get better; and
(h) unexplained loss of weight.
(2) Other Measures
People be made conscious about the following :
(a) personal hygiene;
(b) control of air pollution;
(c) testing of drugs and cosmetics;
(d) reducing the amount of radiation;
(e) organizing occupational health programmes;
(f) treatment of precancerous lesions; and
(g) legislation to control known environmental carcinogens.
(h) legislation to display pictorial hazards of cancer on all packets selling tobacco or its products.

Treatment: - More than 85 % of cancers are curable if treated in early stage Treatment depends on the type
of tumour, the site of the primary tumour & extent of spread.
The methods of treatment are surgical removal, radiation & chemotherapy. A new cancer may appear at the
body after being cured once. So, a patient with a past history of cancer should be re –examined at an interval
of every six months.
ADOLESCENCE

Adolescence means to grow up is the period from the beginning of puberty until maturity. It is also refers as
the onset of sexual maturation. It is between 7 to 19 years in boys & 8 to 18 years in girls. During this period
number of changes occur i.e. involving physical growth, mental development, changes in the functions of
nervous & endocrine systems etc. Also secondary sexual characters develop & gonads mature by certain
hormones.
Common problems of adolescence: -
1) Acne: -
Acne is an inflammatory disease of sebaceous glands and hair follicles of the skin. It is characterized by the
formation of papules come dones & papules associated with seborrhea.
Acne may be of different types but the common type is acne vulgaris frequently occurs. In the face, shoulder
& chest of adolescents.

Mild acne is treated with one or a combination of creams & solutions but moderate & severe acne are treated
by topical medicines with antibiotic pills.
It is more common in males than in females because it appears as a side effect of the influx of androgen.
2) Hypochondria: - Or health phobia.
It is a mental disorder, found in depressed adolescents.
One has the irrational fear of being diseased & constant self examination of his/ her body.
Medication can cure the disorder up to some extent.
3) Neurasthenia:-
It is characterized by exhaustion (tire out), irritability, lack of concentration, painful sensation or numbness
in certain parts of the body, chronic fatigue & anxiety.
Sometimes the patient remains in a tension state & may develop intolerance to noise.
Counseling & physiotherapy can cure the disorder.
4) Phobias: -
Phobia refers to a strong fear of a thing and avoiding the feared situation.
The main kinds of phobia are agoraphobia, Social phobia & animal phobia etc. Simple phobias are fears of
some specific things such as infections, insects, flying etc.
Counseling can help phobic persons to some extent.
5. Post traumatic stress disorders (PTSD):-
It is a psychiatric disorder that can occur after life – threatening events such as military attack, natural
disaster, terrorist incident, serious accident etc.
The disorder is treated by talk therapy & drug therapy.
6. Addictions:
Addictions are characterized by the repeated use of substances.
Addictions to drugs, tobacco, narcotics is the common problem with adolescents. Due to such addictions,
certain behavioral disturbances increase day by day.
Social & moral implications of adolescence:-
Adolescence is the transitional phase of growth & development between childhood and adulthood.
But certain behavioral disturbances have become increasingly prevalent in the late 20th century.
The addiction of adolescents towards drugs, tobacco, alcohol etc. appears to be a curse to the family, society
and friends.
People develop some sort of hatredness towards them because of their wrong activities then they feel
isolated.
After they become short tampered and get involved in some crime & also they lose moral strength and get
involved in some antisocial activities.
Such adolescents suffer from pulmonary & malnutritive disorders.
Remedies: -
Use of innovative educational methods such as project based learning, development of youth character for
school & college students & communities can prevent these activities of adolescents up to some extent.

Mental Health: -

Mental health is defined as “a state of emotional & psychological well-being”.

World Mental Health Day is observed on 10th October.

Mental Illness: -

Mental illness or emotional disability is the disorder that affects the mind & behaviour of the individual.

It is characterized by depression, agoraphobia, anorexia, hypochondria, schizophrenia, insomnia, social

phobia, partial or complete loss of memory etc.

The origin of mental illness may be biological or psychological & also caused by a number of factors.

It may effect on every aspect of person’s life such as thinking, feeling, mood etc. Sometimes there occurs a
perceptual experience in the absence of any external stimulus or hallucination.
Psychological disorders: -

It is also known as mental disorder & mental disturbance.

It results in disruption in persons’ thinking, feeling, moods& ability. It includes psychosis & neurosis.
Psychosis: -

It cause delusions (false belief or impression) hallucination (see something which is not actually present),
serious defects in judgments, defect in thinking process and the inability to have contact with reality.
Treatment of psychosis is done through antipsychotic medication & hospitalization.
Also cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) & family therapy appears to be effective. When other treatments
become ineffective, electroconvulsive therapy is also given to the patient.

Neurosis: -

It is a mild or not severe type of mental disorder characterized by anxiety, depression, unhappiness or
distress etc.
Treatment include chemotherapy, psychotherapy & behaviour therapy.

Important psychological disorders: -

1. Anxiety disorders:-
It is characterized by the development of feelings of nervousness or worry in stressful situation. Ex –panic
disorders, agoraphobia & social phobia.
It can be treated with psychotherapy, behaviour therapy & tranquilizing drugs.
2. Obsessive – compulsive disorder: -
The person feels dominated by unwanted thoughts that enter the mind repeatedly.
About 2% adolescents & adults are known to suffer from this disorder.
Ex – Repeatedly checking own room whether it has been locked or not, turning lights on & off several times
before leaving a room & repeatedly washing hands throughout the day.
3. Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD): -
It is a behavioural disorder in which a child shows a high level of activity & faces difficulty in attending to
his own tasks.
It is develops in early childhood i.e. between the age of 3 to 7 & is common in boys.
The affected child may be restless & is unable sit quietly. The cause of such disorder is not clearly known.
4. Mood Disorder: -
It is characterized by a disturbance of mood in which the mood of the person fluctuates.
Two major types of mood disorders are depression or unipolar depression & bipolar dis –order.
Psychosis is an example of major depressions which include excessive sadness & restless.
In bipolar disorder there occurs alternating periods of mania or mental illness and depression.
Ex – cyclothymic, manic depressive psychosis etc.
5. Schizophrenia: -
It affects about 1% of persons all over the world.
It shows irrational behaviour & disturbed emotional reaction & social function. Certain stressful events like
serious illness, loss by death of a relative or friend are responsible for causing this disorder
6. Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD): -
It is a personality disorder in which the individual shows a sort of unstable personal relationships.
Such persons have unpredictable mood which prevents them from fitting with the society. BPD is marked in
about 2% of human population.
The exact cause of such disorder is not known but may be the disorder occurs due to a combination of
genetic influences and due to some difficult experiences in the childhood.
Addictive disorders: -
Addictive disorders are characterized by the continuous or repeated use of a habit- forming drugs i.e. –
heroine, tobacco, alcohol etc.
Four major types of addictive disorders are alcoholism, narcotic or opiate addiction, cocaine& other
stimulant addictions and Nicotine addiction.
Drug addiction may occur by chronic use of certain agents like barbiturates, marijuana etc.
These are popularly known as the additive drugs or psychoactive drugs.
Addictive drugs are classified into psychotropic drugs & psychedelic drugs.
Psychotropic Drugs: -
These drugs affect the psychic function, behaviour or experience of the user. Antidepressants, sedatives,
stimulants, tranquilizers & opiates etc. are the psychotropic drugs.
Antidepressants: -
These drugs help the user in relieving the symptoms of poor appetite, insomnia, suicidal thoughts etc.
Antidepressants belong to three main groups such as selective serotonin
Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIS), tricyclics & Monamine oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs).
The widely used antidepressants are the tricyclics such as Amitriptyline, Imipramine.
Sedative:
It is used to reduce anxiety & tension.
The sedatives exert a calm effect or sedative effect at low doses and hypnotic effect or sleep inducing effect
in high doses. So they are known as sedative – hypnotic drugs.
The drugs reduce excitement & the user may remain in a drowsy state.
Common sedatives are barbiturates. like phenobarbital, secobarbital, amobarbital.
Stimulants: -
These are the drugs which temporarily excite the functional activity of different systems in the body i.e.
central nervous system.
Ex: amphitamines & related compounds methyl xanthine, cocaine, nicotine & coffee.
Tranquilizers: -
Tranquilizers are used to reduce anxiety, fear, tension & mental disturbances. They are two type i.e. major &
minor.
The major tranquilizers are used to treat severe mental disorders like mania and schizophrenia. Ex:
Phenothiazines, thioxanthines, butyrophenones & clozapine etc.
The minor tranquilizers are used to treat neuroses & to relieve anxiety & tension. Ex: - diazepam,
chlordiazepoxide, alprazolam etc.
Opiates: -
It includes opium & the drugs obtained from it.
They exert their main effects on the brain & spinal cord and reduce anxiety & tension.
Morphine & Codeine are the opiates which act upon the central nervous system.
Psychedelic drugs: -
Psychedelic drugs are those which induce changes in the level of consciousness of the mind of the user.
It is also called as psychotomimetic drugs or hallucinogens or the mind expanding drugs, eg: - LSD =
Lysergic acid diethylamide, cannabis, Mescaline, charas, bhang, ganja etc.
Drug Addiction: -
It is a condition caused by excessive or continuous use of habit forming drugs. It stars due to curiosity,
friend’s pressure, depression, frustration etc.
Drug dependence may be physical and psychological.
Physical dependence starts when a drug is used habitually & the body become used to its effect.
The person must continue the drug to feel the development of withdrawal symptoms like sweating, Ex: -
Alcohol, morphine, cocaine.
Psychological dependence starts when a drug has been used habitually & the mind of the user emotionally
relax.
Such addicts feel incapable of doing their normal functions in absence of such drug Ex: nicotine, cannabis,
barbiturates etc.
Drug abuse: -
The use of over use of any drug beyond limit for deriving pleasure or to get relief from pain is called as drug
abuse.
Stimulants like amphetamines, narcotics like opium & certain antidepressants are commonly abused
psychoactive drugs.
Ex: - certain anabolic steroids, which are used by some athletes to accelerate muscular development &
increase strength, may result in causing liver damage & heart disease.
Effect of drug abuse: -
Drugs like cannabis, barbiturates & opiates cause slowing down of the nervous system.
The stimulants like amphetamines, cocaine may increase the heart rate, blood pressure, loss of appetite &
may cause sleep disturbances.
Hallucinogens like LSD & Mescaline affect the perception of the individual.
The abuse of drugs may also cause problems in the family, society & also in the working places.
Alcohol abuse: -
Alcohol abuse refers to harmful use of alcohol or dangerous habits of drinking alcohol daily or drinking too
much of alcohol at a time.
Such people become so much addict both mentally & physically that if they do not drink then they develop
withdrawal symptoms like feeling sick, excess sweating, headache loss of appetite, insomnia etc.
Effect of alcohol abuse: -
Alcohol acts as a depressant & acts on the central nervous system and affects the normal functioning of the
brain.
It also causes irreversible damage to important organs of the body like liver, heart & also bones.
Chronic alcoholics may develop high blood pressure, problems in the gastro inflectional tract, brain disorder
etc.
It also affect the physical & mental health of the user & may also cause harm to one’s interpersonal
relationship & his working ability.
Prevention & control of drug and alcohol abuse: -
Prevention & control of drug & alcohol addiction involves the efforts to be made by parents, teachers, class
friends & society.
Parents should be encourage their children in creative & recreational activities like sports, music, yoga etc.
So that their children do not get involved in any abuse.
Awareness is to be created among the children & young adults about the harmful effects of the use of habit
forming drugs & alcohol.
Alcohol & drug abuse prevention & control programs should be organized in order to educate young people.
Strong steps should be taken by the Government to prevent the abuse of alcohol & addictive drugs, as steps
are being taken to prevent the use of gutka and tobacco. These will bring about a healthy & peaceful
atmosphere in the society.
INDISCRIMINATE USE OF DRUGS AND ANTIBIOTICS:
DRUGS:
The excessive, addictive and indiscriminate use of drug by self-medication is called drug abuse. It has
several bad effects which may be fatal.

Precautions in using drugs:

1. Drugs should be taken only on a prescription from a qualified doctor.
2. The drugs should be taken with proper advice of doctor regarding dose, time etc.
3. The doses should be taken fully without discontinuing or without the advice of the doctor. Doses
should be spaced evenly to maintain right medication.
5. Drugs should be kept out of the reach of children.
6. As every patient has his own physiological conditions and medical history, separate prescriptions
must be taken, even if the symptoms are same.
7. Drugs must be taken along with specific diet and rest, if prescribed.
8. Drugs must be well preserved
9. The doctor must know about drugs which show side effect or reactions in your body to avoid any
damage.
10.During purchase of drugs, the expiry date, packing etc. should be scrutinized.
11.Pregnant women should consult her physicial before taking any drug.
12.Self – medication should be avoided.
Effect of indiscriminate use of drugs:
DRUGS:
1. Self – mediation can be harmful and dangerous.
a. Use of medicines, without knowing their side effects is dangerous. Sometimes it becomes more
harmful than the disease.
b. Without knowing proper doses, time and proper way of taking medicine, it is consumed without any
healing effect.
c. Non – professionals do not know about availability of new, effective medicines in the market.
2. Some medicines have teratogenic (Gk. Teras – Monstor; genesis = origin) effect. So it should be
taken even with caution. Because it creates lots of abnormalities even in the foetus.
3. Indiscriminate use of drugs makes the body resistant. So higher does are required for further
treatment.
4. Combination of medicines should be taken carefully to avoid reactions.
i. Steroids: The steroids are chemical substances synthesized by animals or plants. They are lipid like,
but insoluble in water. They acts as chemical co – ordinators and stimulate anabolism.
Example: Cholesterol, sex hormones, adrenocorticotrophic hormones, prednisolone (synthetic steroid) etc.
Effects:
1. Excessive use of steroids lead to several disorders like; osteoporosis, hypertension, heart problems,
esophageal and stomach ulcers, acidity, pancreatic, aggravation of diabetes mellitus, fragile skin, oedema,
retarded growth, menstrual dysfunction, jaundice, acne, nausea, weight gain, testicular atrophy etc.
2. Steroids are vein effective in the treatment of asthma. But prolonged use makes the patient dependent
and may cause serious above side effects.
The anabolic steroids are disallowed to athletes who temporarily wants to increase muscle size, strength and
endurance. Aspirin and amphetamines are also taken to increase physical and mental performances.
ii. Analgesics: Some painkillers or analgesics are taken without the advice of the doctors. These have
side effects and cause secondary disease. The patients become addictive.
Some are:
a. Aspirin: A mild non – narcotic drug used sparingly by the people, have lots of side effects.
i. Production of Prostaglandins is inhibited.
ii. It causes gastro – intestinal problems in some.
iii. It produces Reye’s syndrome (acute disorder of liver and central nervous system).
b. Acetaminophen: This is an alternative analgesic, but it can cause gastro – intestinal problem and
damage the liver.
c. Ibuprofen: a non – steroid anti – inflammatory drug can cause allergy, irritate gastrointestinal tract
etc.
A. Antibiotics:
Waksman in 1942 defined “antibiotic” (Gk.Anti – against, biosis – life) as “a soluble chemical substance,
produced by a living organism (mould or bacterium) and inhibits and growth of or kills other micro –
organisms.” A micro – organism, that produces an antimicrobial substance, is called antibiont and the
process is called antibiosis.
History: The first antibiotic or penicillin ( a product of moulds, Penicillum notatum and P. chrysognum)
was discovered in 1928 by Fleming. Importance: It was proved to be a panacea (a cure for all). It slows or
stop the growth of bacteria making it easier for the body’s natural defense to eliminate them.
Precaution for Indiscriminate use of Antibiotics:
Indiscriminate use of antibiotics can cause harm to the individual and to the society.
1. Antibiotic should be taken only when prescribed by doctors.
2. The schedule, such as does, strength and time, should be followed strictly.
3. The full course should be prescribed.
4. Antibiotic should not be taken by self-medication.
5. In case of adverse side effect, the antibiotics should be stopped and the physician should be
consulted immediately.
6. No antibiotics are required for viral and non – infectious diseases.
Effect of indiscriminate uses of antibiotics: The discriminate use of antibiotics can be harmful.
1. Self – mediation of antibiotics leads to nausea, vomiting and diarrhea and other severe problems.
2. Antibiotics also kill useful bacteria present in intestine. This disturbs the natural balance of intestinal
bacteria fauna.
3. Indiscriminate use of antibiotics makes the pathogens resistant.
i. Genetic mutation – The resistance is caused by mutation in the chromosome, called chromosomal
resistance.
ii. Genetic exchange – It is the resistance, caused by the exchange of plasmid genes, called extra
chromosomal resistance.
4. The bacterial resistance can be reduced by the following methods.
i. Indiscriminate use of antibiotics should be avoided.
ii. The antibiotics should be in full dose and for the period required to eliminate pathogen.
iii. Combination of antibiotics can be used to avoid resistance.
Antibiotics should not be used for common ailments.