Bridges Unit Preview

ENGINEERING IS ELEMENTARY BRIDGES PREVIEW
To Get To The Other Side:

Designing Bridges
Balance, Forces, and Civil Engineering for
Elementary Students
Carolyn DeCristofano Michael Arquin

Christine M. Cunningham Ruth Wishengrad
Kate Hester Anna Lindgren-Streicher
Melissa Higgins Darshita Shah
Kristin Sargianis Patricia Slater
Cathy P. Lachapelle Nancy Yocom de Romero
Araceli Ortiz
Edited by Rebecca Pedersen

Illustrations by Jeannette Martin
Graphics by Braden Chang and the EiE Team
© 2004-2008, 2011 by the Museum of Science. All rights reserved.

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Engineering is Elementary
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Major support for this project has been provided by the Museum of Science,
National Science Foundation, S. D. Bechtel Jr. Foundation, Liberty Mutual
Foundation, Cargill Foundation, Cisco Systems Foundation, and Intel Foundation.
For a complete list of supporters and partners, please visit:

http://www.mos.org/EiE/EiE_sponsors
To learn more about the Engineering is Elementary:

Engineering and Technology Lessons for Children project, contact us:
Web: http://www.mos.org/EiE
E-mail: EiE@mos.org
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Civil Engineering: Designing Bridges
Table of Contents
Overview
Introduction to Engineering is Elementary……………………………….. 1
Unit Introduction…………………………………………………………….. 7
Unit Summary Charts………………………………………………………. 10
Unit Assessment……………………………………………………………. 17
Unit Materials List…………………………………………………………... 20
Unit Vocabulary List………………………………………………………… 21
Vocabulary Definitions……………………………………………………... 22
Family Letter………………………………………………………………... 25
Lesson Plans
P. Technology in a Bag……………………............................................. 29
1. Javier Builds a Bridge..……..………………….………………………. 39
2. Pushes and Pulls….………………...……………………………….…. 53
3. Bridging Understanding...............…………………….……………….. 81
4. Designing a Bridge…....…...…………………………………………… 107
Pre-Post Assessment
Assessment Introduction…………………………………………………. 128
© Museum of Science, Boston Table of Contents

Duplication Not Permitted
The National Center for Technological Literacy
Engineering is Elementary is part of the National Center for

Technological Literacy
The National Center for Technological Literacy (NCTL) at the Museum of Science, Boston,
aims to enhance knowledge of technology and inspire the next generation of engineers,
inventors, and innovators. Unique in recognizing that a 21st century curriculum must include
today's human-made world, the NCTL's goal is to introduce engineering as early as elementary
school and continue it through high school, college, and beyond. The NCTL works with leaders
in education, government, and industry to integrate engineering as a new discipline:
 in K-12 schools by aligning state standards, developing curricula, and offering teachers
opportunities to enhance skill sets;
 in science museums, community organizations, and other avenues of lifelong learning by
upgrading public perceptions and understanding of engineering and technology through
exhibits, programs, and professional development.
Engineering is Elementary:
Program Introduction
Introduction
Most humans spend over 95% of their time interacting with technology. Pencils, chairs, water
filters, toothbrushes, cell phones, and buildings are all technologies—solutions designed by
engineers to fulfill human needs or wants. To understand the world we live in, it is vital that we
foster engineering and technological literacy among all people, even young children!
Fortunately, children are born engineers—they are fascinated with building, with taking things
apart, and with how things work. The Engineering is Elementary: Engineering and Technology
Lessons for Children project harnesses children’s natural curiosity to promote the learning of
engineering and technology concepts.
Engineering is Elementary (EiE) is a curricular program that integrates engineering with

elementary science topics. Connections with literacy, social studies, and mathematics can also be
made. The curriculum project has four primary goals:
Goal 1: Increase children’s technological literacy.

At the elementary school level, we define technological literacy as acquiring essential
understandings and skills that include:
Knowledge (Know about):
 What engineering and technology are and what engineers do
 Various fields of engineering
 Nearly everything in the human world has been touched by engineering
 Engineering problems have multiple solutions
 How society influences and is influenced by engineering
 How technology affects the world (both positively and negatively)
 Engineers are from all races, ethnicities, and genders
Skills/Experience (Be able to):

 Apply the Engineering Design Process
 Apply science and math in engineering
 Employ creativity and careful thinking to solve problems
 Envision one’s own abilities as an engineer
 Troubleshoot and learn from failure
 Understand the central role of materials and their properties in engineering solutions
© Museum of Science, Boston 1 Introduction to EiE
Goal 2: Increase elementary educators’ abilities to teach engineering and technology to

their students.
At the core, EiE is designed to have students engineer. We develop interesting problems and
contexts and then invite students to have fun as they use their knowledge of science and
engineering to design, create, and improve solutions.
Goal 3: Increase the number of schools in the U.S. that include engineering at the
elementary level.
Goal 4: Conduct research and assessment to further the first three goals and contribute
knowledge about engineering teaching and learning at the elementary level.
Engineering for Children?!

Why teach engineering to children?
There are many reasons to introduce children to engineering in elementary school:
 Children are fascinated with building and with taking things apart to see how they
work. By encouraging these explorations in elementary school, we can keep these interests
alive. Describing their activities as "engineering" when they are engaged in the natural design
process can help them develop positive associations with engineering, and increase their
desire to pursue such activities in the future.
 Engineering projects integrate other disciplines. Engaging students in hands-on, real-
world engineering experiences can enliven math and science and other content areas and
motivate students to learn math and science concepts by illustrating relevant applications.
 Engineering fosters problem-solving skills, including problem formulation, iteration,
and testing of alternative solutions.
 Engineering embraces project-based learning, encompasses hands-on construction, and
sharpens children's abilities to function in three dimensions; all of which are skills
important for prospering in the modern world.
 Learning about engineering will increase students' awareness of and access to scientific
and technical careers. The number of American citizens pursuing engineering is decreasing.
Early introduction to engineering can encourage many capable students, especially girls and
minorities, to consider it as a career and enroll in the necessary science and math courses in
high school.
 Engineering and technological literacy are necessary for the 21st century. As our society
increasingly depends on engineering and technology, our citizens need to understand these
fields.
Civil Engineering: 2 © Museum of Science, Boston

Designing Bridges Duplication Not Permitted
How To Use This Curriculum

 Integration with Science
The Engineering is Elementary curriculum is NOT an independent curriculum. Rather, it is
integrated with science; the lessons assume that the students are studying or have already
studied the science concepts that are then utilized in the engineering lessons. Each EiE unit is
paired with a science topic or topics that are commonly taught in elementary school. We
suggest that the EiE unit be taught only in conjunction with, or soon after the science topic is
taught. The EiE curriculum does not explicitly teach science topics, although science content
may be referred to or reviewed. Each unit also focuses on:
 one field of engineering (such as mechanical or environmental).
 one country and culture from around the world.
 Grade Level
An EiE unit should be taught in the grade level when the corresponding science concepts are
addressed. Since most science topics are taught in a range of grade levels in different districts
and states, the EiE units can be used in almost any grade. For each unit, the lesson plans are
written either for Basic or Advanced students based on when the science units are more
frequently taught. In EiE units, Grades 1-2 are generally considered Basic and Grades 3-5 are
considered Advanced. However, if the lesson plans are written for Basic students,
suggestions are included throughout the lesson plans for slight modifications that make the
lesson more applicable for Advanced students. If the lesson plans are written for Advanced
students, the reverse is true (suggestions are provided for teaching the unit with Basic
students). Similarly, each lesson contains two levels of student duplication masters—Basic
(labeled “B”) and Advanced (labeled “A”). Teachers can choose which set best fit the
capabilities of their students.
 Stand-Alone Units
While the units are closely integrated with science concepts, they “stand alone” with respect
to other EiE engineering units. Because teachers teach science concepts in different orders
and at various grade levels, the units do not sequentially build upon one another and therefore
can be used in any number or order.
 Standards
Aligning instruction and assessment with educational standards is important. Extensive
review of educational standards in both science and technology/engineering grounds each
unit. The technology and engineering standards that are covered in the unit are identified by
lesson in the Unit Summary Chart on p. 15.
 Materials
The activities and design challenges have purposefully been designed so that they use simple
and inexpensive materials.
 Metric
Metric conversions are indicated throughout lessons and in the materials lists to aid in
planning and materials preparation. Feel free to use metric measurement with your class
throughout this unit if you already do so when teaching science lessons.
 Group Sizes
Basic lessons assume students will work in pairs and Advanced lessons assume students will
work in groups of three, unless otherwise indicated in the lesson plans.
 English Language Learners

Tips for enhancing the experience of English Language Learners while using the EiE
materials are included in sidebars labeled “English Language Learners”.
 Assessment
Understanding students’ preconceptions about a topic, how they are learning, and what they
understand as a result of the experience are important considerations for teachers.
Assessment for the EiE curriculum is explained in more detail in Unit Assessment on p. 17.
 Answer Keys
Answer keys are provided following the duplication masters in each lesson. Given the open-
ended nature of the Engineering Design Process and that experimental results cannot be
predicted, answer keys cannot be provided for all duplication masters.
Organization of Engineering is Elementary Materials

The EiE curricular materials and lesson plans follow a similar format that consists of a
Preparatory Lesson, four Unit Lessons, and Pre-Post Assessments.
 Preparatory Lesson
The preparatory lesson is designed to prompt students to think about engineering,
technology, and the Engineering Design Process. If teachers have done little with engineering
and technology in their classrooms, we suggest that they start an EiE unit with this short
introductory activity.
 Lesson 1: Engineering Story
The first lesson sets the context for the unit through an illustrated storybook. A series of
questions before, during, and after the story encourages students to reflect upon the story and
its engineering components and reinforces literacy skills.
 Lesson 2: A Broader View of an Engineering Field
The second lesson focuses on helping students gain a broader perspective on the unit’s
engineering field of focus. Through hands-on activities, students learn more about the type of
work done by engineers in these fields, and the kinds of technology they produce.
 Lesson 3: Scientific Data Inform Engineering Design
The third lesson is designed to help students understand the linkages between science,
mathematics, and engineering. In this lesson, children collect and analyze scientific data that
they can refer to in Lesson 4 to inform their designs.
 Lesson 4: Engineering Design Challenge
The unit culminates with an engineering design challenge. Following the steps of the
Engineering Design Process, students design, create, and improve solutions to an engineering
problem. Design challenges are used as the final project as they allow students with varying
academic abilities to succeed; they are easily scaled to meet the needs of gifted or special
needs students.
 Pre-Post Assessment
The assessment sheets available in this section can be used to get baseline readings on your
students’ knowledge of engineering and technology concepts before and after completing this
unit.

An Engineering is Elementary Teacher Guide Includes:

 Introductory Materials, beginning with this introduction to the Engineering is Elementary
program. It also includes a Unit Summary Chart that provides a summary of the lessons,
student learning, science tie-in content and lessons from widely used science curricula, and
alignment with national technology and engineering standards. The Unit Assessment section
offers more information on how to use the assessment tools provided to evaluate student
learning. The Unit Materials List details all of the materials necessary for the unit to help you
assemble the appropriate supplies, while the Unit Vocabulary List and Vocabulary
Definitions provide a comprehensive list of the vocabulary that your students will be
introduced to in this unit.
 Lesson Plans for teachers. These materials include vocabulary words, objectives, tie-in
science content, a lesson overview, background, student learning, detailed materials and
preparation sections, instructions for the activity, and duplication masters for student
worksheets.
 Duplication Masters for students. To accommodate differences in students’ cognitive and
linguistic abilities, the units contain two levels of duplication masters: Basic (for earlier
readers, less cognitively complex) and Advanced (for more advanced reader, more
cognitively complex). The duplication masters are identified as Basic or Advanced using an
“A” or “B” box in the upper right corner of the worksheet Worksheets to be used by all grade
levels are labeled with both “A” and “B.” Teachers can choose the sheets that best meet the
abilities of their students.
 Student Assessments are explained in greater detail in the Unit Assessment section on p. 17.
Other Available Engineering is Elementary Materials:

In addition to the Teacher Guide and storybook, other EiE materials available include:
 EiE Website (http://www.mos.org/EiE) that includes more about the project’s
philosophical underpinnings, more information about this and other EiE units, additional
resources for teachers, and results of evaluation and research studies.
 How-To Videos available on the EiE Educator Resources site (http://www.mos.org/EiE/
EducatorResources) show the preparation and setup for select lessons.
 Content Connections available on the EiE Educator Resources site (http://
www.mos.org/EiE/EducatorResources) offer free, searchable, and downloadable lessons
created by teachers and EiE staff. These lessons link to or extend the lessons in each EiE
unit. Lessons connect to mathematics, social studies, science, fine arts, and language arts
content.
 Materials Kits that include the materials needed for doing all of the lessons in a unit.
 Kit Refills contain additional consumable kit items.
 Classroom Posters that feature the Engineering Design Process and the storybook
characters.

Unit Introduction
Designed For:
 Basic (Grades 1-2) elementary students
 See sidebars for modifications for Advanced (Grades 3-5) elementary students
Recommended Science Units for Tie-In:

 FOSS: Balance and Motion
 STC: Balancing and Weighing
 Science Companion: Motion, Early Science Explorations (Constructions)
Mathematics Content:
 Problem Solving, Data Analysis, Geometry
Social Studies Content:

 Bridges of the United States, United States Geography
About This Unit

This unit guides students to discover and discuss the connections between the science topics of
force, balance, and stability; the design of bridges; and the field of civil engineering.
Bridges are human-made structures that integrate the principles of force, balance, and stability in
their design. Bridges are familiar, yet awe-inspiring structures. The accompanying story, Javier
Builds a Bridge, introduces students to some famous bridges in the United States and serves to
focus students on the design challenge that they will undertake in Lesson 4 of this unit: designing
and improving a bridge.
As with all units in the Engineering is Elementary series, the Preparatory Lesson introduces and
defines the concepts of engineering and technology. In Lesson 1, students read the storybook
Javier Builds a Bridge, which introduces students to the field of civil engineering, different types
of bridges, and some of the parts of a bridge. In Lesson 2, students investigate the pushes and
pulls (forces) that act on structures and practice thinking about structures the way that civil
engineers do. In Lesson 3, students first build and test beam, deep beam, and arch bridges made
from index cards, and observe how forces act on each bridge type. They then explore the
different materials that will be available to them for designing their bridges in Lesson 4, and
© Museum of Science, Boston 7 Unit Introduction
brainstorm ways that each material might be used in a bridge design. In Lesson 4, students use
the Engineering Design Process as they “Imagine,” “Plan,” “Create,” and “Improve” their own
bridges made of materials such as copy paper, craft sticks, index cards, and drinking straws.
The To Get to the Other Side: Designing Bridges unit has been designed to integrate with science
lessons on forces, balance, and stability. The tie-in science concepts, as well as the FOSS and
STC lessons that address those concepts are noted in the Unit Summary Chart on pp. 12-13. It is
important that these Engineering is Elementary lessons be supported by the prior or concurrent
presentation of the fundamental science concepts.
This unit is considered “Basic” in that it is designed for early elementary students (Grades 1-2).
Modifications for upper elementary students can be found in the sidebars of the lesson plans as
“Advanced Lesson” suggestions.
Background
Civil Engineering
Civil engineering is the branch of engineering concerned with the design and construction of
public structures. As you walk around any human-inhabited part of the world, you will likely
observe examples of civil engineering. From public buildings and roads, to bridges and tunnels,
civil engineers help to design all of the essential structures of the modern world. The origin of
civil engineering dates back thousands of years. Who designed the breathtaking pyramids of
Ancient Egypt or the beautiful arch bridges of Ancient Rome? Today we would call them civil
engineers.
One of the greatest challenges for civil engineers is designing structures appropriate to the
environmental conditions in a particular region. Civil engineers must ensure that the structures
they design will be stable, strong, and safe—able to withstand wind and rain, the wear and tear of
everyday use, and even earthquakes and hurricanes.
Many people believe that civil engineers actually build the structures they design. This is not the
case in modern societies—civil engineers design structures such as bridges, tunnels, amusement
park rides, skyscrapers, and stadiums. These designs are then passed along to contractors and
construction workers, who build the actual structures. Most public structures are the result of
many teams working together.
Forces, Stability, and Bridges

Bridges are designed to balance and distribute the forces acting on them, including tension,
compression, and gravity. They must remain stable even in extreme conditions, such as
earthquakes and hurricanes. If a bridge (or any structure) is not properly designed to withstand
the forces acting upon it, it will fail. See p. 83 of Lesson 3 for diagrams of forces acting on
different types of bridges.
The most basic force acting on a bridge is gravity. Gravity pulls down on all parts of a bridge and
on the people or vehicles crossing it. Weight is actually a measurement of the force of gravity
pulling downwards on an object (in this case, the bridge and its load). For every force (such as
gravity) acting on the bridge, there must be a reaction equal in force and opposite in direction
(according to Newton’s Third Law of Motion), which means that the bridge must, in turn, push
upwards to overcome the downward force of gravity and support the people and vehicles on it.
These forces stress the materials of the bridge as well. For example, a cable holding up part of a
suspension bridge is under tension. Tension is the force pulling or stretching a material apart,
like people playing tug-of-war with a rope. Compression is the force that squeezes a material
together. For example, a pier holding up a bridge is under compression.
Engineers need to know what forces will be acting upon each part of the bridge, so they can
choose the right materials and structural elements to withstand those forces. For example, a
wooden post is good for withstanding compression because it keeps its shape when squeezed
(whereas a steel cable would not); a steel cable is good for withstanding tension because it keeps
its shape when pulled apart (better than a wooden post). Along the same lines, piers can be used
to support the span of a bridge. The beam in a beam bridge is a classic example of a structure
that needs to withstand both compression and tension (see diagram on p. 83 of Lesson 3). The
top of the beam is under compression, while the bottom of the beam is under tension. For this
reason, deeper beams (beams with a thicker vertical dimension) are necessary for supporting
greater amounts of weight and for spanning longer distances. A deeper beam has more material
to withstand both the tension and the compression forces acting upon it.
Additional Resources
 American Society of Engineering
http://www.egfi-k12.org
 National Academy of Engineering—Engineer Girl!
http://www.engineergirl.org
 Sloan Career Cornerstone Center: Civil Engineering
http://www.careercornerstone.org/civileng/civileng.htm
 American Society of Civil Engineers
http://www.asce.org
© Museum of Science, Boston 9 Unit Introduction

Lesson Summary:
Time to Complete 
Students will...
Preparatory  examine everyday examples of
Preparation: 10-15 minutes
Lesson technology.
 discuss how these objects were designed
Lesson: 30-40 minutes
to solve problems.
 discuss the materials that objects are
made of.
 read the story Javier Builds a Bridge.
1 Preparation: 5-10 minutes

 learn about various types of bridges.
 talk about what civil engineers do for
their jobs.
Javier Builds a (2-3 sessions)
 become familiar with the Engineering
Bridge Design Process.
 examine several different structures and
2
observe how each is affected by a force.
 brainstorm and implement some
engineering solutions to prevent forces
Pushes and from causing a structure to fail.
Pulls  discuss how civil engineers work to
counteract the forces (pushes and pulls)
on a structure in order to make it
stronger and more stable.
 create three different types of bridges
3 Part 1
(beam, arch, and deep beam) out of
index cards.
 test each type of bridge to see how
Bridging
much weight it can support and how
Understanding Part 2 adding weight affects the structure of
the bridge.
 examine the materials available to them
for designing their bridges and
brainstorm how they might use each
material in their bridges.
 use the Engineering Design Process to
4 Part 1
design a bridge made from paper and
other materials.
 test and improve their bridges using the
Designing a evaluation criteria of strength and
Bridge Part 2
Preparation: 15-25 minutes stability.

Summarized Engineering Objectives:

Assessment
Students will be able to...
 identify everyday objects made by people as technology.  Observe student contributions to class
 identify the problem(s) that a particular object solves. discussion.
 identify the materials used to make an object.  Examine students’ work.
 identify that objects are designed as a solution to a
problem.
 identify engineers as the people who design objects.
 identify the technologies discussed in the story.  Observe student contributions to the
 discuss some of the problems, criteria, constraints, and discussion and examine students’
solutions associated with designing bridges. work.
 recognize the role of civil engineers in designing  Use Lesson 1 Rubric {1-8} to evaluate
structures. student performance.
 identify the steps of the Engineering Design Process.  Javier and the Engineering Design
Process {1-7} is a good source of
information on student understanding
of the Engineering Design Process.
 identify some of the forces (pushes and pulls) that act on  Observe student participation in the
a structure. activity.
 explain that applying a new force (push or pull) in the  Use Lesson 2 Rubric {2-6} to evaluate
opposite direction of an existing force (push or pull) can individual student performance.
increase the strength and/or stability of a structure.  Pushes and Pulls on Structures: One-
 describe the role of civil engineers in identifying and Story Structure {2-2} and Tower
addressing the forces acting on a structure. {2-3} are good sources of information
on student understanding of forces.
 conduct a controlled experiment to determine and  Observe student participation in

compare the strength of three different bridge types discussions.
(beam, arch, and deep beam).  Use Lesson 3 Rubric {3-9} to evaluate
 analyze testing data and draw conclusions about how the individual student work and class
shape and structure of a bridge affect how much weight it contributions.
can support.  Testing a Beam Bridge {3-3}, Testing
 recognize that under different criteria and constraints, a Deep Beam Bridge {3-5}, and
different bridge types are the best design choice. Testing an Arch Bridge {3-7} are all
 brainstorm how they might use different materials and good sources of information on
ways that they might change the shape of a material (i.e., student understanding of different
by rolling, folding, etc.) in a bridge design. bridge types.
 identify and implement the steps of the Engineering  Use Engineering Design Process
Design Process. pages {4-3}, {4-4}, {4-6}, {4-7}, and
 utilize what they have learned about different bridge {4-9} to analyze student work on the
types and the properties of different materials to inform design challenge.
their bridge designs.  Use Lesson 4 Rubric {4-13} to
 test the strength and stability of their bridge designs and evaluate individual student’s work.
analyze test results.
 “Improve” their bridge designs, based on testing results
and analyses.
© Museum of Science, Boston 11 Unit Summary Chart

Tie-In Science Concepts: Force and Balance
 There are many connections between science, technology, and
1 human activity.
 Science and engineering affect the world in many different ways.
Javier Builds a  Forces acting on a bridge can make it unstable.
Bridge  Structures are stable when the forces on them are balanced.
 A force is a push or a pull on an object.
2  The position and motion of an object can be changed by a push or a

pull. The size of the change depends on the strength of the push or
Pushes and pull.
Pulls
 The various geometric shapes present in bridges have different
3 strengths and weaknesses.

 Different shapes can distribute forces in different directions.
Bridging  Controlled experiments can help determine the differing strengths of
Understanding bridge types.
 The various geometric shapes present in bridges have different
4 strengths and weaknesses.

 When all forces acting on a structure are balanced, the structure is in
Designing a a state of equilibrium.
Bridge

Tie-In Science: FOSS Tie-In Science: STC
 Balance and Motion  Balancing and Weighing

Investigation 1: Balance Lessons
 Part 1: Trick Crayfish  1: Thinking about Balance
 Part 2: Triangle and Arch  2: Building Structures that Balance
 Part 3: The Pencil Trick  3: Exploring the Beam Balance
 4: Moving the Fulcrum
 5: Building Mobiles
 6: Exploring the Equal-Arm Balance
 7: Using the Equal-Arm Balance to
Compare Objects
 Balance and Motion  Balancing and Weighing

Investigation 1: Balance Lessons
 Part 2: Triangle and Arch  1: Thinking about Balance
 Part 3: The Pencil Trick  2: Building Structures that Balance
 3: Exploring the Beam Balance
 4: Moving the Fulcrum
 5: Building Mobiles
 6: Exploring the Equal-Arm Balance
 7: Using the Equal-Arm Balance to
Compare Objects

Tie-In Science: Science Companion
 Motion
1 Lessons:
 5: Changing Motion: Starting Things Moving and Changing
Javier Builds a Direction
Bridge  Early Science Explorations (Constructions)
 Activity: Building with Many Materials
 Activity: Strong Structures
 Activity: Marshmallow and Toothpick Constructions
 Activity: Bridges
 Motion
2 Lessons:
 2: Drawing Motion
Pushes and  5: Changing Motion: Starting Things Moving and Changing
Pulls Direction
 6: Comparing Big and Small Forces
 Motion
3 Lessons:
Bridging Direction
Understanding  6: Comparing Big and Small Forces
 Early Science Explorations (Constructions)
 Motion
4 Lessons:
Direction
Designing a
Bridge  6: Comparing Big and Small Forces
 Early Science Explorations (Constructions)

ITEEA National Standards and Benchmarks
 8A Everyone can design solutions to a problem.

 8D Requirements for a design include such factors as the desired elements and features of a
product or system or the limits that are placed on a design.
 10A Asking questions and making observations helps a person to figure out how things work.
 20B The type of structure determines how the parts are put together.
 10A Asking questions and making observations helps a person to figure out how things work.
 10E The process of experimentation, which is common in science, can also be used to solve
technological problems.
 20B The type of structure determines how the parts are put together.
 2E People plan in order to get things done.

 8A Everyone can design solutions to a problem.
 8B Design is a creative process.
 8C The design process is a purposeful method of planning practical solutions to problems.
 9A The engineering design process includes identifying a problem, looking for ideas, developing
solutions, and sharing solutions with others.
 9B Expressing ideas to others verbally and through sketches and models is an important part of
the design process.
 9C The engineering design process involves defining a problem, generating ideas, selecting a
solution, testing the solution(s), making the item, evaluating it, and presenting the results.
 9D When designing an object it is important to be creative and consider all ideas.
 11B Build or construct an object using the design process.
 11F Test and evaluate the solutions for the design problem.
 11G Improve the design solutions.

Unit Assessment
Introducing Students to Engineering and Technology and

Diagnostic Assessment
How much do your students know about engineering and technology? If you don’t have a ready
answer to this question, you can use the Pre-Post Assessment sheets available in the Assessments
section to get baseline readings on your students’ knowledge of engineering and technology
concepts before completing this unit. See the Assessment Introduction on p. 128 for further
details on how to use the assessments. If your students have little knowledge of engineering,
technology, and the Engineering Design Process, you can use the Technology in a Bag?
Preparatory Lesson (p. 29) to help them achieve a basic familiarity with these concepts and to
confront common misconceptions about engineering and technology.
Lesson Rubrics
For each lesson, rubrics are provided that detail what to look for in assessing student learning.
Part of the purpose of this type of assessment is to collect information about what concepts need
to be re-emphasized during reflection and further lessons for the entire class. Another purpose is
to understand what individual students are learning from the unit and where they may need
additional support.
Rubrics for assessing student learning are provided at the end of each lesson. However, your own
observations of class discussions, student insights and misconceptions, and student work will be
the best assessment. A blank Rubric Recording Sheet is provided in each lesson for this purpose.
You may wish to adjust the difficulty of the lessons to match your students’ capabilities.
Summative Assessment
The Pre-Post Assessment sheets provided in the Assessments section can also be used as a
summative assessment of your students’ understanding of technology, engineering, and the
Engineering Design Process. Additional assessments that address science and engineering
concepts specific to this unit can be found on the EiE website (http://www.mos.org/EiE). If you
use these assessments both before and after teaching Engineering is Elementary units, you can
compare students’ performance on the post-assessment with their performance on the pre-
assessment to help you see how student understanding has changed. See the Assessment
Introduction on p. 128 for further details on how to use the assessments.
© Museum of Science, Boston 17 Unit Assessment

Summarized Objectives Activity Assessments

Students will be able to Rubrics have been provided for each lesson at
the end of each lesson section. Use the Rubric
1. identify the technologies discussed in the Recording Sheets to organize scores for all
story. (Lesson 1) students.
2. discuss some of the problems, criteria, Lesson 1
constraints, and solutions associated with
designing bridges. (Lesson 1) Observe student contributions to the
discussion. Examine student work. Use
3. recognize the role of civil engineers in Lesson 1 Rubric {1-8} to evaluate student
designing structures. (Lesson 1) performance. Javier and the Engineering
Design Process {1-7} is a good source of
4. identify the steps of the Engineering student understanding of the Engineering
Design Process. (Lesson 1) Design Process.
(Objectives 1-4)
5. identify some of the forces (pushes and
pulls) that act on a structure. (Lesson 2) Lesson 2
6. explain that applying a new force (push or Observe student participation in the activity
pull) in the opposite direction of an and discussion. Examine student work.
existing force (push or pull) can increase Evaluate student performance using Lesson 2
the strength and/or stability of a structure. Rubric {2-6}. Pushes and Pulls on
(Lesson 2) Structures: One-Story Structure {2-2} and
Tower Structure {2-3} are good sources of
7. describe the role of civil engineers in information on student understanding of
identifying and addressing the forces forces.
acting on a structure. (Lesson 2) (Objectives 5-7)
8. conduct a controlled experiment to Lesson 3
determine and compare the strength of
three different bridge types (beam, arch, Students draw or write their observations of
and deep beam). (Lesson 3) the performance of bridges as they
experiment to see which can hold the most
9. analyze testing data and draw conclusions weight. Evaluate student work using Lesson 3
about how the shape and structure of a Rubric {3-9}. Testing a Beam Bridge {3-3},
bridge affect how much weight it can Testing a Deep Beam Bridge {3-5}, and
support. (Lesson 3) Testing an Arch Bridge {3-7} are all good
sources of information on student
10. recognize that under difference criteria
understanding of different bridge types.
and constraints, different bridge types are
(Objectives 8-11)
the best design choice. (Lesson 3)

Summarized Objectives Activity Assessments

Students will be able to Lesson 4
11. brainstorm how they might use different Students plan and construct bridges. They test
materials and ways that they might and analyze their designs, and make
change the shape of a material (i.e., by improvements based upon what they have
rolling, folding, etc.) in a bridge design. learned. Analyze this project and work that
(Lesson 3) students produce using Lesson 4 Rubric
{4-13}. Use Engineering Design Process
12. identify and implement the steps of the pages {4-3}, {4-4}, {4-6}, {4-7}, and {4-9}
Engineering Design Process. (Lesson 4) to analyze student work on the design
challenge.
13. utilize when they have learned about (Objectives 12-15)
different bridge types and the properties
of different materials to inform their
bridge designs. (Lesson 4)
14. test the strength and stability of their

bridge designs and analyze test results.
(Lesson 4)
15. “Improve” their bridge designs, based on

testing results and analyses.
(Lesson 4)
© Museum of Science, Boston 19 Unit Assessment

Unit Vocabulary List
Engineering Terms Additional Content Terms

 Civil engineering  Abutment
 Constraint  Action
 Criteria  Arch bridge
 Design  Balance
 Engineer/Engineering  Beam bridge
 Engineering Design Process  Effect
 Ask  Equilibrium
 Imagine  Failure
 Plan  Force
 Create  Masa
 Improve  Pier
 Goal  Span
 Material  Stability/Stable
 Problem  Strength/Strong
 Property  Structure
 Prototype  Suspension bridge
 Redesign  Tamale
 Solution
 Teamwork
 Technology
 Test
© Museum of Science, Boston 21 Unit Vocabulary

Vocabulary Definitions: Engineering Terms

 Civil engineering: The branch of engineering concerned with the design and
construction of public structures, such as buildings, bridges, roads, and water
systems.
 Constraint: A restriction or limit placed on a designed solution or the design process
itself. For example, time, money, and materials are all constraints.
 Criteria: Specific qualities required of a successfully designed solution. For
example, strength, durability, reliability, and speed are all criteria.
 Engineer/Engineering: A person who uses his or her creativity and understanding
of materials, tools, mathematics, and science to design things that solve problems.
 Engineering Design Process: The five steps that engineers use to design
something to solve a problem, to: “Ask,” “Imagine,” “Plan,” “Create,” and “Improve.”
 Goal: The ideal solution for which people aim when designing a technology.
 Material: The substance(s) from which an object is or can be made.
 Problem: In engineering, a need or desire that motivates the creation of a

technology.
 Property: A characteristic of a material, such as how it looks, how it feels, and how it
behaves in different conditions.
 Prototype: A special type of model that is a first draft of a technology. It is
developed to test the function of a design.
 Redesign: To change or improve one or more aspects of a technology, such as its
cost, efficiency, looks, or parts.
 Solution: An answer, design, or technology that solves a problem.
 Teamwork: The interactions of a group of people aimed at accomplishing a common

goal.
 Technology: Any thing, system, or process that people create and use to solve a
problem.
 Test: A way to measure the success of a solution or part of a solution to an
engineering problem; a way of trying ideas to see how well they work. For example,
testing the strength of a material or the accuracy of an idea.

Vocabulary Definitions: Additional Content Terms

 Abutment: The part of a bridge that applies a force at either end and helps to
maintain the bridge’s shape.
 Action: Using energy to do something.
 Arch bridge: A bridge made from one or more arches and abutments.
 Balance: A state of equilibrium characterized by the cancellation of forces by equal

opposing forces.
 Beam bridge: A bridge made of a flat piece, or beam, laid across two or more
supports or piers.
 Effect: A result or response caused by a stimulus or force.
 Equilibrium: A state in which a structure or system is at rest or is in unaccelerated

motion due to all forces being balanced.
 Failure: When a structure changes its shape so much that it is not safe or useful any
more.
 Force: An influence, such as a push or pull, that causes motion or a change in
motion.
 Masa: A type of dough made from corn that is often used in tortillas and tamales.
Pronounced MAH-seh.
 Pier: A vertical structural support.
 Span: The length between two bridge supports.
 Stability/Stable: The ability of a structure to keep its integrity (resist change or

motion) when forces act upon it. A stable structure keeps its integrity when forces
act upon it.
 Strength/Strong: The ability to resist strain or stress. A strong structure is able to
support weight without distorting or collapsing.
 Structure: Something that is constructed, such as a building.
 Suspension bridge: A bridge made of a platform that is held up by wires or ropes

strung from the tops of towers.
 Tamale: A Mexican food made by steaming a mixture of meat, peppers, and spices
in cornhusks. Pronounced teh-MA-lay.
© Museum of Science, Boston 23 Vocabulary Definitions

To Get To The Other Side:

Designing Bridges
Lesson Plans
An Introduction to Balance, Forces, and
Civil Engineering
for Elementary Students
Acknowledgements
The development of this curriculum would not have been possible without the teachers in our
lead teacher program and the participation of their schools and districts. Lead teachers are
active participants in the development, pilot testing, and review of the lessons and units.
The lead teachers who worked on To Get to the Other Side: Designing Bridges are:
♦ Kristen Blake, Johnson Elementary, Natick, MA
♦ Timothy Harkins, West Elementary, Andover, MA
♦ Arlene Henry, Ellis Mendell School, Boston, MA
♦ Suzanne Lordan, Forest Avenue School, Hudson, MA
♦ Nancy Purpura, Hemenway Elementary School, Framingham, MA
♦ Patricia Slater, Stapleton Elementary and Barbieri School, Framingham, MA
♦ Nancy Yocom de Romero, Barbieri School, Framingham, MA
John Kedzierski shared his knowledge of civil engineering to help us create this unit.
EiE interns Elissa Chin, Matthew Cohen, Sharon Kam, Danielle Miller, and Fern Supawanich
provided invaluable assistance with the development of the curricular materials.
Preparatory Lesson
Prep Lesson
Technology in a Bag
Vocabulary
♦ Engineering
♦ Material
♦ Problem
♦ Solution
♦ Technology
Guiding Question:
♦ What are technologies and who designs them?
In this lesson, students will
♦ examine everyday examples of technology.
♦ discuss how these objects were designed to solve problems.
♦ discuss the materials that objects are made of.
Students learn that
♦ almost all of the objects we use every day are examples of
technology.
♦ technology can be made of many different kinds of
materials.
♦ engineers design technology to solve problems.
© Museum of Science, Boston 29 Technology in a Bag

29
Objectives
Students will be able to
Prep Lesson
♦ identify everyday objects made by people as technology.

♦ identify the problem(s) that a particular object solves.
♦ identify the materials used to make an object.
♦ identify that objects are designed as a solution to a problem.
♦ identify engineers as the people who design objects.
Tie-In Science Content

♦ There are differences between natural things and those that are human-made.
Overview
Many students believe that technology only refers to things powered by electricity. In this
lesson, each group of students gets a “mystery bag” containing an example of technology.
When students open their bags, they may be surprised to see that they contain everyday objects
like sponges, slippers, or bubblegum!
Students examine these everyday useful objects as examples of technology. They consider the
needs that the objects serve and how they might work. They determine what materials each
object is made from. A handout guides them to write or draw their thoughts about these
questions. Then, in whole-class discussion, students learn that technologies are designed by
engineers.
This lesson is intended as a preparatory lesson before students begin any Engineering is
Elementary unit, not only To Get to the Other Side: Designing Bridges. If your students have
already completed a Preparatory Lesson from another Engineering is Elementary unit, you may
wish to skip this lesson. Similarly, if your students’ performance on the assessment sheets What
is Technology? {A-1} and What is an Engineer? {A-2} shows they are already familiar with
the concepts of engineering and technology, you may wish to skip or abbreviate this lesson.
Background
Technology does not only refer to electronic devices. It refers, in the broadest sense, to every
object, system, or process that has been designed or modified to be useful to some person or
group of people. Dish sponges and dish soap, high heels and loafers, deck chairs and dining
room chairs—all are things that people have designed and use for purposes from cleaning to
looking nice to being comfortable.
Many students have never thought about the objects they use as technology. With help,
however, they should be able to talk about the uses of objects like cups, shoes, and scissors.
With a little imagination, identifying the problems that objects solve can be quite fun. A cup
holds drinks so you don’t make a mess. How would you drink milk if you did not have a cup?
The concept of processes and systems as technologies may be more difficult for students to
grasp. Any series of steps that must be performed in a specific order to accomplish a task (e.g.,
making a cake, braiding hair) is a process. Any object with parts that work together to
Prep Lesson
accomplish a task is a system. Even something like a glue stick (which includes a cap, a tube to
contain the glue, and a knob you turn to push out more glue) has parts that work together; thus
it is a system.
Students also may not have thought about the materials that things are made of. They are
probably familiar with such materials as metal, wood, plastic, and cloth, but will need help
recognizing that common objects are made of these materials.
And of course, there is the question of how these objects came to be. Even adults rarely stop to
think of the people who made their shirts and tables, much less the people who actually
designed them. Behind an object as familiar as a stapler are hosts of engineers who determined
the shape it would take and the materials it would be made from—not to mention how it would
put staples into paper. Even the small tables and chairs common in early elementary classrooms
were designed by someone for the specialized purpose of providing work space for children.
The mechanics of how things work is only one aspect of the design of everyday things that
students sometimes ask about. If you would like to read more, try these resources:
♦ How Stuff Works (http://www.howstuffworks.com)
♦ McCauley, David. The New Way Things Work. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1988.
♦ Llewellyn, Claire. How Things Work. Scholastic. 1996.
Student Learning
Look for the following misconceptions:
♦ Technology is only things that move.
♦ Technology is only computers.
♦ Technology is only things that use electricity.
Look for the following insights:

♦ Anything that people design to solve a problem is technology.
♦ Technology doesn’t always use electricity.
♦ Engineers design technology.
♦ Technology can be made of lots of different materials.
♦ Some kinds of materials (like plastic) are examples of technology.
♦ Anyone can engineer.

Materials
For Each Group
Prep Lesson
♦ sample of an “engineered object” (see Preparation for

examples)
♦ opaque bag or container (e.g., brown paper bag)
Copy for Each Student

♦ {P-1} Technology Around Us

Teacher Tip
Preparation
1. Collect simple, everyday engineered objects—enough to If you think your students are
ready, you may want to include
Prep Lesson
have at least one for each student group or table. For technologies that represent
example, you might collect some of the following: systems (something with
multiple parts, such as a glue
♦ toothbrush ♦ CD stick or mechanical pencil) or
♦ flashlight ♦ slippers processes (a recipe card, for
example).
♦ plastic container ♦ pencil sharpener
♦ sponge ♦ pen
♦ paper clip ♦ eraser
♦ stapler ♦ plastic bag
♦ scissors ♦ nail clippers
♦ pen ♦ hair brush
2. Place each of the everyday engineered objects in a

“mystery bag”—a brown paper lunch bag works best, so
students will not see the objects before everyone is ready
to examine them.

Introduction
1. Explain to students that in this lesson they will learn about
Prep Lesson
engineering and technology. Begin by asking students:

♦ What is an engineer? Someone who uses his/her
knowledge of science, math, and creativity to design
objects, systems, or processes to solve problems.
♦ What is technology? Almost anything created to solve
a problem or meet a need. Examples include pencils,
cups, cell phones, processes to clean water, etc.
Record students’ answers to the questions above on chart
paper. It is okay if students do not know the answers to
these questions yet; the activity will guide them to better
understand both engineering and technology.
2. Encourage speculation by asking students:
♦ Do you know someone who is an engineer?
♦ If so, what kind of work does that person do?
♦ Do you think a shoe is considered technology?
Why or why not?
3. Introduce the activity by stating that your house is full of
technologies and you have brought some to share today.
4. Show students a mystery bag that contains an example of

technology.

5. Open the bag and pull out an object. Have students name
the object that you pull out. Ask:
♦ Are you surprised that this is technology? Why or
Prep Lesson
why not?
6. Show students Technology Around Us {P-1}. Model how
to fill out the sheet using your example technology.

Teacher Tip
Activity
Save the chart with students’
1. Divide the class into small groups and give one “mystery
responses to the questions
Prep Lesson
“What is an engineer?” and bag” to each group. Have students open the bag, pass the
“What is technology?” for object around, and examine it.
reflecting and revisiting later.
2. Ask students to think about what problem (or problems)
their technology solves and what materials it is made of.
Have students record their findings on Technology Around
Us {P-1}.
3. Have students from each group talk about their

technology. As a class, discuss:
♦ Is the object natural or human-made?
♦ What material(s) is it made of?
♦ What problem does it solve?
♦ How else could you use it?
♦ What other materials could it be made of?
4. Help students connect technologies with engineers. Ask:
♦ Who do you think creates these technologies?
Students may suggest scientists, inventors, or
engineers.
Explain that engineers are the people who create
technologies. Tell students that they will learn much more
about engineering and technology as they complete the
activities in this unit.

Reflection
1. Return to the students’ responses to the introductory
Prep Lesson
questions “What is an engineer?” and “What is
technology?”
2. As a class, cross off ideas that don’t make sense anymore

and add to the lists with definitions, ideas, and examples. It
is okay if students’ answers still are not perfect—they will
be learning much more about engineers and technology in
the coming lessons.
3. Emphasize that even though we might not have realized it

before, nearly everything we use, work with, or wear is
engineered. Someone had to think of how to design that
object to solve a particular problem—technology is all
around us.

Extension and Reinforcement

Artisans vs. Technician vs. Engineers
Prep Lesson
Talk about who would be considered an artisan or craftsman, a

technician, or an engineer. Ask students if they’ve heard of
these terms and if they can give examples of each type of job.
Explain to students why there is often confusion around these

roles:
♦ Sometimes a person can do multiple kinds of work.
For example, an electrician may install wiring as well
as fix problems with it.
♦ Engineers may build prototypes and fix problems with
their prototypes, but this is not the same as building the
finished product itself or fixing an existing technology.
Create a list for each type of job. Examples might include:
♦ Artisan: a tailor, carpenter, or steelworker
♦ Technician: a mechanic, electrician, or computer-repair
person
♦ Engineer: someone who uses math, science, and
creativity to design new technologies or improve
existing technologies

Name: _____________________________________ Date: ________________ A

Technology Around Us
B
1. What is your object?________________________________
2. Draw a picture of your object in this box. Label the parts.
3. What does your object do? What problem does it solve?

___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
4. What material or materials is your object made of?

___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
EiE: Designing Bridges P-1 Prep Lesson: Technology in a Bag
© Museum of Science, Boston
Duplication Permitted
Lesson 1
Lesson 1
Javier Builds a Bridge

(2-3 sessions)
Vocabulary
 Abutment
 Arch bridge
 Beam bridge
 Civil engineering
 Constraint
 Criteria
 Engineer
 Engineering Design
Process
In this lesson, students will  Masa
 Pier
 read the story Javier Builds a Bridge.
 Problem
 learn about various types of bridges.
 Prototype
 talk about what civil engineers do for their jobs.
 Span
 become familiar with the Engineering Design Process.
 Suspension bridge
Students learn that  Tamale
 depending on the criteria and constraints of a given  Technology
problem, one or more bridge types may be the best design
choice.
 engineers must consider criteria and constraints when
solving a problem.
 bridges are a type of technology.
 anyone can use the Engineering Design Process.
© Museum of Science, Boston 39 Javier Builds a Bridge

Objectives
 identify the technologies discussed in the story.
Lesson 1
 discuss some of the problems, criteria, constraints, and solutions associated with designing
bridges.
 recognize the role of civil engineers in designing structures.
 identify the steps of the Engineering Design Process.

 There are many connections between science, technology, and human activity.
 Science and engineering affect the world in many different ways.
 Forces acting on a bridge can make it unstable.
 Structures are stable when the forces on them are balanced.
Overview
In this lesson, students read the storybook Javier Builds a Bridge, which follows the adventures
of Javier and his younger stepsister, Luisa. After the two take an unfortunate tumble off the
wobbly bridge leading to Javier’s fort, his Mamá tells him that they will have to take the bridge
down. Disappointed, Javier convinces his mother and stepfather, Joe, that creating a new, safer
bridge would be an acceptable compromise.
After Mamá and Joe, a civil engineer, point out that Javier’s initial idea of building a beam
bridge might not be the best option to span the stream, Javier is stumped. With some help from
his cousins and stepsister, Javier comes up with another idea and bridges the gap within his
family while designing a new bridge to his fort.
The story introduces three different bridge types (beam, arch, and suspension). Several other
concepts key to the unit are also introduced, including the Engineering Design Process, the role
of engineers, and the field of civil engineering.
As you read the storybook, challenge students to identify the problems, criteria, constraints, and
solutions discussed in the story. Conclude the lesson with a discussion of the work that engineers
do, how bridges are an example of technology, and how students can use the Engineering Design
Process as they design, build, and improve their own bridges.

Background
As students discover in the storybook Javier Builds a Bridge, there are many different types of
bridges. Javier and his cousins discuss three famous bridges that they have seen: the Lake
Lesson 1
Pontchartrain Causeway in Louisiana, the Natchez Trace Parkway Bridge in Tennessee, and the
Golden Gate Bridge in California.
The beam bridge that Javier refers to is the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway. This bridge, one of the
longest in the world, stretches over 23 miles (37.0 km) from Mandeville to New Orleans,
Louisiana. The Lake Pontchartrain Causeway has two spans, one for each traffic direction. The
first span of the Causeway was completed in 1956, and the second span was completed in 1969.
It cost over 30 million dollars to build. Many sections of the bridge were prefabricated and then
put onto barges and floated out to the construction site on the lake.
The story Javier Builds a Bridge was written prior to the landfall of Hurricane Katrina, which hit
the New Orleans area on August 29, 2005. The Lake Pontchartrain Causeway sustained mainly
cosmetic damages and reopened to public traffic approximately a month and a half later—a
testament to the solid civil engineering behind the bridge’s design.
The Natchez Trace Parkway Bridge is an arch bridge standing over 150 feet (45.7m) tall and
1,600 feet (487.7m) long. It follows the Natchez Trace, a trail dating back to the eighteenth
century that was used by Native American tribes as well as by French fur trappers and traders.
The Natchez Trace Parkway Bridge was designed to preserve the natural beauty of the area
surrounding the original trail. The bridge is made of pre-constructed concrete segments that were
pieced together to form the arch and abutments. It was the first bridge in the United States to be
constructed in such a manner.
The Golden Gate Bridge, located in San Francisco, California, is one of the best-known
suspension bridges in the world. It spans 1.2 miles (1.9 km) over San Francisco Bay. Completed
in 1937 and containing 80,000 miles (128.7 km) of steel cable (enough to circle the earth three
times), the bridge serves as an example of how civil engineers must take environmental
influences, such as the diverse weather of the San Francisco Bay, into consideration to ensure
their structures will be safe and stable. In 1982, during a series of severe winter storms, the main
span of the bridge actually bowed almost seven feet (2.1m)—but the bridge remained secure and
safe.
Student Learning
 Engineers only drive trains.
 Only men can be engineers.
 Engineers fix cars.
 Designing technology is an engineer’s job.
 Anyone can use the Engineering Design Process.
© Museum of Science, Boston 41 Javier Builds a Bridge
Lesson 2
Pushes and Pulls
Lesson 2
Vocabulary
 Action
 Civil engineering
 Effect
 Equilibrium
 Force
Guiding Question:  Problem
 Solution
 What are some of the forces that act on structures and how
do civil engineers design structures that can withstand  Stable
these forces?  Strong
 Structure
 examine several different structures and observe how each
is affected by a force.
 brainstorm and implement some engineering solutions to
prevent forces from causing a structure to fail.
 discuss how civil engineers work to counteract the forces
(pushes and pulls) on a structure in order to make it
stronger and more stable.
Students learn that
 forces act on structures in many different directions.
 two equivalent forces acting on a structure in opposite
directions will balance one another.
 civil engineers need to understand the forces acting on a
structure in order to make it safe and stable.
© Museum of Science, Boston 53 Pushes and Pulls

Objectives
 identify some of the forces (pushes and pulls) that act on a structure.
 explain that applying a new force (push or pull) in the opposite direction of an existing force
(push or pull) can increase the strength and/or stability of a structure.
 describe the role of civil engineers in identifying and addressing the forces acting on a
structure.

 A force is a push or a pull on an object.
Lesson 2
 The position and motion of an object can be changed by a push or a pull. The size of the
change depends on the strength of the push or pull.
Overview
The purpose of this lesson is to help students better understand the ways in which civil engineers
think about structures by learning about some of the forces that act on them. Students observe
how different forces affect structures. They then brainstorm some possible ways that civil
engineers might help balance the forces acting on a structure, and implement some ideas.
Students first work as a class to define the term “structure” and brainstorm different structures
that civil engineers might work on. They then think about all of the forces (pushes and pulls) that
affect a familiar structure—their school building—every day.
The class then examines two small model structures made from index cards, plastic drinking
straws, paper clips, and cellophane tape (several of the materials that will be available for
students to use in their bridge designs). A force is applied to each structure (either small weights
pushing downward or “wind” from a fan pushing sideways) and students observe the effect of
the force on the structure. For each structure, students identify the forces (pushes and pulls)
acting on it and how the forces affect the structure. They then think of some of the problems
these forces might cause for people using the structure. Finally, students brainstorm possible
civil engineering solutions for each problem and implement one solution for each structure.
Students learn that by applying forces in the opposite direction of forces that are compromising
the strength or stability of a structure, civil engineers are able to design safe and stable structures
for people to use.
Background
In this lesson, force is described as any push or pull on an object. When we consider a force, it is
important to know two things: its direction (in what direction it is being applied) and how strong
it is (its magnitude). As this activity is geared towards young children, it emphasizes the
direction of the forces acting on a structure, and further narrows the focus to forces acting
horizontally and vertically.

Numerous forces are acting on a structure at any given time. For example, if the structure at hand
is a bridge, then some of the forces acting on it would be the pull of gravity, the weight of people
and cars moving across it, the weight of the materials the bridge is made from, the pushes of the
wind or ocean currents on it, etc.
An object or system is considered to be in a state of equilibrium when all of the forces acting on
it are balanced. There are two different types of equilibrium: static equilibrium and dynamic
equilibrium. An object or system is in a state of static equilibrium when it is at rest (not moving),
such as a book resting on a table. An object or system is in a state of dynamic equilibrium when
it is moving at a constant rate in a constant direction. If a new force is applied to the moving
object, the object will change its direction or rate of motion, and is therefore no longer in a state
of dynamic equilibrium. The object will return to equilibrium once all of the forces acting on it
are again balanced, meaning that it is either at rest (static equilibrium) or is again moving with a
Lesson 2
constant speed and direction (dynamic equilibrium). In this lesson, students focus on static
equilibrium as they explore forces applied to two different structures.
To help us better understand the concept of static equilibrium, consider the two diagrams below:
The upper diagram shows two water bottles attached to either end of a
coat hanger. The water bottles are each filled with the same amount of
water, so the coat hanger is hanging parallel to the ground. Since the
coat hanger is not moving, it is in a state of static equilibrium; all of the
forces acting on it are balanced.
The lower diagram shows what would happen if you applied a force and
moved one of the water bottles toward the center of the hanger. The
hanger would wobble for a while and eventually come to rest, hanging
at an angle. While we might say that this coat hanger is unbalanced
because it is not hanging parallel to the ground, all of the forces acting
on this coat hanger are indeed balanced because the coat hanger is not
moving; it is in a state of static equilibrium.
Our colloquial use of the term “balanced” often refers to the aesthetic balance of an object,
meaning whether it is “straight,” “level,” “symmetrical,” or “even.” However, the forces acting
on an object are balanced when they do not change the motion or position of the object.
As these concepts of balance and equilibrium are somewhat abstract and not always intuitive, we
have minimized the use of these terms by students in this activity. Instead, we want students to
focus on identifying the direction of a force acting on an object and brainstorming ways to apply
a force on the structure (of equal magnitude) in the opposite direction. Doing so is one possible
way to make the structure stronger or more stable. Civil engineers use a variety of techniques
when they are designing structures in order to counteract the forces caused by wind, weather,
people, materials, objects, etc., and keep structures stable and safe for people to use.
Foundations, trusses, columns, piers, buttresses, and cable stays are all examples of structural
elements that civil engineers might use to design a safe, stable structure.
© Museum of Science, Boston 55 Pushes and Pulls

Student Learning
 Civil engineers only work on bridges or buildings.
 The forces on a structure are balanced only when the structure looks straight, level, even,
or symmetrical.
 Forces can change the shape of things, or even break them.
 If all of the forces on a structure are balanced, it will be stronger and more stable.
 A structure is in a state of static equilibrium when it is not moving (at rest).
Lesson 2

Lesson 3
Bridging Understanding
Part 1 Preparation: 15-20 minutes


Vocabulary
♦ Abutment
♦ Arch bridge
♦ Balance
♦ Beam bridge
♦ Civil engineering
♦ Criteria
Guiding Question: ♦ Engineering Design
Lesson 3
Process
♦ How does the structure of a bridge affect its strength and ♦ Failure
how can we use different materials in our bridge designs?
♦ Force
In this lesson, students will ♦ Material
♦ create three different types of bridges (beam, arch, and deep ♦ Pier
beam) out of index cards. ♦ Property
♦ test each type of bridge to see how much weight it can ♦ Span
support and how adding weight affects the structure of the ♦ Test
bridge.
♦ examine the materials available to them for designing their
bridges and brainstorm how they might use each material in
their bridges.
Students learn that
♦ different bridge types, with unique shapes, can support
different amounts of weight.
♦ controlled experiments can help to determine the strengths
and weaknesses of different bridge designs.
♦ materials can be used in different ways to accomplish
different design tasks.
© Museum of Science, Boston 81 Bridging Understanding

Objectives
♦ conduct a controlled experiment to determine and compare the strength of three different
bridge types (beam, arch, and deep beam).
♦ analyze testing data and draw conclusions about how the shape and structure of a bridge
affect how much weight it can support.
♦ recognize that under different criteria and constraints, different bridge types are the best
design choice.
♦ brainstorm how they might use different materials and ways that they might change the shape
of a material (i.e., by rolling, folding, etc.) in a bridge design.

♦ The various geometric shapes present in bridges have different strengths and weaknesses.
♦ Different shapes can distribute forces in different directions.
♦ Controlled experiments can help determine the differing strengths of bridge types.
Overview
In this lesson, students are first introduced to three different kinds of bridges (beam, deep beam,
and arch). They create a model of each bridge type out of index cards and test to see how much
weight each bridge can support by placing nuts, washers, or other small, uniform weights on top
Lesson 3
of the bridge. Students also observe the way in which each bridge type fails (collapses). Beam
bridges collapse in the middle, deep beam bridges buckle on the top side of the beam, and arch
bridges push their abutments apart horizontally.
During testing, all of the variables except for bridge type are kept constant: students create each
bridge from four index cards and the abutments are always the same height and distance apart.
This allows for accurate comparison between the three bridge types.
Part 2 of this lesson introduces students to the materials available to them for designing their
bridges in Lesson 4. As a class, students identify properties of each material and also brainstorm
ways in which they could use it in a bridge design. Finally, students discuss how they might alter
each material (by cutting, folding, rolling, etc.) in order to use it in a bridge design. These
experiences should help to inform students’ bridge designs in Lesson 4 of this unit.
Background
A close look at the various bridges around your town will likely reveal several basic shapes.
Engineers have designed each specific bridge type to withstand different forces and span
different distances. However, some basic components are present in all bridges. All bridges have
supports (such as piers or cable stays) and a span (the distance between the supports). The
various components of each bridge are put together in ways to address the forces that the bridge
needs to withstand, including compression (pushing) and tension (pulling). A successful bridge
handles the various forces without becoming distorted or damaged.
Beam bridges are made of one or more horizontal beams, supported at either end by abutments.
In order to be functional, the abutments must support the weight of each horizontal beam as well
as the weight of anything on the bridge, such as cars, trucks, and people. The longer the span of
the bridge, the less support the beam receives from these abutments and therefore the weaker the
beam becomes. One way to add additional support to a long beam bridge is to add piers between
the abutments.
Another way to strengthen a beam bridge is to make the beam deeper, meaning that the vertical
dimension of the beam is thicker. Because the upper part of the beam is under compression while
the lower part of the beam is under tension, this extra depth allows the forces to be better
distributed within the beam, making it stronger.
Beam Bridge
Lesson 3
Arch bridges use the strength of abutments in a different manner than beam bridges. Instead of
just supporting a beam by pushing up, arch bridge abutments also push horizontally on the bridge
from the sides. When weight is added to the top of the bridge, the arch shape below pushes both
downward and outward in response—the downward-acting force is redirected sideways by the
half-moon shaped arch. The abutments keep the arch under compression by squeezing the sides
of the arches together. This prevents the bridge from collapsing by stabilizing the arches and
keeping the forces balanced.
Arch Bridge
© Museum of Science, Boston 83 Bridging Understanding

Student Learning
Look for the following difficulties:
♦ Students use the blocks as beams instead of as abutments.
♦ Students place weights on top of an abutment instead of on the center of the bridge, so
that the span of the bridge does not support any weight.
♦ Students do not keep their abutments a constant distance apart.

♦ The arch pushes the block abutments apart.
♦ The deep beam bridge compresses (is pushed together) along the top and stretches (is
pulled apart) along the bottom.
♦ The thickness of the deep beam bridge strengthens the structure.
♦ Adding piers along the span can make beam bridges stronger.
Lesson 3

Lesson 4
Designing a Bridge


Vocabulary
♦ Abutment
♦ Civil engineering
♦ Constraint
♦ Criteria
♦ Design
♦ Engineering Design
Process
♦ Force
♦ Goal
Guiding Question: ♦ Prototype
♦ How can we use our knowledge of materials and their ♦ Redesign
properties, different bridge types, and the Engineering ♦ Solution
Design Process to design a strong, stable bridge? ♦ Stability
♦ Strength
♦ Teamwork
♦ use the Engineering Design Process to design a bridge ♦ Test
made from paper and other materials.
♦ test and improve their bridges using the evaluation criteria
of strength and stability.
Students learn that
Lesson 4
♦ engineers use a series of steps, called the Engineering

Design Process, to design solutions to problems.
♦ sheets of paper can be modified and reinforced to make a
strong, stable bridge.
♦ testing and redesigning can improve the performance of any
technology.
© Museum of Science, Boston 107 Designing a Bridge

Objectives
♦ identify and implement the steps of the Engineering Design Process.
♦ utilize what they have learned about different bridge types and the properties of different
materials to inform their bridge designs.
♦ test the strength and stability of their bridge designs and analyze test results.
♦ “Improve” their bridge designs, based on testing results and analyses.

♦ The various geometric shapes present in bridges have different strengths and weaknesses.
♦ When all forces acting on a structure are balanced, the structure is in a state of equilibrium.
Connect the Lessons

This lesson allows students to apply what they have learned so far about forces, the strength of
different bridge types, materials and their properties, and the field of civil engineering. As
students brainstorm ideas for their bridge designs, it is helpful to remind them of the different
bridge types they learned about both in the story Javier Builds a Bridge and in Lesson 3 (beam,
arch, deep beam, and suspension). Students should also review what they learned about beam,
arch, and deep beam bridges in Lesson 3 by using Comparing Bridge Designs {3-8}.
The “Materials for Bridge Designs” chart that the class created in Lesson 3, Part 2 can help
students review the different materials available to them, as well as some ways in which they
could use and manipulate these materials in their bridge designs.
Students should also use what they learned in Lesson 2 about how civil engineers think about the
different forces (pushes and pulls) that affect a structure. While observing the pushes and pulls
on the one-story and tower structures, students learned that one way to make a structure stronger
and/or more stable is to add a force in the opposite direction of an existing problematic force. In
this lesson, students should think about the forces that might be causing their bridge designs to
be weak or unstable and try to add design elements that provide forces in the opposite direction.
Finally, this lesson also reiterates the important engineering concepts of criteria and constraints.
Students identify and list the criteria for and constraints imposed on their bridge designs.
Lesson 4

Steps of the
Part of
Engineering Time Summary
Lesson
Design Process
Preparation: ♦ Students review what they have
10-15 minutes already learned about different
bridge types, the materials from
Lesson: which they can build their
bridges, and the work of civil
50-60 minutes
engineers.
♦ Students discuss why engineers
use prototypes when designing
a technology.
♦ Continuing the “Ask” step of the
Engineering Design Process,
“Ask” students review the criteria and
1 “Imagine” constraints for their bridge
“Plan” designs as well as how they will
test their bridges.
♦ Working individually, students
“Imagine” several possible
bridge designs.
♦ Working in pairs, students
create a detailed “Plan” for their
bridge designs, which includes a
labeled diagram and a list of the
materials they will use.
Preparation: ♦ Students “Create” their bridge

15-25 minutes prototypes based on their plans
from Part 1.
Lesson: ♦ Pairs test the stability of their
bridge prototypes by pushing a
50-60 minutes
toy car across the bridge’s span
and observing its trajectory.
♦ Pairs then test the strength of
their bridge prototypes by
placing weights on the center of
“Create”
2 the bridge’s span until it sinks
“Improve” below a designated “failure”
Lesson 4
level.
♦ Based on their observations
during testing, students
brainstorm ways to “Improve”
their bridge designs.
♦ Once they have decided on their
improvement ideas, pairs build
new bridge prototypes and test
them again.
What Makes a Good Bridge?

A strong and stable bridge design will often include some of the following:
♦ tightly rolled and taped copy paper used as a pier or as a beam.
♦ craft sticks or plastic drinking straws used to reinforce paper for a beam, arch, or roadway.
♦ nested rolls of paper used to make longer beams to cross a longer span.
♦ multiple arches across the span.
♦ paper clips used to connect pieces of the bridge, such as an arch to a roadway.
♦ paper that is folded, layered, twisted, or bent to increase its strength.
♦ an even amount of material on either side of the bridge, so that the roadway lies flat and is
balanced (i.e., a car would be able to roll in BOTH directions across the bridge).
Multiple aches connected to

roadway using paperclips.
Straws used to reinforce

paper in a beam bridge.
(Photograph is of underside
of roadway.)
Lesson 4
Rolled and taped copy

paper used as a beam.

Teaching the Engineering Design Process

The Engineering Design Process, like any detailed process, requires attention and persistence.
Students often do not understand why they should follow the steps. The Engineering Design
Process is a guide to proper engineering design, but not a recipe or a requirement. The
Engineering Design Process also comes in many forms. Engineers on the job may do the steps
out of order, or skip a step, depending on the needs of a particular project. However, all the steps
are important to good design.
Watch for these common difficulties:

♦ A student does not contribute to brainstorming. Perhaps he/she has already decided what he/
she would like to do, and is having trouble seeing beyond that idea.
♦ Students contribute to brainstorming, but do not consider the ideas they imagined when
designing their plan. Students may have brainstormed without seeing the importance of this
step. Ask students to talk about the positive and negative aspects of each brainstormed idea.
Once students begin comparing their ideas, they should be able to start talking about them
more easily.
♦ Student plans are not well-drawn or described. A poorly drawn plan can hide disagreements
or different conceptions about what the group’s plan actually is. Help students to label the
parts of their diagrams, and to write down the specific quantity of each material they would
like to use. Everyone in the group should agree on the materials list and the plan.
♦ Students do not use the information that they gathered from testing their first designs to help
them identify and implement possible improvements. Help students to identify the weaknesses
of their first designs. Ask, “How will you address this problem in your improved design?”
Each improvement should address a specific problem—and if the improvement is to try
something completely new, students should be able to justify their decision.
♦ If all else fails, it is possible that students simply haven’t had enough experience with the
materials at hand (and therefore do not have enough understanding of how they work) to
begin designing. Let students “mess around” for their first design, and then add another
improvement cycle, having students work towards using the Engineering Design Process
more carefully in the later steps.
Lesson 4

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ENGINEERING IS ELEMENTARY BRIDGES PREVIEW

To Get To The Other Side:

Carolyn DeCristofano Michael Arquin

Edited by Rebecca Pedersen

© 2004-2008, 2011 by the Museum of Science. All rights reserved.

For a complete list of supporters and partners, please visit:

To learn more about the Engineering is Elementary:

Parts less than 1.25” Plastic bags of any size

Civil Engineering: Designing Bridges

Introduction to Engineering is Elementary……………………………….. 1

Unit Summary Charts………………………………………………………. 10

Unit Materials List…………………………………………………………... 20

Unit Vocabulary List………………………………………………………… 21

1. Javier Builds a Bridge..……..………………….………………………. 39

2. Pushes and Pulls….………………...……………………………….…. 53

4. Designing a Bridge…....…...…………………………………………… 107

Assessment Introduction…………………………………………………. 128

© Museum of Science, Boston Table of Contents

The National Center for Technological Literacy

Engineering is Elementary is part of the National Center for

Civil Engineering: Designing Bridges

Engineering is Elementary (EiE) is a curricular program that integrates engineering with

Goal 1: Increase children’s technological literacy.

Skills/Experience (Be able to):

Goal 2: Increase elementary educators’ abilities to teach engineering and technology to

Engineering for Children?!

Civil Engineering: 2 © Museum of Science, Boston

How To Use This Curriculum

 English Language Learners

Organization of Engineering is Elementary Materials

Civil Engineering: 4 © Museum of Science, Boston

An Engineering is Elementary Teacher Guide Includes:

Other Available Engineering is Elementary Materials:

© Museum of Science, Boston 5 Introduction to EiE

Civil Engineering: Designing Bridges

Recommended Science Units for Tie-In:

Social Studies Content:

About This Unit

Forces, Stability, and Bridges

© Museum of Science, Boston 9 Unit Introduction

 read the story Javier Builds a Bridge.

1 Preparation: 5-10 minutes

Lesson: 90-120 minutes

 examine several different structures and

 create three different types of bridges

 use the Engineering Design Process to

Civil Engineering: 10 © Museum of Science, Boston

Summarized Engineering Objectives:

 conduct a controlled experiment to determine and  Observe student participation in

© Museum of Science, Boston 11 Unit Summary Chart

Tie-In Science Concepts: Force and Balance

 There are many connections between science, technology, and

 A force is a push or a pull on an object.

2  The position and motion of an object can be changed by a push or a

 The various geometric shapes present in bridges have different

3 strengths and weaknesses.

 The various geometric shapes present in bridges have different

4 strengths and weaknesses.

Civil Engineering: 12 © Museum of Science, Boston

Name: _____________________ Date: A