BLOOD
o The only fluid tissue in the human body
o Classified as a connective tissue
▪Living cells = formed elements 45%
▪Non-living matrix = plasma 55%
Physical Properties of Blood
a. Color range
- Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
- Oxygen-poor blood is dull red
b. pH must remain between 7.35–7.45
c. Blood temperature is slightly higher than body
temperature
BLOOD PLASMA
o Composed of approximately 90 percent of
water
o Includes many dissolved substances
▪Nutrients
▪Salts (metal ions)
▪Respiratory gases
▪Hormones
▪Proteins
▪Waste products
▪Antibodies
PLASMA PROTEINS
a. Albumin – regulates osmotic pressure
b. Clotting proteins – help to stem blood loss
when a blood vessel is injured
c. Antibodies – help protect the body from
antigens
FORMED ELEMENTS
a. Erythrocytes - RBCs
b. Leukocytes - WBCs
c. Platelets/Thrombocytes – cell fragments
HEMATOPOIESIS
o Blood cell formation
o Occurs in red bone marrow
o All blood cells are derived from a common
stem cell (hemocytoblast)
o Hemocytoblast differentiation
•Lymphoid stem cell produces lymphocytes
•Myeloid stem cell produces other formed
elements
ERYTHROCYTES
o Carry oxygen
o Anatomy:
- Biconcave disks
- Bags of hemoglobin
- Anucleate (no nucleus)
- Very few organelles
o 1000:1
o 4 to 6 million
Fate
- Unable to divide, grow or synthesize proteins
- Wear out in 100 to 120 days
- eliminated by phagocytes in the spleen or
liver
- replaced by division of hemocytoblasts
Control of Erythrocyte Production
o Rate is controlled by a hormone
(erythropoietin)
o Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as a
response to reduced oxygen levels in the
blood
o Homeostasis is maintained by negative
feedback from blood oxygen levels
HEMOGLOBIN
o A complex protein containing Globin
o Heme: Iron-containing substance
o Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen
o Each has four oxygen binding sites
o Each erythrocyte has 250 million hemoglobin
molecules
Blood Groups and Transfusions
• Large losses of blood have serious consequences
- Loss of 15 to 30 percent causes weakness
- Loss of over 30 percent causes shock, which
can be fatal
• Transfusions are the only way to replace blood
quickly
• Transfused blood must be of the same blood group
Human Blood Groups
o Blood contains genetically determined
proteins
o A foreign protein (antigen) may be attacked
by the immune system
o Blood is “typed” by using antibodies that will
cause blood with certain proteins to clump
(agglutination)
 o The most vigorous transfusion reactions are - Found in repsonse to allergies and
caused by ABO and Rh blood group antigens parasitic worms
o Genetically determined antigens on red cell c. Basophils
membranes and natural antibodies in serum - Have histamine containing granules
- Initiate inflammation
ABO BLOOD GROUPS
• Based on the presence or absence of two antigens 2. Agranulocytes - lack visible cytoplasmic granules
(Type A, Type B) a. Lymphocytes
• The lack of these antigens is called type O - Nucleus fills most of the cell
• The presence of both A and B is called type AB - immune response
• The presence of either A or B is called types A and B b. Monocytes
- Largest of the white blood cells
Rh Blood Groups - Function as macrophages
• Named because of the presence or absence of one - fighting chronic infection
of eight Rh antigens (agglutinogen D)
• Most Americans are Rh+ PLATELETS
• Problems can occur in mixing Rh+ blood into a body o Derived from ruptured multinucleate cells
with Rh– blood (megakaryocytes)
o Needed for the clotting process
Blood Typing o Normal platelet count = 300,000/ mm3
• Blood samples are mixed with anti-A and anti-B
serum
• Coagulation or no coagulation leads to determining
blood type
• Typing for ABO and Rh factors is done in the same
manner
• CROSS MATCHING – testing for agglutination of
donor RBCs by the recipient’s serum, and vice versa

LEUKOCYTES
o Crucial in the body’s defense against disease
o Complete cells, with a nucleus and organelles
o Able to move into and out of blood vessels
(diapedesis) HEMOSTASIS
o Normal levels are between 4,000 and 11,000 o Stoppage of blood flow
cells per millimeter o Result of a break in a blood vessel
o Abnormal leukocyte levels o Hemostasis involves three phases
- Leukocytosis ▪Platelet plug formation
Above 11,000 leukocytes/ml ▪Vascular spasms
Indicates an infection ▪Coagulation
- Leukopenia
Abnormally low leukocyte level BLEEDING DISORDERS
Caused by certain drug a. Thrombocytopenia
- Platelet deficiency
TYPES OF LEUKOCYTES b. Hemophilia
1. Granulocytes - granules can be stained - Hereditary bleeding disorder
a. Neutrophils - Normal clotting factors are missing
- Multilobed nucleus with fine granules c. Anemia
- Acts as phagocytes - Iron deficiency Anemia
b. Eosinophils - Hemolytic Anemia
- Large brick-red cytoplasmic granules d. Leukemia
Developmental Aspects of Blood
o Sites of blood cell formation
•The fetal liver and spleen are early sites of
blood cell formation
•Bone marrow takes over hematopoiesis by
the seventh month
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM B. Thymus (thorax)
a. Lymphatic vessels - Located in the upper part of the
b. Lymph nodes and other lymphatic tissues mediastinum behind the sternum and
c. Spleen upwards to the root of the neck
d. Thymus gland - Functions at peak levels only during
Functions: childhood
1. Transport fluids back to the blood - Produces hormones (like thymosin) to
2. Play essential roles in body defense and program lymphocytes
resistance to disease - Lymphocytes mature and develop into
activated T-lymphocytes
TWO MAJOR LYMPHATIC DUCTS C. Tonsils (pharyngeal region)
1. Thoracic Duct - Small masses of lymphoid tissue around
- Begins at Cysterna chili the pharynx
- 40 cm - Trap and remove bacteria and other
- Opens into subclavian vein foreign materials
- Drains lymph from both legs, pelvic and - Tonsillitis is caused by congestion with
abdominal cavities, left half of thorax, head, bacteria
neck, and left arm D. Peyer’s patches (intestine)
- Found in the wall of the small intestine
2. Right Lymphatic Duct - Resemble tonsils in structure
- A dilated lymphatic lymph vessel - Capture and destroy bacteria in the
- 1 cm long intestine
- At the root of the neck
- Opens into the right subclavian vein
- Drains right half of thorax, head and neck,
and the right arm

LYMPH
- Materials returned to the blood: Water, Blood
cells, Proteins
- Harmful materials that enter lymph vessels
•Bacteria
•Viruses
•Cancer cells
•Cell debris

LYMPH NODES
- Filter lymph before it is returned to the blood
- Defense cells within lymph nodes
• Macrophages – engulf and destroy foreign
substances
• Lymphocytes – provide immune response to
antigens

Other Lymphoid Organs

A. Spleen (left side of the stomach)
- Largest lymphoid organ
- Filters blood
- Phagocytosis
- Development of Lymphocytes
- Erythropoiesis