ISSN (Online) 2192-9114

10
October 2019 | Volume 80

E L EC T RI C DRI V E S | H Y BRI D D RI V E S | C O M BU S T I O N E N G I N E S

SUPERCHARGING

Turbochargers as Efficiency Boosters

SINTERED MATERIALS ROTARY SHAFT SEALS FUEL ADDITIVES
Made of Iron for the Reduction Specially Designed for Use in for Biodiesel to Increase
of Cobalt Consumption High-speed Electric Motors Oxidation Stability

/// INTERVIEW Victor Oliveras Merida and Mark Hoffmann [Audi] /// GUEST COMMENTARY Frank Atzler [TU Dresden]
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Upping the Pace!
Dear Reader,
To ensure the success of the energy and
mobility transition, we need to take action
on an international scale. Future energy
supplies and global mobility solutions
must be safe, clean, and affordable. For
example, North Africa is one of Europe’s
most important energy suppliers, but for
cost reasons alone it is unlikely that 20 %
of Europe’s electricity requirements will
be met by green energy from the desert
by 2050. However, this electricity could
be used locally to produce synthetic fuels
that could subsequently be imported into
Europe relatively cheaply. As a result, a
supply of carbon-neutral fuel which pro-
duces zero particulate emissions and low
levels of nitrogen oxide would be available
for the mobility sector. In addition, the
renewable electricity generated in Europe
could be used primarily to meet stationary
energy requirements, which are likely to
increase by 30 % worldwide by 2040. A
strategy of this kind would make a great
deal of sense for physical, supply-related,
and economic reasons. The considerable
efforts currently being made in China and
in the Gulf region to develop e-fuels and
hydrogen for use in mobility solutions
demonstrate the relevance, the poten-
tial, and the importance of a networked
approach. The aviation industry’s con-
certed attempt to push for the introduc-
tion of e-fuels and its call for an EU direc-
tive on synthetic fuels should therefore
be warmly welcomed. This is the only
way of finally upping the pace of this
process. It will also give the oil industry
the security to plan ahead and invest in
electrolysis technology.
The decisive factor is that alternative fuels
should no longer be seen as a strategy for
avoiding electric drives. From a technical
and a system perspective, they make the
ideal complement. The EU’s recent resolu-
tion to put hydrogen-powered vehicles
on an equal footing with battery electric
MTZ worldwide 10|2019
EDITORIAL
AHEAD OF TIME
vehicles as zero-emission technologies is
evidence of a change of approach that is
long overdue, because without e-fuels the YEARS
energy transition will fail. The transport
industry is part of the energy system and
it is essential that all the solutions func-
tion effectively within that system. The
ideal future mix in the mobility sector,
which is currently responsible for around
16 % of global CO2 emissions, would
involve the ongoing development of bat-
tery electric drives combined with the use
of e-fuels and hydrogen. A large amount
of hydrogen is produced by the chemical
industry as a waste product, which is gen-
erally disposed of. Together with sustain-
ably produced hydrogen, it offers signifi-
cant potential for mobile and stationary
use. This option has largely been ignored
until now and it would allow us to take
a pioneering and reliably sustainable
approach on a global scale.
I hope you enjoy this issue of MTZ
and look forward to meeting you on
our stand at the Frankfurt Motor Show
in Hall 4.1, A05.
THE LOOK INTO THE FUTURE.
MTZ has successfully accompanied the
development of engines and powertrains
for the past 80 years. The internationally
leading technical and scientific magazine
Dr. Alexander Heintzel for decision-makers in powertrain de-
Editor in Chief velopment and production sees itself as
an information platform on future power-
trains – conventional, electrified or purely
electric. MTZ promotes the transfer
of information between manufacturers,
suppliers, service providers and research
and development centers all over the
world, in German and English, in print
and digital editions.
GET YOUR FREE TRIAL NOW
www.mtz-magazine.com
3
C ONTENTS IS SUE 9 | 2019

© Garrett Motion

SUPERCHARGING

Turbochargers as Efficiency Boosters

Turbochargers have undergone major
development in recent years. On the one 16
hand, exhaust gas turbochargers with vari-
able geometry turbines are now also used
in gasoline engines, which improves the 18
response of the engine and simplifies oper-
Introduction
Thomas Schneider
VTG Turbochargers with Ball Bearings for Gasoline Engines
Ralf Christmann, Amir Rohi, Sascha Weiske, Marc Gugau
[BorgWarner Turbo Systems]

ation with efficiency-optimized combustion

processes. On the other hand, electrifica-
INTERVIEW
tion is also becoming more and more pop-
26 system
“The 48-V electrical
brings huge
© Tobias Sagmeister

ular in this area, for example in form of

benefits for customers”
electric auxiliary compressors – not least Victor Oliveras Merida
because of the higher power reserves pro- and Mark Hoffmann [Audi]

vided by 48-V vehicle electrical systems.

30 Electric Turbocharging – Key Technology

for Hybridized Powertrains
Peter Davies, Nathaniel Bontemps [Garrett Motion],
Torsten Tietze, Eike Tim Faulseit [IAV]

4
 © ElringKlinger Kunststofftechnik
© Tenneco Inc.

42 Tenneco has developed iron-based, self-
lubricating sintered materials for high-temperature
applications to reduce the use of cobalt.
60 ElringKlinger is presenting new high-perfor-
mance seals that are particularly suitable for
use in high-speed electric mobility applications.
© TAC
70 Researchers at the University of Coburg and
the Technical University of Ostwestfalen-Lippe
are using hydrazides to improve the oxidation sta-
bility of biodiesel.

CON T E N T S DE V E L OP MEN T R E S E A RCH

3 Editorial MATERIALS FUELS AND LUBRICANTS

42 Minimizing the Cobalt Content in 70 Low-emission Fuel with
Wear Resistant Sintered Materials High Biogenic Content
8 0 Y E A R S OF M T Z Les Farthing, Adrian Horne, and High Oxidation Stability
Jens Wellmann [Tenneco] Ferdinand Bär, Olaf Schröder
HYBRID DRIVES [Hochschule Coburg], Jürgen Krahl
6 The Smart Combination of Electric SIMULATION AND TESTING [Hochschule Ostwestfalen-Lippe]
Motors and Combustion Engines 48 Insights into the Development
Andreas Burkert Process Using Portable Emissions
Measurement Systems S ER V ICE
Christiane Betz, Andreas Ziegler,
NEWS Eckhart Nitzschke, Harald Behrendt 76 Imprint, Scientific Advisory Board
8 People + Companies [Daimler] 77 Preview
9 Impulses
54 Microanalytical Method
for Mass Emissions Data
IN T HE S PO T L IGH T in Actual Road Traffic GUEST COMMENTARY
Frank Heepen [Horiba] 78 Everything Has
10 More Environmentally Already Been Said
Friendly Cruise Liners? SEALS Frank Atzler

© Niels Gigler
Christiane Köllner 60 ElroSeal-e – A New Standard [TU Dresden]
for Electric Drives
Uwe Koch, Uwe Wallner [ElringKlinger]
CO V E R S T ORY
FUELS
SUPERCHARGING 64 Element Contents in Biodiesel
16 Turbochargers as Jörg Schröder [DBFZ], Maren Dietrich,
Efficiency Boosters Richard Wicht [AGQM], Markus Winkler
[Deutz]

NEWS
38 Products

COVER FIGURE © Garrett Motion

MTZ worldwide 10|2019 5

80 YE ARS OF MT Z HYBRID DRIV ES

The Smart For a long time many car manufacturers

refused to make use of the intelligent com-

Combination of
bination of a combustion engine and an
electric motor to power their vehicles. Only
Toyota identified the benefits early on and

Electric Motors and

demonstrated how efficient a power-split
hybrid drive can be. But German carmakers
are now catching up and producing hybrid

Combustion Engines models with a 48-V drive system and a peak

power output of up to 30 kW.

The mild hybrid 48-V powertrain

of the Audi A8 (© Audi)

I
f battery powered vehicles had ever been in the
position to combine a long range with a reasonable
charging time, the classic combustion engine
would not have had a chance. But developers of elec-
tric cars have not yet found a satisfactory solution to
the problem of the amount of energy available in a
traction battery. The engineer Ferdinand Porsche
wrestled with the shortcomings of the system as long
ago as 1900 and produced the Semper Vivus, the
world’s first hybrid car. It is important to know that
the electric motors on the front wheels of the car were
supported by single-cylinder gasoline engines made
by Daimler which powered a generator while the car
The world’s first hybrid car is called the Semper Vivus and
was developed in 1900 by Ferdinand Porsche (© Porsche)
was moving and charged the lead acid batteries. The hybrid
prototype of Lohner Porsche is an electric car with a range
extender which produced 2.7 hp, had a top speed of 35 km/h,
and could cover a range of 200 km.
However, the process of hybridizing powertrains has only
recently been fully successful. It is true that there have been
micro-hybrid models, the simplest form of electrification,
which strictly speaking only consists of an automatic start-stop
system. But vehicle developers only describe a powertrain as
hybridized or a car as a full hybrid if its electric power output
is more than 10 kW. In contrast to a mild hybrid where a crank-
shaft starter-generator is combined with a combustion engine
to provide support during acceleration, in a full hybrid an
electric motor producing much more than 15 kW powers the
car, which can travel several kilometers in electric mode. The
distance that can be covered is generally only around five
kilometers and after this the combustion engine has to charge
the traction battery.
Only plug-in hybrids with a much larger battery with a
capacity of 15 to 20 kWh which can be charged from a wall
socket can cover a distance of up to 100 km in pure electric
mode. The electric range of the Toyota Prius plug-in hybrid,
which has just undergone a model upgrade that included tech-
nical improvements, is 50 km. In order to achieve this range,
Toyota relies on a larger battery and a power-split hybrid drive
in which part of the power of the combustion engine is trans-
ferred mechanically to the wheels via a planetary gear set and
part via the motor-generator which functions as an electric
transmission. For comparison: The new Porsche Cayenne
plug-in hybrid with an eight-cylinder combustion engine and
a power output of 500 kW can travel 40 km in electric drive.
Hybrid drives can be designed as serial and as parallel systems
where the combustion engine is not directly connected to the
drive axle and only powers a generator or where the combustion
engine and the electric motor jointly power the drive train, as is
the case with the Honda Civic hybrid. Because this means that
the combustion engine requires a gearbox, it partially cancels
out the weight and cost benefits. Serial hybrid drives also do not
meet all the expectations in terms of fuel savings, because the
energy has to be converted more than once. In the case of power-
split systems, by contrast, the combustion engine operates in a
MTZ worldwide 10|2019
According to researchers working on the Hy-Nets project, Vehicle-to-X
connectivity enables hybrid drives to be made more efficient (© dSpace)
Diagram of the power-split hybrid drive of the Toyota Prius plug-in hybrid
(© Toyota)
load range where the fuel consumption is low, regardless of the
speed of the vehicle. This represents a major opportunity for com-
bustion engines. Because of the progress made with hybridization,
they have a long future ahead of them.
The potential of hybrid technology has not yet by any means
been fully exploited. The next step forward is the 48-V drive,
which is cost-effective and compact, has a peak power output of
up to 30 kW, and allows for electric driving at speeds up to 80 or
90 km/h. Continental has developed a system of this kind which
uses a permanently excited synchronous motor with an efficiency
level of over 90 %, instead of an asynchronous motor. In addition,
the 48-V system is no longer positioned on the crankshaft in front
of the combustion engine, but instead between the engine and
the gearbox, which allows the engine to be shut down completely
during certain phases.
The research project “Hy-Nets – Efficient Hybrid Propulsion
using Vehicular Communication” has adopted the strategy of
avoiding power losses from the drive system by using an intelli-
gent control function. The researchers have developed pre-
dictive algorithms that will enable them to achieve energy sav-
ings of up to 32 % and also to reduce emissions. This will be
achieved by collecting data from V2X communication between
individual vehicles in order to improve the interaction between
the real hardware and software of the hybrid drive and complex
traffic scenarios.
Andreas Burkert
7
 NE WS PEOPL E + C OMPANIES

Rheinmetall | CEO Horst Binnig Retires

Horst Binnig is retiring from Rheinmetall after 20 years for personal reasons. The 60-year-old Binnig has asked the company’s
supervisory board to release him from his duties as Chairman of the Executive Board of Rheinmetall Automotive AG and as a
© Rheinmetall Automotive

member of the executive board of the group holding company Rheinmetall AG. At the recent press conference held by the com-
pany’s automotive division in the city of Hartha (Germany), Binnig said that he was not planning to take a seat on the super-
visory board. After a succession plan has been put in place, he intends to relinquish his responsibilities by the end of 2019.
Binnig joined the automotive division of the Rheinmetall Group in 1999 where he was initially in charge of corporate develop-
ment and then headed the subsidiary KS Aluminium-Technologie. He has been a member of the executive board of Rheinmetall
Automotive AG since 2012 and took over as chairman in 2014. In the same year he was also appointed to the executive board
Horst Binnig of Rheinmetall AG.

Volkswagen | Ford | Cooperation Extended

Volkswagen AG and Ford Motor Company have extended their collaboration to include the
areas of electro-mobility and autonomous driving. The US manufacturer will use the modular
e-powertrain platform from the company based in Wolfsburg (Germany) for at least one volume
model that is to be offered in Europe from 2023. The two companies are also investing in the
company Argo AI that specializes in autonomous driving and receive in return a corresponding
amount of company shares. The partners will integrate Argo AI’s self-riving system into their
models and thus reach large, global economies of scale. It is purported to be the first system for

© Volkswagen
autonomous driving that will be put to business use at the same scale in the USA and in Europe
and is reported to enable fully automated driving according to SAE level 4. The Volkswagen/Ford
alliance does not involve any capital exchanges and is to be managed via a joint steering board
that consists of managers from both companies and led by the two board chairmen Dr. Herbert Board chairmen Dr. Herbert Diess (left), Volkswagen
Diess and Jim Hackett. and Jim Hackett, Ford

BMZ | Kion | Battery Joint Venture

BMZ Holding GmbH and Kion Group AG have announced a 50-50 joint
venture. The joint venture, Kion Battery Systems GmbH will manufac-
ture lithium-ion batteries for fork-lift trucks destined for the European,
Middle Eastern and African markets. The partners’ aim is to extend
their product portfolio and increase production capacity to serve the
rapidly growing demand for lithium-ion battery systems in the intra-
© BMZ

logistics sector. The production facility will be built in Karlstein am

The production facility of Kion Battery Systems will be built in Karlstein am Main, Main (Germany) and the company plans to employ around 80 people in
close to the BMZ holding headquarters the areas of research, development and production by 2023.

Continental | TU Chemnitz | Inauguration of the Fuel Cell Laboratory

Continental’s Powertrain Division has inaugurated a new laboratory for fuel cell technology
© TU Chemnitz | Photo: Jacob Müller

as part of a strategic cooperation with the chair for Alternative Vehicle Powertrains (ALF)
at the Technical University of Chemnitz. According to Prof. Dr. Thomas von Unwerth, owner of
the ALF chair, the technical equipment is unique in the academic landscape in all of Europe.
The heart of the new system is a high performance test bed for the endurance testing of
powertrains of up to 150 kW and which can be modified to provide up to 300 kW. The new
test bed is able to simulate changeable environmental conditions and loads, which is essen-
tial for the evaluation of performance.
Heart of the new system is a high performance test bed

8
 Horiba | Rieker Takes
over Chairmanship of Asam
Prof. Marcus Rieker, Director of Academic Affairs at
Horiba Europe, has taken over as the new Chairman
of the Board of the Association for Standardization of
Automation and Measuring Systems (Asam e. V.). This is
the first time that the position has been held by a repre-
sentative of a supplier. Horiba, a provider of test systems,
© Horiba
has been contributing its expertise to the association
since 2009. “I am very proud to have supported Asam
Marcus Rieker over the past ten years as a member of the board.
As Chairman, I am keen to ensure that the organization
continues to grow in the long term,” said Rieker with
regard to his new position in succession to Marc Blatter.
BMW | Expansion of Battery Plant
in Spartanburg
© BMW
Battery assembly for the BMW X5 xDrive45e
The BMW plant in Spartanburg (USA) has doubled its production capacity for
high-voltage batteries and is now manufacturing new fourth-generation batter-
ies for the plug-in hybrid models of the new X5 and the future X3. The company
has invested around ten million US dollars in a new battery assembly line and
increased the size of the area to more than 8000 m². Since the start of the year,
BMW has invested a further ten million US dollars in the production of plug-in
hybrid models and an additional 225 employees have received training in the
production of electrified vehicles.
MTZ worldwide 10|2019
IMPULSES
Dr. Johannes Liebl
Editor in Charge
ATZ | MTZ | ATZelektronik
Working Together for Success
The climate crisis and the problems caused by poor
air quality are currently two of the main topics of
public debate. The Fridays for Future movement is
exerting pressure on governments and on society as
a whole. In the transport sector, policymakers have
until now focused solely on electric vehicles. However,
as Germany is still failing to meet its climate targets,
electric mobility can only be one part of the solution.
In July, German environment minister Svenja
Schulze launched an action plan for the use of
electricity-based fuels. In doing this, the ministry
is extending its commitment to power-to-x tech-
nologies and drawing up the first environmental
policy guidelines for their use. Is this the first sign
of a change of approach? Daimler has set itself the
objective of ensuring that all the new cars it sells
worldwide will be carbon-neutral by 2039 and the
company’s head of drive system development is
calling for the introduction of climate-neutral fuels.
Are the demands of this kind becoming louder?
We need a carbon-neutral energy chain from product
development through to recycling if we are to meet
our mobility and transport needs. The role of the
combustion engine will begin to change as a result.
Although the combination of combustion engines
and electric motors in hybrid drive systems has
proved to be effective, the two components need
to be even better coordinated to achieve their full
potential. In addition, simulation and testing must
be linked together throughout all the phases of the
product development process to enable us to manage
the growing complexity of the systems and to ensure
the reliability of the process as a whole.
In order to promote this system-based approach,
we are bringing the established conferences
“Charge Cycle and Emission Control,” “Friction in
the Powertrain and Vehicle,” and “Simulation and
Testing” together under one roof on October 23
and 24 in Hanau (Germany). I look forward to seeing
you there.
9
IN THE SP OTLIGHT

More Environmentally
Friendly Cruise Liners?

10
 © djama | Fotolia
With their emissions of sulfur oxide, nitrogen oxide,
and particulate matter, cruise ships have a poor
environmental footprint. On the open sea they burn
huge quantities of heavy oil and in port their diesel
fumes pollute the air. But the cruise industry is
gradually starting to change its approach. Some
shipping companies have set their course for a
cleaner future with new types of ships and alter-
native drive systems.

THE PROBLEMS CAUSED BY CRUISING

The cruise liner Aida Nova, which is largely powered by Lique-

fied Natural Gas (LNG), has been in operation on the world’s
oceans since the end of 2018. It bears with it the industry’s
hopes for improvements in the environmental footprint of
luxury liners. Although it always has a supply of marine diesel
on board, this is only intended as a reserve in the event of a
failure of the LNG system. It is also used to start the ship’s
four engines. Although today, LNG in most cases is a fossil
fuel that consists primarily of methane, the combustion
process produces much lower levels of pollutants.
Cruising is far from being a sustainable activity. Uwe
Jacobshagen, lecturer at the Harbor Police College in Hamburg
(Germany) and head of the engineering/environment depart-
ment there, explains the extent to which exhaust gases from
the funnels of the ships pollute the atmosphere [1]. Jacobshagen,
who has a degree in marine engineering, says: “Emissions
from ships consist of a range of different pollutants, including
sulfur oxide (SOx), nitrogen oxide (NOx), carbon dioxide (CO2),
soot, and particulate matter. The exhaust gases also contain
heavy metals, ash, and sediments.”
The emissions are caused primarily by the type of fuel
being used. Most ships are powered by heavy oil, Marine
Diesel Oil (MDO), or Marine Gas Oil (MGO). Heavy oil is a
waste product of the process of refining crude oil and causes
particularly high levels of pollution, as the logistics specialist
Prof. Wolf-Rüdiger Bretzke explains [2]. Marine diesel, which is
more expensive, is also more environmentally friendly, but the
combustion process still produces sulfur and nitrogen oxide.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ON PASSENGERS AND CITIES

The pollution problem has been exacerbated by the fact that

cruising is becoming more and more popular. In 2017 alone,
25.8 million people worldwide went on cruise vacations, as
shipping expert Ralf Witthohn describes. This is also reflected in
the cruise industry’s growing revenues. In 2015 these had risen
to almost 40 billion US dollars [3] and they are still increasing.
With each additional ship, the amount of pollution also rises.
The passengers and crew on board are exposed to particularly
high concentrations of airborne pollutants, as the reporters on
MTZ worldwide 10|2019 11
IN THE SP OTLIGHT

Difference 2016 Difference 2017

– 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
to 2017 in % to 2018 in %

© CLIA Deutschland 2019

Passengers 1.69 1.77 1.81 2.02 2.19 2.23 8.4 1.83
(in millions)
Number of overnights 14.71 15.63 15.75 18.04 19.64 No data 8.8 n/a
(in millions)
Average cruise duration
(in overnights) 8.72 8.83 8.69 8.94 8.85 9.1 -1 2.82

Average age (in years) 50.2 50.4 50.1 49.1 49.6 49 1 -1.21

Key figures for the German ocean cruise market 2013 to 2018

the Wiso consumer magazine program
on German TV station ZDF discovered
in 2017 [4]. During a cruise on board
the Aida Sol from the Canary Islands
to Madeira, they found that random sam-
ples taken with a mobile measuring
device contained up to 475,000 PN/cm3.
The level expected in clean sea air is
around 1000 PN/cm3, according to Ger-
many’s Nature and Biodiversity Conser-
vation Union (NABU).
A recent study carried out by the Euro-
pean umbrella association Transport &
Environment (T&E), which is a partner
of NABU, shows the extent to which
shipping pollutes not only sea air but
also cities [5]. It discovered that popular
tourist destinations such as Barcelona
(Spain), Palma de Mallorca (Spain),
and Venice (Italy) are the European
cities where cruise ship emissions are
highest. The majority of air pollution
is caused by the Italian cruise giant
Costa Crociere, closely followed by
MSC Cruises, a Swiss company. The
emissions from cruise liners in Euro-
pean ports in 2017 were recorded and
evaluated for the purposes of the report.
NO MOBILE ELECTRICIT Y
GENERATORS IN
THE PORT OF HAMBURG
Hamburg comes in eleventh place in the
rankings and is the highest placed Ger-
man port. Tiny Warnemünde (Germany)
is in 14th place out of a total of 50 port
cities that were evaluated. The extent
of the air pollution is also made clear
in the study. It showed that the cruise
ships docking in Hamburg in 2017
produced 1.5 times as much sulfur
oxide as the almost 770,000 cars regis-

© Meyer Werft

Existing and potential Emission Control Areas (ECAs) in 2015; ECAs are special shipping zones
where there are restrictions on sulfur oxide, particulate matter and nitrogen oxide emissions

12
 tered in the city. Sulfur oxide harms
human health and causes the acidifica-
tion of soils and water courses. According
to the study, the huge liners generated
nitrogen oxide emissions that amounted
to approximately 12 % of the equivalent
pollution caused by cars.
The diesel-powered ships’ generators
that provide the electricity on board when
the ships are in port and their engines are
shut down produce significant quantities
of pollution, according to strategy consul-
tant Oliver Lieber [6]. One alternative
would be for the liners to use an onshore
power supply in port. Until now this has
only been available in a very small num-
ber of ports, for example at the Hamburg-
Altona cruise terminal since 2016. How-
ever, the facility is hardly ever used
because of the high cost of electricity.
Only the Aida Sol has been using it regu-
larly since 2017. That situation could soon
change because the renewable energy
surcharge for onshore power supplies in
German ports is likely to be reduced in
future. By the end of 2020 all the Aida
ships built since 2000 (a total of 12) will
be able to use onshore power supplies and
so this change too will be worthwhile.
The city of Hamburg had also planned
to acquire mobile electricity generators,
known as Powerpacs. These run on LNG
and can be used to supply the ships with
electricity. However, it has recently been
© Meyer Werft
Gerhard Untiedt
Head of the Energy and Environment
Department at Meyer Werft
MTZ worldwide 10|2019
announced that the project has been put
on hold, because the ships do not have
the necessary external electricity connec-
tions. The shipping companies are obvi-
ously not investing in converting their
vessels. The Hamburg senate is now
focusing on installing more onshore
power supplies that provide green elec-
tricity. But the problem of the ships’ emis-
sions remains unchanged in the mean-
while. The example of Norway shows
that it is possible to legislate to prevent
the pollution. It has recently introduced
a ban on ships entering fjords with their
combustion engines running, although
this will not take effect until 2026.
CRUISING WITH SULFUR
The T&E study also identifies the specific
companies that cause the most pollution.
The investigation highlights the fact that
Carnival Corporation, the world’s largest
cruise company, produced almost ten
times more sulfur oxide along the coasts
of Europe than all the 260 million cars on
the continent put together. The Carnival
group includes subsidiaries such as Aida
Cruises, Costa Cruises, and the Cunard
Line. The second largest cruise firm,
Royal Caribbean Cruises, which is the
parent of German company TUI Cruises,
comes in second place with sulfur oxide
emissions that are four times higher.
2 QUESTIONS FOR …
MTZ _ What potential does LNG
have as a fuel for cruise liners?
UNTIEDT _ LNG in fossil form is an
important fuel and will effectively
resolve all the pollution problems.
However, because it is a fossil fuel
it brings hardly any improvement
over conventional fuels with regard
to greenhouse gas emissions. In the
long term, LNG from renewable
sources will be a useful solution, but
liquid fuels such as renewable metha-
nol have even greater potential. It can
be used in all engines, turbines, and
fuel cells and is easy to handle and
highly environmentally friendly. Syn-
thetic diesel is a possible option, but it
is more difficult to produce.
The Cruise Lines International Associa-
tion (CLIA), which represents the global
cruise industry, has criticized the analy-
sis because the results of the study “were
published without an academic evalua-
tion or a peer review” [7]. The organiza-
tion claims in a statement that the rank-
ings are based solely on assumptions
and not on measurements. It also says
that the study does not take into account
whether the ships in question are using
technologies that reduce their emissions.
CLIA Germany was critical of the NABU
ranking in 2017, claiming that the refer-
ences to cars and their emissions were
not appropriate, because you could not
compare a “small town” with a car [8].
ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS
INCREASE THE PRESSURE
Nevertheless, the industry will have to
make every effort to introduce zero-emis-
sion drive systems if it wants to have a
future. For example, installing scrubbers
makes it possible to remove the sulfur
emissions from the exhaust gases [9].
Sönke Diesener, NABU’s shipping expert,
is calling for more to be done: “Instead of
using toxic heavy oil as it does now, the
fleet must be converted to higher quality
fuels. Particulate filters and nitrogen oxide
catalysts must also be installed.” Increas-
ingly stringent environmental regulations
What in your view are the main obstacles
that need to be overcome to make the
liners more environmentally friendly?
Fossil fuels will not allow us to make any
real progress, because we cannot achieve
our climate targets simply by improving
efficiency. From our perspective, we need
to produce renewable fuels on a massive
scale and make them competitive. But
that will only be possible if it is accompa-
nied by a huge expansion in the genera-
tion of solar and wind energy around the
world. This is the only way of producing
enough electricity to manufacture renew-
able fuels such as methanol or LNG from
hydrogen. The cruise lines are already
calling for this to happen, because they
need to improve the image of their ships.
13
IN THE SP OTLIGHT
The Meyer Group has a number of ships with
liquefied natural gas tanks on its order books
mean that a solution needs to be found
quickly. In the North Sea and the Baltic
Sea, fuel for ships has not been allowed
to contain more than 0.1 % sulfur for
some time. From 2021 much stricter
rules on emissions of nitrogen oxide
will also apply in these areas. A limit
of 0.5 % on the sulfur content of ships’
fuels will be introduced for all the
world’s oceans in 2020. In emission
control areas and ports in the European
Union, the figure is 0.1 % [10]. This
amounts to a de facto ban on heavy oil.
SHIPPING COMPANIES’
PLANS TO REDUCE EMISSIONS
Some cruise lines are already making
progress in this area. The Norwegian
company Hurtigruten is planning to run
at least six ships on biogas and battery
power combined with LNG by 2021.
The biogas will be produced using
waste from the fishing industry and
other organic materials. The new flag-
ship of the Hurtigruten fleet, the MS
Roald Amundsen, will be launched in
2019. This expedition cruise ship has a
hybrid drive consisting of a combustion
engine and an electric motor.
Fuel cells could also play an import-
ant role in the industry in future. For
example, the RiverCell 2 project which
began in April 2017 is developing and
testing a hybrid concept to supply all
the energy needed by a river cruise
ship using fuel cells and alternative
fuels. The project is continuing until
September 2019. As part of the e4Ships
project, fuel cell systems are being
developed to provide energy on board
ocean-going ships [11]. Royal Caribbean
Cruises, one of the largest cruise lines,
is focusing on fuel cells and has the first
smaller fuel cell systems tested. Aida is
also investigating the possible use of fuel
14
t
Wer f
eye r
©M
cells and batteries. The first practical
test of fuel cells on board an Aida liner is
planned for 2021. Anyone who does not
want to wait to travel on a fuel cell ship
will have to go to Lake Baldeney in the
German city of Essen, where the MS Inn-
ogy has been operating since August of
last year with a methanol fuel cell devel-
oped during the Pa-X-ell project.
THE FUTURE LIES WITH LNG
The widespread use of fuel cells remains
a distant vision, as does zero-emission
cruising. It will not be possible to achieve
this objective using LNG, which is a fossil
fuel. However, it is the cleanest fuel that
we currently have. The combustion of
LNG produces just as much CO2 as cur-
rent fuels, but no particulate matter or
SOx and less NOx. It is always important
to take the source of the natural gas into
account. For example, shale gas extracted
by fracking would significantly reduce
sustainability levels when compared with
conventional fuels [12]. The same applies
to methane slip, which is the release of
methane from running gas engines or
from the LNG production process. This
is particularly controversial because the
global warming potential of methane is
21 times that of CO2 [13].
However, it is also possible to produce
renewable, carbon-neutral methane using
the power-to-gas process. This technology
is now so advanced that it can be used on
an industrial scale [14]. Liquid synthetic
fuels are also beginning to attract atten-
tion. These include alcohols such as
methanol which can be manufactured
like synthetic methane from hydrogen
and CO2. As methanol is a liquid in nor-
mal conditions, it is easier to manage and
to store. Other factors in favor of metha-
nol include its low emission levels and
the option of processing it to produce
Oxymethylene Ether (OME), a diesel fuel
that generates almost no particulate mat-
ter and much lower levels of other emis-
sions. Methanol can also be used to
power fuel cells.
The most recent developments show
that the cruise industry is starting to
move toward more sustainable drive sys-
tems, which represents an important step
away from environmentally damaging
heavy oil. The Aida Nova referred to at
the beginning of this article has now set
its course for LNG and over the next few
years LNG is likely to be the most import-
ant fuel for cruise lines. More than one
third of the vessels currently being built,
a total of 25 ships, will use LNG as their
main propulsion fuel according to CLIA
[7]. For example, the Costa Smeralda will
come into operation in October 2019 and
she will be the first Costa ship to run
on LNG. A second ship, the sister of the
Costa Smeralda, will be delivered in 2021.
By 2023 Aida Cruises will also have two
further LNG ships in service.
Christiane Köllner
REFERENCES
[1] Jacobshagen, U.: Nationale Rechtsetzungen.
In: Umweltschutz und Gefahrguttransport
für Binnen- und Seeschifffahrt. Wiesbaden:
Springer, 2019
[2] Bretzke, W.-R.: Strategien und Konzepte zur
Förderung der Nachhaltigkeit. In: Nachhaltige
Logistik. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer, 2014
[3] Witthohn, R.: Kreuzfahrten. In: Transport,
Arbeit und Erholung auf dem Meer. Wiesbaden:
Springer, 2019
[4] NABU – Naturschutzbund Deutschland e. V.:
Erneuter Beleg für hohe Abgasbelastung bei Kreuz-
fahrtschiffen. Online: https://www.nabu.de/
news/2017/05/22367.html, access: July 26, 2019
[5] Transport & Environment (T&E): One cor-
poration to pollute them all. Online: https://
www.transportenvironment.org/publications/one
-corporation-pollute-them-all, access: July 26, 2019
[6] Lieber, O.: Untersuchung des Konfliktes
zwischen Stadtentwicklern und Hafenwirtschaft
in Hamburg. In: Hafen versus Stadt. Wiesbaden:
Springer, 2018
[7] Cruise Lines International Association (CLIA):
Reactive statement to respond to enquiries con-
cerning the Transport & Environment Study on
Cruise Ship Air Emissions published 4 June 2019.
Online: https://cruising.org/news-and-research/
press-room/2019/june/reactive-statement
-transport-and-environment-study, access:
July 26, 2019
[8] CLIA Deutschland: CLIA-Statement zum
NABU-Kreuzfahrtranking. Online: https://
www.cliadeutschland.de/presse/CLIA-Statement
-zum-NABU-Kreuzfahrtranking-95, access:
July 26, 2019
[9] Jacobshagen, U.: Vorschriften zur Rein-
haltung der Gewässer. In: Umweltschutz und
Gefahr guttransport für Binnen- und See schiff-
fahrt. Wiesbaden: Springer, 2019
[10] Zeiss, H.: Umweltschutz in der Kreuzfahrtindustrie.
In: CSR und Tourismus. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer, 2017
[11] Knackfuß, G.: Maritime Brennstoffzellensysteme stellen
Mei lensteine dar. Online: https://www.springerprofessional.de/
erneuerbare-energien/brennstoffzelle/-maritime-brennstoff
zellensysteme-stellen-meilensteine-dar-/12292590, access:
July 26, 2019
[12] Springer, M.: Wird Fracking den Energiehunger stillen?
In: Lauter Überraschungen. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer, 2019
[13] Chmela, F.; Pirker, G.; Wimmer, A.; Dinkelacker, F.:
Verbrennungsmodelle für Großgasmotoren. In: Grundlagen
Verbrennungsmotoren. Wiesbaden: Springer, 2019
[14] Auer, M.; Ganzer, G.; Müller-Baum, P.; Stiesch, G.:
Synthetic Fuels in Large Engines – How Internal Combustion

TURBO UP YOUR BUSINESS!

Engines Become CO 2-neutral. In: MTZworldwide 3/2019,
pp. 48-51

With IHI turbochargers, your engines are

starting from the pole position:
WHAT DO WE THINK? IHI turbochargers are high-performance,
innovative world-class solutions for today
“The cruise industry is booming, and tomorrow, boosting efficiency to the
but it is also struggling to maintain next level.
its reputable image. Almost all cruise
lines are still using environmentally
harmful heavy oil. The industry is a
long way away from offering green
cruises. However, the route toward
greater sustainability is a viable
one and legislation is making it
mandatory. It will lead initially to
LNG, a fossil fuel, which can be
replaced in the medium term by
synthetically produced LNG and then
ultimately by methanol and fuel cells.
The cruise industry could become a IT´S ALL ABOUT
role model of sustainability for
container ships, inland waterway
vessels, cargo ships, and tankers.”

WE ARE LOOKING FORWARD TO YOUR

VISIT AT THE AACHEN COLLOQUIUM!
Christiane Köllner OCTOBER 7TH – 9TH, 2018 | BOOTH NO. 21
is Channel Manager Automotive
at Springer Professional.

MTZ worldwide 10|2019 15

www.ihi-csi.de
C OVER STORY INTRODUCTION

SUPERCHARGING

Turbochargers as Efficiency Boosters

18 VTG Turbochargers
with Ball Bearings
26 system
“The 48-V electrical
brings huge
30 Electric Turbocharging –
Key Technology for
for Gasoline Engines benefits for customers” Hybridized Powertrains
Ralf Christmann, Amir Rohi, Interview with Victor Oliveras Merida Peter Davies, Nathaniel Bontemps
Sascha Weiske, Marc Gugau and Mark Hoffmann [Audi] [Garrett Motion], Torsten Tietze,
[BorgWarner Turbo Systems] Eike Tim Faulseit [IAV]

16
 Major advances have been made in recent years in the
turbocharging concepts for modern combustion engines.
On the one hand, exhaust turbochargers with variable
turbine geometry are now being combined with gasoline
engines. Volkswagen has been using the technology since
2017 together with Miller valve timings in a broad selection
of its production models. This allows to simultaneously
improve the efficiency of the combustion process and the
responsiveness of the engine, which is generally poor in
Miller engines because of the nature of the concept,
without the support of an electric motor. On the other
hand, electrification, for example in form of additional
electric compressors, is becoming an increasingly com-
mon feature of turbocharging systems, not least because
of the larger reserves of power resulting from the 48-V
electrical systems.

Therefore, progress made in the field of turbocharging is

paving the way for further increases in the efficiency of
combustion engines. These are no longer being reduced to
the smallest possible capacity (downsizing) as was the
case a few years ago. Instead they are being designed to
ensure that the capacity, power, torque, fuel consumption,
and conditions of use are perfectly coordinated (right-
sizing). In addition, the aim is not to reduce the fuel con-
sumption of the vehicle only in the test cycle, as it was the
case so often in the past, but instead to bring about reduc-
tions in real driving scenarios, because there are larger
areas of highly efficient operation in the engine map.

These two evolutionary developments in turbocharging

are the central theme of this issue of MTZ. BorgWarner
is introducing a turbocharger for gasoline engines with
variable turbine geometry and ball bearings instead of
plain bearings with oil lubrication. This is designed for
use with Miller and Atkinson valve timing and brings an
© Garrett Motion
increase in efficiency of up to 5 % when compared with
wastegate turbochargers. Garrett and IAV have integrated
an exhaust turbocharger with 6 kW of electrical support
into a gasoline engine with direct fuel injection and
achieved improvements in fuel consumption and perfor-
mance. In the interview Victor Oliveras Merida and Mark
Hoffmann from Audi explain the possibilities and bene-
fits of the turbocharging system in the new six-cylinder
diesel engine of the Audi S4, which has an electric pow-
ered compressor and a 48-V mild hybrid system.

Thomas Schneider

MTZ worldwide 10|2019 17

C OVER STORY SUPERCHARGING

VTG Turbochargers with Ball

Bearings for Gasoline Engines
By the year 2030, CO2 emissions in the EU are to be reduced by almost one third in
comparison with 2019. Hybrid concepts also require maximum-efficiency combustion
engines if they are to achieve the desired CO2 values. In particular gasoline engines
using the Miller cycle are promising engine concepts. BorgWarner’s turbochargers with
variable turbine geometry are an optimum supercharging system for this cycle.

18

AUTHORS
Dr. Ralf Christmann
is Director Product Development
PC Turbocharger at BorgWarner
Turbo Systems in Kirchheim-
bolanden (Germany).
Dr. Sascha Weiske
is Team Leader Thermo-
dynamics & Engine Simulation
at BorgWarner Turbo Systems in
Kirchheimbolanden (Germany).
MTZ worldwide 10|2019
© BorgWarner
STARTING POINT
The more stringent CO2 targets, the rising pro-
portion of heavy vehicles in the SUV segment
and the further decline of diesel engines make
alternative propulsion concepts based on com-
Amir Rohi
bustion engines necessary in addition to elec-
is Program Manager Ball
Bearing at BorgWarner trification. The hybridization of the drivetrain
Turbo Systems in Kirchheim- is promising in terms of the CO2 balance sheet.
bolanden (Germany). The electrification of the drivetrain allows the
integration of new technologies such as the
eBooster [1], and it also requires new design
strategies for exhaust gas turbocharging. All
concepts have one aim in common: to achieve
highly efficient supercharging in the consumption-
relevant operating ranges of the engine at the
Dr. Marc Gugau same time as sufficient flexibility to achieve
is Team Leader Per formance
the peak load operation points and partial load
Turbine Stage at BorgWarner
Turbo Systems in Kirchheim- operation points in a reliable way. Hybrid con-
bolanden (Germany). cepts also require combustion engines that are
19
C OVER STORY SUPERCHARGING
as efficient as possible in order to
achieve excellent CO2 values within
the overall concept. Gasoline engines
that use the Miller cycle are a promis-
ing engine concept allowing high en-
gine efficiency. Turbocharging with
Variable Turbine Geometry (VTG) is
an optimum supercharging system
for this cycle. This is discussed in the
first part of the article, which also
deals with VTG for gasoline engines,
and in particular components opti-
mized taking “Millerization” into
account with the aim of increasing
the efficiency and adapting to the
needs of gasoline engines.
Another effective option for increas-
ing the efficiency is the use of ball
bearings for the turbocharger. This
increases the efficiencies by reducing
the frictional power and improving
flow geometries. Details of this option
are provided in the following too.
MOTIVATION
A combination of an improved thermo-
dynamic efficiency of the combustion
engine and the electrification of the
drivetrain is necessary to realize the
CO2 target values beyond 2023. The
main pillars of future developments
in gasoline engines are an increased
geometric compression ratio, charge
dilution, the Miller cycle and various
combinations of these factors, with the
aim of bringing the efficiency of the
gasoline engine process close to that
of the diesel engine [2].
Hybrid-optimized combustion engine
concepts become possible as the electric
range of full hybrids and plug-in hybrids
increases. In comparison with hybrid-
FIGURE 2 Consumption potential of the combustion VTG in the hybrid drivetrain (© BorgWarner)
20
FIGURE 1 The contribution of VTG and ball bearings to future engine concepts (© BorgWarner)
optimized naturally aspirated engines,
turbocharged gasoline engines achieve
a considerably higher specific performance
range and an improved consumption with
the combination of high compression,
Miller cycle and cooled external AGR.
As a result of the displacement and
extension of the optimum consump-
tion range possible in the case of super-
charged engines, there are also advan-
tages with regard to operational strategy
and energy management, and this can
lead to less complex transmissions and
less electrical assistance.
The increase in the efficiency of com-
bustion engines combined with higher
charging pressure requirements as a
result of charge dilution and intermedi-
ate expansion presents the supercharg-
ing system with new challenges. Under
these basic conditions, the gasoline
VTG is superior to classical wastegate
technology. Besides an increase of 15
to 20 kW in the output in comparison
with the wastegate turbocharger while
complying with λ = 1 operation, the
gasoline VTG allows the fuel consump-
tion to be reduced at a rated power out-
put of approximately 7 %. This is mainly
achieved by using the entire exhaust gas
enthalpy, which in turn allows the Miller
rate to be increased.
In addition, the gasoline VTG can
achieve a 25 °C higher temperature
gradient between the temperatures T3
upstream of the turbine and T4 upstream
of the catalytic converter at a constant
knee torque. The high-temperature VTG
technology is therefore an important
building block for achieving RDE confor-
mity for performance classes upwards
of 100 kW/l too, FIGURE 1.
In hybrid concepts in particular, the
efficiency of the combustion engine
depends on the maximum degree of
charge dilution. The increase in the
AGR rate is countered by the reduction
of the turbocharger efficiency in the
medium load range (10 to 14 bar BMEP),
and this limits the potential in terms of
consumption. The suitable dimensioning
of the aerodynamic components and the
introduction of ball bearings in place of
classical oil-lubricated journal bearings
allow an increase in the efficiency of
the turbocharger of up to 5 % in com-
parison with the wastegate turbocharger.
In addition, the variability of the turbine
and the reduction in the frictional power
permitted by the use of ball bearings
help in the compensation of the delayed
load buildup caused by the new combus-
tion processes. In comparison with the
wastegate turbocharger, this can be real-
ized either as an increase in the combus-
tion efficiency in conjunction with an
increased Miller rate or, along with the
ball bearings, an improvement of up to
20 % in terms of dynamics at a similar
Miller rate. FIGURE 2 shows the results
of a simulation of the consumption
potentials of a 48-V P2 hybrid in the
C segment in the WTLC. The use of an
optimized Miller cycle, a cooled exhaust
gas return and a reduced dynamic boost
FIGURE 3 History of VTG development at BorgWarner Turbo Systems (© BorgWarner)
assistance of the P2 module allows a
CO2 reduction of approximately 3 %
in comparison with classical waste-
gate technology.
GASOLINE V TG
VTG technology was introduced in the
diesel field in 1997, FIGURE 3 and has rap-
idly become the supercharging system
of choice for diesel engines for passen-
ger cars. This situation now seems to be
repeating itself for gasoline engines due
to the introduction of the Miller cycle
there. The first series application of
the gasoline VTG was realized with a
BorgWarner turbocharger for the Porsche
911 Turbo 3.6-l engine in 2006 [3]. When
the Miller cycle was introduced, this tech-
nology became necessary in the mass
market too. Constant advancement and
long years of experience in the develop-
ment of the diesel VTG led to a signifi-
cant optimization of the costs.
Simple systems use wastegate flaps
to direct part of the exhaust gas quan-
tity past the turbine wheel. Multiflow
turbine casings such as twin-scroll or
dual-volute turbines can extend the oper-
ating range of this technology. The oper-
ating ranges covered using the VTG are
not possible, however. The VTG controls
the exhaust gas mass flow used by
means of an adjustable stator blade ring
upstream of the turbine wheel. In this
way, the turbine can work across a wider
engine operating range at improved effi-
ciencies. The adjustable stator blades
and the turbine wheel form the aerody-
namic core of the turbine. The stator
blades are suspended rotatably in a car-
tridge, where they almost come into
direct contact with the hot exhaust air.
As a result of the high demands made
on the properties of the material, the sys-
tem was for a long time mainly used in
MTZ worldwide 10|2019
applications for diesel engines at exhaust
gas temperatures of up to around 860 °C.
Upwards of 900 °C, the demands on the
material increase considerably. In further
development, BorgWarner can fall back
on the experience gained in a series proj-
ect for a high-temperature application
for gasoline engines in a Porsche 911
Turbo at 1050 °C. Considerable technical
advancements in terms of material and
cost and the use of the Miller combus-
tion technique at maximum exhaust
gas temperatures of 950 °C now make
VTG technology highly interesting for
gasoline engines designed for use in
hybrid systems of the future. The basic
conditions to be expected on the engine
side include increased exhaust gas tem-
peratures, a higher demand for air and
a stronger focus on RDE-relevant operat-
ing ranges. The resulting technical chal-
lenges for the turbine of the exhaust gas
turbocharger are to realize high robust-
ness and good controllability at an ex-
cellent aerodynamic efficiency.
The aerodynamic efficiency of a VTG
turbine can be displayed in a simplified
form using the efficiency parabola
shown in FIGURE 4. The control of the
turbine uses adjustable inlet guide vanes
and allows a wide spread of the flow rate,
which can be more than doubled in com-
parison with fixed-housing turbines with
wastegate control and comparable wheel
diameters. The efficiency drops below
the maximum in the direction of widely
closed and widely opened inlet guide
vanes. Aerodynamically, closed guide
vanes act as a nozzle, whereas in the
direction of opening, they increasingly
work as deflection devices and change
the angle of incidence in relation to the
wheel thoughout the entire adjustment
range. A clever combination of the blade
angles of inlet guide vanes and wheel
makes a broad efficiency plateau possible.
The drop achieved in the efficiency parab-
ola at the edges of the flow rate range for
reasons of aerodynamics is shifted to out-
side the engine operating range.
As a result, the turbine provides a high
degree of flexibility in producing turbine
backpressure and turbine power output –
and with it boosts pressure control. In
this way, it makes a significant contribu-
tion to emission reduction while ideally
FIGURE 4 Effi-
ciency parabola
for BorgWarner
VTG turbines
(© BorgWarner)
21
C OVER STORY SUPERCHARGING
FIGURE 5 Induced wake in the blade gap (© BorgWarner)
adapting the efficiency characteristic
to the aims for the engine in each case.
The design of the aerodynamically
relevant components is crucial here.
Effective means for influencing the
efficiency parabola are the turbine
wheel, the arrangement and suspen-
sion of the inlet guide vanes in the
cartridge, the geometrical shape of the
guide vanes, the volute and the design
of the engine-specific connections. In
terms of flow optimization, all turbines
are adapted to the position of the con-
necting flanges of engine and exhaust
gas system in a customer application.
In the design of the volute, the focus is
on a surface that is wetted as little as
possible by the exhaust gas as well as
on a small installation space. Both can
be easily coordinated with the aerody-
namic aim of achieving a directed flow
to the guide vanes.
Also, clever flow guidance helps to
reduce the thermomechanical deforma-
tion of the cartridge and thus to realize
further design measures that contribute
towards minimizing the inlet guide vane
side clearances. The design of the blade
itself also helps to reduce the vane side
clearance stream losses, FIGURE 5. This
makes high efficiencies possible in the
area of the knee torque of the engine.
The inlet guide vanes of the VTG have
the patented S form and fulfill the two
main tasks of ensuring low-loss flow
deflection and a torque acting on the
guide vanes that is as low as possible
but opens at all times (“fail-safe func-
tion”). In addition to the efficiency tar-
gets aerodynamics and cost, the car-
tridge is designed as a modular system.
The choice of the main sizes produced
is geared to the optimum mapping of the
thermodynamic objectives of the most
important engine classes of today and
tomorrow. Additional intermediate sizes
complete the product portfolio. More-
over, the introduction of new turbine
wheel families allows the specific adap-
tation of the efficiency parabola to differ-
22
ent engine targets. This can be seen in
the example shown in FIGURE 4 with its
different efficiency parabola curves for
diesel and gasoline engines for an identi-
cal VTG cartridge. The two intermediate
parabolas shown in green and yellow are
achieved with different types of turbine
wheel in each case.
BorgWarner usually uses wheels with
a radial design for VTG turbines. These
were the standard for diesel engines up
to now. Due to their tendency to knock-
ing, gasoline engines require a lower
turbine counterpressure and thus an
enlarged flow rate. For the knee torque
and in particular for the response behav-
ior of the engine, however, good efficien-
cies are also necessary at small flow rate
ranges, for example those representing
around 30 to 40 % of the maximum flow
rate. Radial wheels have clear advan-
tages here. A reduction of the moment
of inertia of the turbine wheel by about
10 to 20 % in conjunction with excel-
lent efficiencies allows a competitive
response behavior of a VTG turbine in
comparison with fixed-casing turbo-
chargers with small inertia-optimized
wheels. The maximum flow rate achiev-
able in the same cartridge is up to 20 %
higher than the comparable value for the
wheel in the case of standard diesel use.
This is realized by a special design of
the blade form of the wheel, FIGURE 6.
The blade form and the wheel disk are
designed with a view to aspects of aero-
dynamics, mechanics and production
FIGURE 6 Designing
the VTG turbine wheel
for high flow rates
(© BorgWarner)
technology. A thermodynamically opti-
mized wheel disk reduces the tensions
to a safe level to ensure a long service
life at a reduced moment of inertia and
an increased mass flow rate.
To design the aerodynamically rele-
vant components of the turbine, state-
of-the-art numerical methods including
automated optimization processes in
addition to the experience gained from
countless series projects are used.
BALL BEARINGS FOR
TURBOCHARGERS
Turbochargers with ball bearings,
FIGURE 7, have significantly lower
mechanical losses than those with jour-
nal bearings of the same size. In addi-
tion, the good rotor stability allows the
tip clearance on the compressor side
and on the turbine side to be optimized,
allowing a further increase in the over-
all efficiency, FIGURE 8.
The ball bearing concept developed by
BorgWarner optimizes the acoustic trans-
mission path and the rotor dynamics
(wave path stability) during ramp-up
as well as ramp-down of the rotor. The
higher bearing stiffness of ball bearings
compared with journal bearings makes
it necessary to optimize the transmis-
sion path for vibrations that can be trans-
ferred to the surroundings. These are
therefore largely suppressed while the
bearing stability is maximized. The
results of simulations and experiments

allowed BorgWarner to develop a con-
cept that achieves an optimum balance
between these target values. A special
focus was in particular laid on the use
of low-viscosity oils (HTHS ≈ 2.0 mPa ∙ s)
at comparatively low oil pressures.
The result of optimization is a ball
bearing in the form of a cartridge that
floats in an oil film in the bearing hous-
ing, FIGURE 7. The system damping of
the rotor is guaranteed by means of a
squeeze film damper. To ensure the
buildup of the damping oil films, an
innovative patented system consisting
of decoupling rings is used. These allow
the cartridge to be centered in the bear-
ing channel, improve the balancing (as a
FIGURE 8 Turbine efficiency parabolas (left) and overall efficiency of turbocharger (right) (© BorgWarner)
MTZ worldwide 10|2019
key factor for the acoustic behavior) and
simultaneously seal off the pressure area
of the squeeze film damper from the
pressure-free area in the bearing hous-
ing. This channels the oil flow rate and
minimizes so-called churning losses.
The optimum design of the squeeze film
damper allows the bending eigenmode
of a ball bearing to be countered.
The more complex relationships in
the ball bearing require extensive opti-
mizations or rather new approaches to
solutions in component design, parts
manufacture and assembly strategy.
The combination of these optimized
approaches, for example an increase
in the stiffness of the bearing housing,
FIGURE 7 Cross-
section of a turbo-
charger ball bearing
(© BorgWarner)
allowed the acoustic level of a journal
bearing to be achieved – especially
under cold start conditions. Besides the
minimization of the rotor deflections,
this achieves a high robustness with
regard to axial and radial loads. When-
ever a ball bearing is used in an applica-
tion, it is reevaluated in terms of acous-
tics, for besides the turbocharger as
such, the sensitivity of the vehicle has
a considerable effect on the acoustic
behavior too. For this reason, the trans-
mission behavior of the path along
which the vibrations are transmitted
is optimized for each application [4].
FIGURE 8 shows the steady-state advan-
tage of ball bearings compared with
23
C OVER STORY SUPERCHARGING
journal bearings when the same aero-
dynamic components are used on the
compressor side and the turbine side.
The combined turbine efficiency at an
expansion ratio of 1.5 is shown as an
example on the left-hand side. We can
measure an efficiency increase of up to
4 % compared with a journal bearing.
This efficiency advantage drops slightly
as the turbine output increases. The
differential characteristic diagram of
the overall turbocharger efficiency is
shown in the compressor diagram on
the right-hand side of FIGURE 8. The
up to 5 % higher overall efficiency of
the ball bearing, in particular in the
consumption-relevant partial load area,
is a result of the better rotor stability
(reduction of the tip clearances) and
the reduced power loss in the bearing.
FIGURE 9 shows an example of a load
step comparison at an engine speed
of 1500 rpm. The example demon-
strates how using a ball bearing allows
a more rapid buildup of the boost pres-
sure. The resulting effective medium
pressure of 20 bar is reached approxi-
mately 0.7 s earlier than it is with the
journal bearing.
In this way, the response behavior
is improved considerably. At the same
time, the advantages in terms of effi-
ciency improve the specific fuel con-
sumption and reduce the emissions.
24
SUMMARY
This article shows efforts made in the
field of gasoline engines to achieve the
specified CO2 goals by introducing the
Miller combustion cycle and further
hybridizing the drivetrain. The optimized
turbocharging using a gasoline VTG is
an important element here. The VTG
development, which was driven by
the diesel field, was further adapted
in particular by means of necessary opti-
mizations and enhancements on the tur-
bine side. BorgWarner provides gasoline
VTGs for all typical passenger car dis-
placements, in particular in order to
comply with λ = 1 operation for highly
boosted gasoline engines with a high
specific power output up to a maximum
exhaust gas temperature of 1020 °C,
and optionally even up to 1050 °C.
In addition to the complete product
portfolio for all displacements and per-
formance levels, a comprehensive ball
bearing portfolio (BB01, BB02, BB03) is
provided that allows a further increase
in efficiency. The advantages of ball
bearings for the overall efficiency, the
rotor stability and the transient behav-
ior make them the obvious choice for
future use in hybrid applications with
increased demands on the start-stop
behavior when low-viscosity oil is used
at low pressures.
FIGURE 9 Load step comparison:
ball bearings versus journal
bearings (© BorgWarner)
Both technologies presented here
allow boosting to be optimized in
terms of future CO2 targets and the
advancing hybridization/electrifica-
tion of the drivetrain.
REFERENCES
[1] Eichler, F.; Demmelbauer-Ebner, W.; Theobald,
J.; Stiebels, B.; Hoffmeyer, H.; Kreft, M.: The New
EA211 TSI evo from Volkswagen. 37 th International
Vienna Motor Symposium, Vienna, 2016
[2] Breitbach, H.; Weckenmann, H.; et al: Two
Stage Turbocharging with Electrical Boosting – an
Enabler for Further Downsizing in Gasoline Engines.
38 th International Vienna Motor Symposium, Vienna,
2017
[3] Gabriel H.; Lingenauber, R.; Ramb, T.: Der
Turbolader mit variabler Turbinengeometrie (VTG)
für den neuen Porsche 911 Turbo – Ein Meilenstein
in der Ottomotorenaufladung. 11th Aufladetech-
nische Konferenz, Dresden, 2006
[4] Choi, D.; Kang, Y.; Cheong, I.; Chung, Y; Lee, J.:
The New Hyundai-Kia 2.2L 4-Cylinder Diesel Engine –
Smartstream D2.2 FR. 40 th International Vienna Motor
Symposium, Vienna, 2019
THANKS
The authors would like to thank Dr. Hermann Breit-
bach, Vice President Global Engineering and Inno-
vation at BorgWarner Turbo Systems in Kirchheim-
bolanden, for his comprehensive support.
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MTZ worldwide 10|2019 25
C OVER STORY INTERVIE W

© Tobias Sagmeister
“The 48-V electrical system brings
huge benefits for customers”
For the first time, Audi is supplying its top-of-the-range A4 with a V6 TDI engine that has an electric
powered compressor. Dr. Victor Oliveras Merida and Mark Hoffmann explain the benefits of the turbo-
charging concept and the relevance of 48-V systems.

MTZ _ The S4 TDI is available with a diesel
engine that has an Electric Powered Com-
pressor (EPC). Is this an electric turbo-
charger or an additional compressor?
OLIVERAS MERIDA _ For the first time,
the top-of-the-range engine in the
A4 and A5 models is a diesel.
HOFFMANN _ In the S4 TDI we are using
an electric powered compressor. This is
an additional compressor that is com-
bined with a large conventional exhaust
turbocharger in the V6 TDI engine. It is
based on our positive experiences with
the SQ7 and the V8 TDI, where we fitted
an EPC in a production model for the
first time in 2016 together with sequen-
tial turbocharging, in other words two
linked turbochargers.
So this is a complementary turbocharging
system rather than a separate one?

26
HOFFMANN _ Yes, that’s right. The electric Mark Hoffmann, was
powered compressor is used in conjunc- born in 1985 in Heilbronn
tion with a turbocharger with Variable (Germany) and completed
Turbine Geometry (VTG), which means a degree in mechanical
that the EPC supports or supplements engineering at the Univer-
the exhaust turbocharger when the tur- sity of Stuttgart in 2010.
bocharger cannot build up enough boost Between 2010 and 2015
pressure. Typically this includes situa- he had various roles in
tions such as the first few seconds when the V-TDI engine design
the car is pulling away. A 2/3-way throt- department at Audi in
tle valve shuts off the direct route to the Neckarsulm (Germany).
From 2016 to 2018 he
worked as engine designer
“The peak power is 7 kW and project coordinator

for a maximum of 3 s” for V-TDI engines at Audi

Hungaria Kft. Since 2019
he has been Head of
engine and transfers the air that has the department for the
© Tobias Sagmeister

been slightly compressed by the turbo- design of add-on parts

charger to the EPC, which compresses for V engines at Audi.
it even more before it is returned to
the engine after the valve in the charge
air pipe. You could say that the EPC
push starts the turbocharging system,
but only for a very short time until
the exhaust gas enthalpy is sufficient “The motor reaches a maximum speed of 65,000 rpm,” says Hoffmann
to allow the exhaust turbocharger to
work efficiently.

What is the peak and continuous

power rating of the electric motor
in the additional compressor?
The peak power is 7 kW for
HOFFMANN _
a maximum of 3 s. The motor reaches
a maximum speed of 65,000 rpm.

What is the highest speed of the VTG

turbocharger? And how much pressure
can it generate?
OLIVERAS MERIDA _ The maximum speed
is 170,000 rpm. The large exhaust turbo-
charger can produce relative boost pres-
sure of up to 2.4 bar.

You have spoken about a potential reduc-

tion in fuel consumption of 0.4 l per 100 km
as a result of the energy recovered by the
P0 mild hybrid system.
OLIVERAS MERIDA _ The basis for this is
the 48-V MHEV system. The 48-V net-
work functions as the main on-board
electrical system and a compact lithium-
ion battery stores the energy. There is
a water-cooled Belt Alternator Starter
(BAS) at the front of the engine which
© Tobias Sagmeister

is connected to the crankshaft by a

high-strength ribbed V-belt. In addition
to the 48-V main on-board electrical sys-
tem, there is also a 12-V system for the
small electricity consumers.
MTZ worldwide 10|2019 27
C OVER STORY INTERVIE W
The mild hybrid system not only
reduces fuel consumption, but also
improves ride comfort. When the driver
accelerates after coasting or stopping,
the BAS restarts the TDI engine in the
way that best meets the requirements
of the driver and the situation, from
leisurely to very fast. The start-stop
“The charge cycle
work is reduced”
range begins at 22 km/h. If the car is
at a standstill, the engine will start
when the vehicle in front pulls away,
even if the driver’s foot is on the brake.
© Tobias Sagmeister
Is it possible to say how much fuel will
be saved by the booster, in other words
the electric turbocharging system?
HOFFMANN _ It’s difficult to make a
definitive statement, but what we can
say without any doubt is that we are
improving the drivability and particu-
larly the start-up behavior of the car.
We are increasing the available power,
because we can use a larger turbocharger,
and indirectly we are also making the
exhaust gas treatment system more effi-
cient, because the position of the com-
ponents makes it possible to move the
exhaust gas treatment system close to
the engine and the exhaust turbocharger.
We could make comparisons with our
V6 biturbo engine, but we expect the
fuel consumption of an engine with an
EPC to be slightly lower. This is because
the classic biturbo engine needs more
energy to heat up the larger mass of the
exhaust turbocharger and the exhaust
system. The support of the electric pow-
ered compressor also reduces the charge
cycle work and this lowers the fuel con-
sumption, in particular if the driver has
a sportier driving style.
Which company supplied the EPC?
Can it recover energy in the same
way as an electric turbocharger?
HOFFMANN _ The EPC comes from Valeo.
It is not possible to recover energy using
the electric motor of our compressor.
We only use the belt alternator starter
for that purpose.
Is the energy that is recovered by the
P0 mild hybrid system reused almost
exclusively for the booster?
28
HOFFMANN _ No, that is not the case.
We ultimately opted for the MHEV sys-
tem in order to allow drivers to save fuel.
The system is used either for recovering
energy or for coasting, which means that
we switch the engine off depending on
the situation on the road.
OLIVERAS MERIDA _ That is the key point.
Because of the 48-V electrical system,
the car can coast for up to 40 s with the
engine switched off at speeds between
55 and 160 km/h. With a 12-V system
the maximum period is 10 s. The 48-V
electrical system therefore brings huge
benefits for customers. In each situation
the drive management system decides
whether coasting, overrun, or energy
“The car can coast
for up to 40 s”
recovery is more efficient on the basis
of the information from the navigation
system and the on-board sensors.
Can the belt alternator starter provide
a boost or is it only used for starting
and stopping the engine?
OLIVERAS MERIDA _ It only functions as a
generator and is used to start the engine.
There are operating ranges where load
Dr. Victor Oliveras Merida,
was born in 1977 in Barcelona
(Spain). He gained a degree in
engineering in 2000 and com-
pleted his doctorate in 2015.
Between 2001 and 2004 he
worked as a development engi-
neer and DMU analyst at Seat.
In 2004 he moved to Audi’s tech-
nical development department as
a development engineer and then
he returned to Seat in 2006 to take
on the role of Advisor to the Board
on R&D and Head of Technical
Development Strategy. In 2010 he
became Head of Innovation Strate-
gies, Research Projects and Pat-
ents. From 2012 to 2014 Merida
was employed in the design de-
partment at Audi and worked
on the TT, A3, Q3, A4, and A5.
Subsequently he was appointed
Technical Project Manager for
A4/A5 product upgrades in 2014.
shifting is possible. This reduces the
load on the engine, which is supported
by the electrical power of the BAS.
Is it possible to say roughly how long
it will be before 48-V systems become
widely used?
OLIVERAS MERIDA _ Their use will gradu-
ally spread. We began with the A8 and
this was followed by the A7 and A6.
Some of our Q models also benefit from
a 48-V system. In the B series we have
just started to add 12-V mild hybrid sys-
tems to some of the engines. We decided
to use the concept with the 48-V main
on-board electrical system for the first
time in a midsized car, the top-of-the-
range S4 TDI. We have already learned
a lot and we will be making use of the
results to roll out the technology even
further. It is important to remember that
we are currently talking about a model
upgrade, a facelift for the A4. We can’t
convert all our models to 48-V overnight,
but it is possible with one model.
But is it reasonable to assume that in the
next few years Audi will be introducing MHEV
and 48-V systems across its entire product
range? What are the prospects for other sys-
tems such as P1 and P2 architectures?
We have already
OLIVERAS MERIDA _
begun. The mild hybrid system is avail-

“The P0 system is ideal for use throughout our
fleet,” explains Oliveras Merida
able now in the A4 following its facelift
and we will continue to roll it out. As far
as the other model ranges are concerned,
it is safe to say that we will not be ruling
out any new technologies. However, the
P0 system that we have opted for here
is ideal for use throughout our fleet.
It was initially available in the A8 and
then in the A6 and A4. We are taking a
top-down approach to introducing the
mild hybrid.
What will the future of turbocharging tech-
nology be? Here we have a booster with an
exhaust turbocharger. Will the next develop-
ment be fully electric turbochargers?
HOFFMANN _ What we have learned
during the course of the development
process is that there is an ideal turbo-
charging system for each engine concept
and each application. For the V8 TDI,
for example, we have chosen sequential
turbocharging with an EPC and for the
V6 TDI an electric powered compres-
sor combined with a powerful exhaust
turbocharger. In future there will con-
tinue to be an ideal system for different
engine concepts. In the case of smaller
engines, which generally need to have
a higher specific power output, a con-
ventional system may continue to be the
best choice in future. However, we need
to look at this on an engine-by-engine
basis. Ultimately there will be different
MTZ worldwide 10|2019
turbocharging concepts that represent
the ideal solution in each case and
these will be the ones that we choose.
“We are taking a
top-down approach
to introducing
the mild hybrid”
This means that exhaust turbo systems
with VTG could still be used?
HOFFMANN _ That could be the case,
but of course we are not ruling out
any new technologies either.
You are currently using sequential turbo-
charging in your large engines, but not in
the smaller ones any longer. Is there likely
to be a return to sequential turbocharging
in small engines?
HOFFMANN _ I don’t think it’s possible
to generalize about whether sequential
turbocharging will be widely used.
We need to look carefully at the require-
ments and the power that is needed and
then choose the best concept.
OLIVERAS MERIDA _ We always look at
which characteristics each individual
car should have and then find the right
technology. We never rule anything out
at the start. Instead we focus on the
© Tobias Sagmeister
expectations and wishes of our custom-
ers and the technical options available.
This is why we now have an S4 TDI.
Diesels have been the poor relations in
recent years. Are you making a bold move
by choosing a diesel as your sporty top-of-
the-range engine?
OLIVERAS MERIDA _ It comes back to
what I said earlier. We look at what
our customers want and we have real-
ized that the right engine for A4 cus-
tomers is a diesel. That is why we have
chosen a diesel as our top-of-the-range
engine. The people who buy this car
travel long distances. Now we have a
performance car that you can drive on
an everyday basis without turbo lag,
including on long journeys. This opens
up new customer groups for us. The
long-distance drivers can now opt for
a sporty top-of-the-range model which
offers good long-distance performance,
a huge amount of torque and lower
CO2 emissions.
Thank you very much for giving
us these interesting insights.
INTERVIEW: Marc Ziegler
29
C OVER STORY SUPERCHARGING

© Garrett Motion

Electric Turbocharging –
Key Technology
for Hybridized Powertrains
Garrett Motion and IAV explain the advantages of electrically assisted charging.
In a case study, the authors describe the integration of the eGT25 charger with a
maximum of 6 kW of electrical support in an SUV with a 2.0-l gasoline engine with
direct gasoline injection, as well as the effects on emissions and driving behavior.

30
 BACKGROUND
The automotive world is undoubtedly
in a period of flux. Urban air quality and
climate change are the key drivers and
new technologies such as zero emission,
connected and autonomous vehicles are
causing significant changes in the mobil-
ity landscape. Full Electric Vehicles (EV)
are growing quickly on a percentile basis
but require significant monetary and
other incentives such as preferential city
access, parking and exemption from life
cycle CO2 counting to stimulate adoption,
at least in the short term. Legislation is
also evolving rapidly. RDE, the Clean
Vehicle Directive (CVD), CO2 monitoring
and the still to be published Euro 7 emis-
sion targets are being designed to transi-
tion the European fleet to one that can
be measured and monitored firstly in
terms of real world emissions and ulti-
mately in life cycle CO2 footprint. Change
is not only taking place in the automo-
tive sector however. In the energy sector,
the Renewable Energy Directive (RED) II
and the gas market design are the instru-
ments with which the EU commission
will steer the prima ry energy indus-
tries such as electricity and natural gas
towards the goal of 90 % reduction in
CO2 by 2050. All these actions will take
time to shape the individual industries,
but convergence will be well advanced
by 2025, and by 2030 it should be possible
to start comparing CO2 over the entire
life cycle in a meaningful way.
Battery costs are so high that there
is still significant margin to evolve the
Internal Combustion Engine(ICE)-based
hybrids to higher efficiencies and lower
CO2 emissions than full EVs. Mild hybrid
powertrains are the logical progression
from the conventional ICE and start-stop
micro hybrids that are prevalent today.
Diesel engines are now meeting strin-
gent RDE NOx requirements and are
completely compatible with hybridiza-
tion. Gasoline engines are in the process
of adopting Particulate Filters (GPF) to
respect Particulate Number (PN) targets
and can become competitive regarding
CO2 emissions with a conventional die-
sel engine, if the combustion system is
millerized [1]. The first exponents of
miller combustion were VW [2] but this
is becoming main-stream and within
the next five years more than half of
Europe’s Turbo Gasoline Direct Injec-
tion (T-GDI) engines will switch from
wastegate turbochargers to Variable Noz-
zle Turbines (VNT). The combination
Miller and VNT is highly potent and will
enable OEMs to run stoichiometric full
map and still boast best BSFC points in
the range of 225 g/kWh compared with
todays 240 to 250 g/kWh.
At Garrett Motion, we believe best
points of 190 to 195 and extended islands
of 220 g/kWh are feasible if advanced
combustion can be combined with the
right boosting technology. Be it extreme
Miller [3, 4], lean operation [5] or Gaso-
line Direct Injection Compression Ignition
(GDCI) engines [6], they all have the
potential to reach these ranges and
deliver even better fuel economy when
combined with hybridization.
Furthermore, hybridization of the
base powertrain opens the possibility
of electrification of the boosting sys-
tem and widens the aerodynamic design
space for the turbocharger to deliver
even better performance and efficiency
under real world conditions. It is no
coincidence that Formula 1 has entered

AUTHORS

Peter Davies,
B. Sc. (Hons) and FIMechE
is Powertrain Director of Garrett
Motion Inc. in Thaon-les-Vosges
(France).
Nathaniel Bontemps, M. Sc.
is Light Vehicle Concept
Shop Manager in the powertrain
department of Garrett Motion
Inc. in Thaon-les-Vosges
(France).
Dipl.-Ing. Torsten Tietze
is Team Manager in the
division Thermodynamics
and Powertrain Concepts
of IAV GmbH in Berlin
(Germany).
Eike Tim Faulseit, M. Sc.
is Development Engineer in
the division Thermodynamics
and Powertrain Concepts of
IAV GmbH in Berlin (Germany).

MTZ worldwide 10|2019 31

C OVER STORY SUPERCHARGING

FIGURE 1 Potential functionalities of

an electrified turbocharger (© Garrett)

Engine specification Unit Audi EA888 Gen3 series

Engine type – SI four-stroke ation across the map, which will be a

prerequisite of Euro 7.
Engine displacement cm³ 1984

Maximum power kW at rpm 185 at 5000 to 6000

FUNCTIONALIT Y OF AN
Maximum torque Nm at rpm 380 at 1500 to 4500 ELECTRIFIED TURBOCHARGER
Compression ratio – 9.6
An electrified turbocharger has many
Maximum cylinder pressure bar 130 potential functionalities, some of which
are highlighted in FIGURE 1. The diagram
Valve timing – DOHC VVT and exhaust AVS
shows which features would be applica-
Boosting system – Equivalent GT17 ble to which fuels and to which types
Emission standard – Euro 6 of vehicle.
Electrifying a turbocharger removes
Fuel – 95 RON, E10
the constraint of needing a small tur-
TABLE 1 Specifications base engine bine with excellent efficiency to drive

its second turbocharged age. The engines

exploit lean and Miller operation, Motor
Generator Units for recovering Kinetic
(MGU-K) and Heat energy (MGU-H) to
compete at high speed and with very
good dynamics – with a Brake Thermal
Efficiency (BTE) of more than 46 %,
while the vehicles are more than 51 %
efficient when you include recuperative
braking. Off the track, hybrid boost sys-
tems can come in many forms; the two
front runners are electric compressor
and electrified turbocharger. Since much
has already been written about electric
compressors [7-9], this article will focus
on the electrified turbocharger [10, 11]
and some of the benefits it offers. It
describes the first part of a two-year
project and explores how an electrified
turbocharger [12, 13] can be applied to a
mainstream state-of-the-art GDI engine
to improve all major performance met-
rics while achieving stoichiometric oper- FIGURE 2 Audi Q7 40 TFSI Quattro (2.0-l EA888 Gen3) demo car with electrified turbocharger (© Garrett)

32
 Specification Unit Value
Compressor wheel diameter mm 60
Turbine wheel diameter mm 59
Waste gate diameter mm 29
Electrical power
kW 6.0/3.0
(peak/continuous)
FIGURE 3 48-V electrified
turbocharger for 2.0-l gasoline engine (© Garrett) TABLE 2 Specifications eGT25

the compressor at low flow rates. Instead,  thought that an electrified turbocharger
it allows right-sizing the turbine in a
gasoline engine for stoichiometric opera-
tion at rated power. Any penalty in iner-
tia can be more than compensated for by
an e-motor, and the addition of a wide-
range compressor can result in both
improving low-end and stretching high-
end performance simultaneously. Such
a right-sized electrified turbocharger
therefore can deliver CO2 reduction
by supporting downsizing and down-
speeding at the same time. It might be
is a consumer and a potential drain on
a Vehicle Electrical Network (VEN). This
is not the case, and it will be shown that
in urban driving the turbocharger can
recuperate more kinetic energy in the lift
off, gear change and braking phases than
is used to boost it in city driving. Further
optimizations are aimed at achieving an
overall positive energy balance.
Other functionalities are clearly avail-
able as well but will not be covered in
depth here. Briefly they include:
– energy management (to optimize
the use and production of electrical
energy in a vehicle)
– part load supercharging (to optimize
valvetrains and turbocharger control
in real time)
– thermal management (important
in RDE standard and extended
boundary condition testing)
– use of Miller combustion
(resulting in a 10 to 15 % CO2
reduction in gasoline engines)
– two-stage supercharging
(to apply a two-stage com-
pression in extreme Miller)
– lean combustion (another route
for up to 15% CO2 reduction in
gasoline engines)
– transient lambda control (valuable
for precise control in lean and GDCI).

CASE STUDY 2.0-L

GASOLINE ENGINE

To demonstrate the potential of a right-

sized electrified turbocharger in a pre-
mium, but mainstream application, an
industry benchmark 2.0-l gasoline engine
and a large SUV vehicle were chosen: an
Audi Q7 with a third generation EA888
engine which is available in series pro-
duction, TABLE 1. It should be noted that
this vehicle weighs 2200 kg empty and
2500 kg with 4 adult passengers.

EXHAUST GAS TURBOCHARGER

The series application uses a turbo-

charger equivalent in size to a GT17
and has a performance of 380 Nm and
185 kW while the new project set spe-
cific targets of over 200 Nm/l torque
starting at 1500 rpm and over 100 kW/l
at rated speed while respecting stoi-
chiometric operation throughout the
whole range of engine loads and speeds.
Garrett was able to develop and inte-
grate an eGT25 electrified turbocharger
FIGURE 4 Steady-state results from engine dynamometer (© Garrett) into the vehicle, FIGURE 3 and TABLE 2,
MTZ worldwide 10|2019 33
C OVER STORY SUPERCHARGING

FIGURE 5 Transient test results from engine dynamometer (© Garrett)

which is three frame sizes larger

than a conventional GT17 and power
electronics.

STEADY-STATE RESULTS

The steady-state results in the upper

part of FIGURE 4 show that the right-
sized eGT25 turbocharger was able to
run the same low-end torque curve as
the series application. It then went on to
reach 420 Nm at 1750 rpm and a torque
plateau of 450 Nm in the mid speed
range, before making a rated power of
215 kW. This was achieved with an elec-
trical assistance ranging from 1 to 3 kW
in the engine speed range between 1000
and 2500 rpm. Above this speed there
was no need to add electrical assistance
since the turbine was sufficiently power-
ful to drive the compressor by itself.
The second chart in the series shows
that 980 °C T3 was respected through-
out. The lower plot shows that the series
engine has reached its final low end
torque with around 20 % scavenging FIGURE 6 Track sections of Millbrook proving ground (© Garrett)

34
and its rated output at λ = 0.85. By con-
trast the eGT25 was able to drive a supe-
rior torque curve at stoichiometric opera-
tion throughout, completely avoiding
scanvenging and enrichment.

TRANSIENT RESULTS

The exhaust gas turbocharger, which

is oversized according to traditional
design criteria, was also subjected to
dynamic tests on the engine test bench.
The negative effects caused by the
increased mass inertia and the subopti-
mal turbine design for low flow rates
could be more than compensated by
the electrical support.
FIGURE 5 shows the results of transient
load steps at 1000, 1500 and 2000 rpm.
The electrified turbocharger is in fact
able to outperform the much smaller
conventional turbocharger at all speeds.
Particular difference can be noted at
1500 rpm where the electrified turbo-
charger enabled a torque rise of 95 Nm/
(l·s) compared to only 20 Nm/(l·s) for the
series turbocharger. This resulted in the
target torque being reached in just 1 in-
stead of 4.5 s at 1500 rpm. This was FIGURE 7 60 to 100 km/h accelerations in sixth gear (M6) (© Garrett)
achieved with a transient assistance of
6 kW DC from the electrified turbochar-
ger. At 1000 rpm the full system poten-
tial cannot be used due to compressor vehicle, the vehicle was displayed and loops that contained bends and gradients
restrictions; at 2000 rpm sufficient tur- put tested at the CENEX Low Carbon of 7, 14 and 21 %, FIGURE 6.
bine power is available after a short time. Vehicle Event in Millbrook (UK). During
the course of this event, Garrett had
ELASTICIT Y TEST (60-100 KM/H)
access to the high-speed bowl which
VEHICLE RESULTS AND ASCENT CHARACTERISTICS
allowed torque consistency and agility
Once a full test bed was calibrated was testing at speeds of up to 200 km/h to be One of the many agility and torque
and the engine was installed into the explored and the low speed hill circuit consistency tests to be run was a

FIGURE 8 Summary of vehicle

performance results (© Garrett)

MTZ worldwide 10|2019 35

C OVER STORY SUPERCHARGING

60 to 100 km/h acceleration in sixth

gear, FIGURE 7. The basic vehicle needs
about 11 s for this; the unassisted GT25
was, as expected, significantly slower
taking 14.5 s. The eGT25 with 6 kW
(peak) of electrical assist however was
able to overcome this deficit and beat
the series emulation with 8.8 s, repre-
senting an improvement of 20 %.
Two things are of particular note
here. Not only was the eGT25 acce-
leration faster, it was also much more
linear. There is no concavity and no
turbo-lag in the vehicle speed trace in
the upper plot of FIGURE 7. The evalua-
tion of the distance traveled compared
to the basis shows this phenomenon
even more impressively. The vehicle
with the eGT25 already has a lead of FIGURE 9 E-turbo adding e-motor power up to full turbocharger speed (© Garrett)
approximately 17 m over the produc-
tion vehicle when reaching 100 km/h,
bottom plot in FIGURE 7.
Looking at this another way, the eGT25 in two gears higher with the electrified TORQUE CONSISTENCY
was approximately 3.5 vehicle lengths turbocharger enabled compared to the
ahead of the series emulation, FIGURE 8. emulation mode. While this might not The electric turbocharger is dimen-
In addition to the agility testing on be a significant result in itself, it shows sioned so that the turbocharger
the high-speed track a number of hill a strong potential to deliver more elas- may be motored and braked up to
accelerations with fixed speed and gear ticity and comfort to the driver or to and including full turbocharger speed.
on the 7, 14 and 21 % gradients were reevaluate the shift strategies to mini- In the case of the eGT25 this means
executed. The results showed that in mize fuel consumption and CO2 under up to approximately 180.000 rpm or
general the car was able to pull away real world conditions. 3 kHz. At these speeds total shaft
power, in this application, might be
in the order of 40 kW, but the turbo-
charger may still be assisted in acce-
lerations by up to 6 kW and braked
according to its available thermal
capacity at the time. FIGURE 9 shows
how this gives a seemless and lag-
free feel to accelerations even at rela-
tively high engine speeds.

KINETIC ENERGY RECOVERY

Even with the existing development

status, the kinetic recuperation func-
tion of the electric turbocharger has
demonstrated that 60 % of the elec-
trical energy input to accelerate the
device can be recuperated in the sub-
sequent braking event. Simulation
has shown [12] that the kinetic recu-
peration potential is in fact in the
order of magnitude of 300 % of the
input energy. Of course, the turbo-
charger is not a perpertual motion
machine, but values greater than 100 %
are clearly feasible since much of the
rotors’ kinetic energy comes from
exhaust enthalpy and not from the
FIGURE 10 Kinetic energy recovery in city driving (© Garrett) electric motor alone. This means
36
that an electric turbocharger should be
regarded as a net contributor to battery
state of charge and not a net demand on
the vehicle electrical network, FIGURE 10.
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS
AND NEXT STEPS
The project has shown to date that a
right-sized 48-V electrified turbocharger
has the potential to improve basic engine
performance in steady-state as well
as transient operation. Vehicle perfor-
mance in terms of agility, elasticity and
top speed improves while providing a
solution for the removal of scavenging
and fuel enrichment, both of which may
be legislated against in the near term.
The advantages at a glance:
– rated power was increased
by 16 % from 185 kW (λ = 0.85)
to 215 kW (λ = 1)
– torque was increased by 10.5 %
from 380 Nm to 420 Nm
– transient torque rise was increased by
the factor 4.75 from 20 to 95 Nm/(l·s)
– acceleration from 60 to 100 km/h in
sixth gear was improved by 20 %
from 11 to 8.8 s with zero delay
– CO2 potential due to the possibility
of driving up gradients of 7, 14 and
21 % two gears higher than with
the series application
– torque consistency, motor power
may be added up to full turbo-
charger speed
– kinetic energy recovery of
currently circa 60 %, ultimately
over 100 % of DC input power.
It has been shown that a correctly
sized electrified turbocharger can
provide a route for original equipment  efficiency of a hybrid powertrain by exhaust
manufacturers to meet some of the
major engineering challenges of Euro 7,
particularly the requirement to respect
stoichiometric operation, while still
improving the performance of their pow-
ertrains further. The authors believe that
the benefits shown here are adding to
any tendency to convert such vehicles
to mild or plug-in hybrids.
Electrified turbochargers can therefore
be considered as a complimentary tech-
nology to hydridization. They are essen-
tially a plug and play technology on top
of vehicle hybridization. Furthermore
they are compatible with Millerization,
variable geometry turbines as well as
exhaust gas recirculation solutions and
will not be a consumer of electricity
MTZ worldwide 10|2019
from the vehicle electrical network, but
on the contrary, will become net contrib-
utors to the state of charge of the battery.
The study is a complex multi-year pro-
ject, so not everything has been comple-
ted yet. In year two, Garrett intends to
study Millerization, turbocompounding
and thermal management, FIGURE 1, in
parallel with working together with lead
OEM partners to prepare the technology
for series introduction from 2021 onwards.
REFERENCES
[1] Dornoff, J.; Rodríguez, F.: Gasoline versus
diesel, comparing CO2 emission levels of a mod-
ern medium size car model under laboratory
and on-road testing conditions. Online: https://
theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/
Gas_v_Diesel_CO2_emissions_FV_20190503_1.pdf,
access: July 16, 2019
[2] Eichler, F.; et al.: The new EA211 TSI evo
from Volkswagen. 37th International Vienna
Motor Symposium, Vienna, 2016
[3] Prevedel, K.; et al.: Lambda 1: Target or
boundary in view of Euro 7? International Engine Con-
gress 2019, Baden-Baden, 2019
[4] Fraidl, G.; et al.: ICE 4.x implementation as
modular electrification. 40. International Vienna Motor
Symposium, Vienna, 2019
[5] Osborne, R.; et al.: Ein Mager-Benzinmotor
der neuen Generationfür reduzierte CO2-Emissionen in
einer elektrifizierten Welt. 40 th International Vienna Motor
Symposium, Vienna, 2019
[6] Sellnau, M.; et al.: Pathway to 50% brake
thermal efficiency using gasoline direct injection com-
pression ignition. SAE Technical Paper
2019-01-1154, 2019
[7] Zechmair, D.; et al.: Electric supercharger:
a new technology for greater powertrain efficiency and
performance, 36th International Vienna Motor Sympo-
sium, Vienna, 2015
[8] Breitbach, H; Jausel, H; Garrard, T.; Metz, D.: Electri-
cally Assisted Supercharging – Status Quo and Outlook.
In: MTZworldwide 11/2018, pp. 28-34
[9] Reuss, T.; et al.: Der neue AUDI 3.0l V6-TDI Gen.3
mit elektrisch angetriebenem Verdichter (EAV). 40th
International Vienna Motor Symposium, Vienna,2019
[10]Lückmann, D.; et al.: Assessment of an
electrified boosting system to increase the
energy recovery. 22nd Supercharging Conference
2017, Dresden, 2017
[11] Cooper, A.; et al.: HyPACE – Hybrid petrol advance
combustion engine – advanced boosting system for
extended stoichiometric operation and improved dynamic
response. SAE Technical Paper 2019-01-0325, 2019
[12] Pohorelsky, L.; et al.: RDE and CO2 relevant boosting
technologies for passenger cars. 22 nd Supercharging
Conference 2017, Dresden, 2017
[13] Bontemps, N.; et al.: Electric turbo, a key
technology to achieve Eu7 hybridized powertrain (lambda
1, performance and energy efficiency). International
Engine Congress 2019, Baden-Baden, 2019
THANKS
The project is a collaboration between Garrett
Advancing Motion and IAV and was made possible
with the kind support and assistance of Audi.
37
 NE WS PRODUCTS

Mercedes-AMG | More Powerful Four-cylinder Engine for Compact 45 Models

© Daimler

Mercedes-AMG has installed a new 2-l turbocharged gasoline engine in the A 45
and CLA 45. The inline four-cylinder engine comes in two output variants produc-
ing a maximum of 285 kW at 6500 rpm and 480 Nm of torque (4750 to 5000 rpm)
or 310 kW at 6750 rpm and 500 Nm (5000 to 5250 rpm). One special feature of
the new engine is its twin-scroll turbocharger with two flow passages that run
parallel to one another and compressor and turbine shafts with roller bearings
to reduce mechanical friction. The electronically controlled wastegate allows the
boost pressure (up to 2.1 bar) to be controlled more precisely and flexibly which
improves the engine’s responsiveness. In the two-stage fuel injection process,
fuel is supplied directly to the combustion chambers by piezo injectors and also
injected into the intake manifold using solenoid valves. The all-aluminum closed-
deck crankcase with coated cylinder liners and the crank assembly, which con-
sists of a lightweight, forged steel crankshaft and forged aluminum pistons with
optimized piston rings, are designed for high performance.

ZF | Two-speed Electric Drive ZF is adding to its port-

folio a two-speed electric
axle drive system for elec-
tric cars with a maximum
power output of 140 kW.
This uses less energy than
a one-speed unit and can
extend the car’s range by
up to 5 %. It also resolves
the current dilemma manu-
facturers of electric cars
are facing of choosing
between high initial torque
and a high top speed. Gear
shifting takes place at
70 km/h, but a connection
to the car’s CAN bus allows
for other shifting strategies
based on digital maps
and GPS, for example.
Fast over-the-air updates
of the software in the drive
are possible as a result
of the connection to cloud
© ZF

services.

38
 KS Kolbenschmidt | Polymer-coated Thrust Washer
© KS Kolbenschmidt

The polymer-coated KS R535L1 thrust washer from KS Gleitlager is a new axial bearing with a high level of resistance to start-stop wear and mixed friction.
The thrust washer is made from a steel-aluminum composite material that contains silicon. It is coated with a composite made from polyamide-imide and a solid
lubricant using a transfer printing process. According to the manufacturer, the mixed friction test highlights the improved emergency running properties of the L1
coating. Its high lubricant content reduces friction, smooths out the torque curve, and ultimately results in much longer emergency operation. KS Gleitlager supplies
the KS R535L1 either as a loose thrust washer or as a ready-made collar bearing. This can be used in all types of hybrid drives because it can be adapted to meet
the installation and design requirements of each specific type of engine.
© Kaco

© Continental
© Voith

Voith | Electric
Drive for City Buses
Voith has introduced the electric motor of the
Voith Electrical Drive System (VEDS) for city
buses and Smart Schaku, a monitoring tool that
tracks the status of rail couplers in real time. The
fully electric system is Voith’s first venture into
the growing market for electric mobility solutions.
The VEDS is the first complete non-proprietary
system that includes the drive components,
a control system for the auxiliary units, a high-
voltage distribution network, a cooling system,
and the wiring for all of these components. The
plug-and-play roof rack also makes it easy for
customers to integrate all of the components into
vehicles without a great deal of work. The water-
cooled permanent magnet motor has a high
power density and can be used in single-decker,
articulated, and double-decker buses.
Kaco | Seals for
High-Speed Applications
Kaco has developed a range of seals specifi-
cally for high-speed applications in electric
vehicles. In contrast to conventional combus-
tion engines, electric drive systems run at
speeds of 15,000 to 20,000 rpm and even
higher speeds are expected in the future.
Kaco high-speed seals have been successfully
tested under real-life conditions on the compa-
ny’s test benches. The results of tests in one
main direction of rotation far exceeded the
customer’s expectations. In addition, the seals
complied with the customer’s existing speci-
fications for bi-directional applications and
the Chinese QC/T 1022-2015 standard.
Continental |
Electric Axle Drive
At the Frankfurt Motor Show (IAA) 2019,
Continental will be presenting the third gen-
eration of its electric powertrain for mass-
produced vehicles. The new high-voltage
drive combines an electric motor, power elec-
tronics, and reduction gear in a single housing.
As a result, many cables and connectors are no
longer necessary, which helps to reduce costs
and weight. The axle drive is available in two
power variants with 120 or 150 kW and maxi-
mum torque of 310 m. According to the manu-
facturer, the powertrain, which weighs less
than 80 kg, is suitable for several different
classes of vehicle. Production will begin in the
third quarter of 2019 at Continental’s plant in
the Chinese city of Tianjin.

MTZ worldwide 10|2019 39

 NE WS PRODUCTS
KIT | Coating Process for Battery Electrodes
© Ralf Diehm | KIT
© Audi
© BMW
Audi | Entry Level
Variant of the E-tron
In the fourth quarter of 2019, Audi is launch-
ing a second variant of the e-tron, its battery
electric SUV. The e-tron 50 quattro has two
asynchronous motors – one on each axle –
which together produce a maximum power
output of 230 kW and 540 Nm of torque.
The battery unit consists of 324 prismatic
cells in 27 modules which can store up to
71 kWh of energy. According to Audi, the
new e-tron has a range of up to 300 km in
the WLTP cycle. It can be charged with up to
120 kW at fast charging stations. With an AC
supply, the charging power is 11 or 22 kW,
depending on the charging device in the car.
40
© AVL
BMW | Larger
Battery for the 530e
BMW has installed a new high-voltage
lithium-ion battery in its plug-in hybrid
530e model to extend its electric range to
between 61 and 66 km, which represents
an increase of more than 30 %. The dimen-
sions of the 345-V battery remain unchanged,
but its gross energy storage capacity has
been increased from 9.2 to 12.0 kWh. The
2.0-l four-cylinder gasoline engine in the 530e
produces a maximum of 135 kW at 5000 to
6500 rpm and 290 Nm of torque between
1350 and 4250 rpm. It is supported by an
electric motor in the eight-speed automatic
gearbox which delivers 83 kW at 3170 rpm
and 265 Nm from 0 to 3170 rpm. This gives
the hybrid drive a maximum system power
of 185 kW and system torque of 420 Nm.
Researchers at the Karlsruhe Institute of
Technology (KIT) have developed a new
coating process for the electrodes of lithium-
ion batteries. The current procedure involves
applying the electrode material in the form
of a thin paste to a copper or aluminum foil in
a rectangular pattern. The pattern contains
short sections of uncoated foil, which are
needed for the discharge of electrons. To
produce these sections, the coating process
has to be interrupted and restarted repeatedly.
The researchers have developed a nozzle with
an oscillating membrane that cyclically stops
and restarts the application of the coating
paste. This makes it possible to achieve a
coating speed of 150 m/s, which is much
faster than the current speed of 30 to 40 m/s.
The membrane can be controlled more pre-
cisely than mechanical valves, resulting in
improved production quality and a reduction
in the reject rate.
AVL | Emissions
Instrumentation
Thanks to its minimalist design, AVL’s Slim
Line emissions technology enables the high-
est layout flexibility in crowded test bed envi-
ronments. The technology is energy-efficient,
service-friendly and improves test perfor-
mance and frontloading capabilities, even in
already existing powertrain and engine test
cells. The reduction of CO2 emissions has
become the main task for all sectors. From
this perspective, the automotive sector, in
particular an RDE test, is faced with two
huge challenges: compliance with the stricter
emissions limits due to new legislation and
the higher cost of road-based tests. Slim Line
supports the zero-energy targets of modern
laboratories and offers a sustainable and
future-proof test solution.
 Volkswagen | Efficient Manual Gearbox CONFERENCES THAT COULD INTEREST YOU:

Volkswagen has launched its new MQ281 six-speed manual gearbox. The new VW Passat
is the first car to be fitted with the new gearbox, which, because of its increased effi-
ciency, can lead to a reduction of up to 5 g of CO2 emissions per kilometer. The MQ281 UPCOMING CONFERENCES
fully replaces the MQ250 gearbox variant and partially replaces the MQ350. It has a
Electrified Mobility
torque spectrum of 200 to 340 Nm. The 2.5 shaft concept gives a high gear spread of a
November 12 and 13, 2019 |
maximum of 7.89. The low-friction bearings with low-contact seals in the gearbox are in Mannheim, Germany
part responsible for its increased efficiency. In addition, a new oil system improves the
lubrication of the gear wheels and bearings and, at the same time, reduces the amount Grid Integration of
of lifetime oil required to 1.5 l. The newly designed housing of the gearbox is intended to Electric Mobility
improve its NVH behavior. The new gearbox will be manufactured in El Prat de Llobregat November 12 and 13, 2019 |

(Spain) and Córdoba (Argentina) by Seat Componentes. Mannheim, Germany

Vehicles of Tomorrow
November 19 and 20, 2019 |
Frankfurt/Main, Germany

Heavy-Duty, On- and

Off-Highway Engines
November 26 and 27, 2019 |
Friedrichshafen, Germany

The Powertrain
of Tomorrow
January 22 and 23, 2020 |
Hanau near Frankfurt/Main, Germany

7th International
Engine Congress
© Volkswagen

February 18 and 19, 2020 |

Baden-Baden, Germany

Automated Driving
March 31 and April 1, 2020 |
Wiesbaden, Germany

Mahle | Intelligent Engine Components chassis.tech plus

June 23 and 24, 2020 |
Munich, Germany
Mahle has developed intelligent components to create an engine early warning system. The com-
ponents, which include pistons, valves, and bearings, can monitor the operating conditions,
such as temperature and pressure, in real time and send the data to the car’s computer systems.
The supply of lubricating oil and coolant for engine components CALL FOR PAPERS
can therefore be designed for specific operating points to ensure
that no damage is caused by excessively high chassis.tech plus
Deadline for submission proposals:
temperatures or inadequate lubrication,
October 25, 2019
while allowing the amount of coolant
and lubricating oil to be kept to a
minimum. This avoids any unneces-
sary friction losses and increases the
efficiency of the engine. The measure-
ment system forms the basis for an
innovative piston monitoring concept,
which transmits measurement data
wirelessly and uses the movement
of the piston to provide the energy
© Mahle

needed by the sensors. This allows

the pistons to withstand higher con- MORE INFORMATION AT
tinuous loads, but prevents transient www.atzlive.com

overloads during the warm-up phase.

MTZ worldwide 10|2019 41
DE VELO PMENT MATERIAL S

Minimizing the Cobalt Content in

Wear Resistant Sintered Materials
© Tenneco Inc.

Cobalt-based materials have been used in the industry for many It should however be stated that con-
trary to initial expectations, good wear
years, offering proven wear resistance and corrosion resistance.
resistance in the high-temperature tribol-
But cobalt’s pricing has become volatile in recent years and ogy range (above 400 °C) often does not
has led to an increasing need to find high quality substitutes. present too many special challenges, as
a range of metallic materials are readily
Targeting high-temperature tribological applications like exhaust available and achieve good results. Simi-
gas recirculation valves and turbochargers, Tenneco’s Powertrain larly, low wear values can be realized
in the temperature range below 400 °C,
division (formerly Federal-Mogul Powertrain) is developing sintered
for example by using materials such
iron-based self-lubricating materials with the aim of reducing the as brass, plastic, graphite or sintered
use of cobalt. steels impregnated with oil.
In a turbocharger application, the
wastegate shaft rotates inside the bush-
ing without external lubrication and
is often required to operate from a cold
PROBLEM DEFINITION being used have to provide a certain start environment through the whole
AND MOTIVATION level of wear resistance themselves. In temperature range up to levels of
many applications dry sliding arrange- approximately 1000 °C and with mini-
In most tribological systems temperature ments can often be found when engi- mal wear. In covering this entire tem-
is an important parameter. In low tem- neers are trying to keep the technical perature range from 0 to 1000 °C shown
perature range applications with fluid complexity of the system low, or when in FIGURE 1 lies the challenge for the
lubrication an external lubricant protects operating temperatures are likely to bushing materials. Established materi-
against contact wear, while in dry slid- exceed the thermal limits of the liquid als focused on the lower operating range
ing friction arrangements the materials lubricants available in the marketplace. reach their limit with rising tempera-
42
 AUTHORS
Les Farthing
is a Materials Engineer at
Tenneco’s Powertrain division
(Federal-Mogul Coventry Ltd. –
a Tenneco Group Company)
in Coventry (United Kingdom).
Adrian Horne
is Business Unit Manager
for Turbocharger Components
at Tenneco’s Powertrain division
(Federal-Mogul Coventry Ltd. –
a Tenneco Group Company)
in Coventry (United Kingdom).
Jens Wellmann
is Product Manager
for Turbocharger Components
at Tenneco’s Powertrain division
(Federal-Mogul Burscheid GmbH –
a Tenneco Group Company)
in Burscheid (Germany).
FIGURE 1 Typical wear curves of standard materials (schematic) (© Tenneco Inc.)
MTZ worldwide 10|2019
tures due to either oil evaporation or
in case of graphite, brass and plastic,
their loss of material strength. Materials
that have good wear values at high tem-
peratures often show high levels of wear
at low temperatures. This behavior can
be explained when looking at the sur-
faces of worn systems. At high tempera-
tures, the tribologically stressed surfaces
and wear debris react beneficially with
the surrounding material [1] with oxida-
tion products being formed above a cer-
tain temperature and then embedding
themselves between the contact surfaces
to act as a sliding tribo-layer [1]. At lower
temperatures however, this protective
oxide layer does not form or is worn
away, and the base materials revert
back to direct contact.
With the forming of stable oxide lay-
ers starting from temperatures as low
as 200 °C, cobalt-based materials cur-
rently offer the widest operating range
with good resistance to adhesive and
abrasive wear. Together with their
good corrosion resistance, this justi-
fies their reputation as “problem solv-
ers” for high temperature dry sliding
bushing arrangements. Typical applica-
tions are the shaft bushings used in
butterfly valves in the exhaust system
of combustion engines, Exhaust Gas
Recirculation (EGR) valves, exhaust
brakes, wastegate systems and adjust-
ing mechanisms in turbochargers, valve
seat inserts and other tribological appli-
cations where component temperatures
can potentially reach 1000 °C.
Due to a significant increase in the
price of cobalt in 2017 and an increased
awareness of its controversial mining
conditions [2], the use of raw cobalt
has come to the attention of the public
in recent years. Driven by the growing
demand for electrification, with around
50 % of the cobalt produced worldwide
being used in batteries [3], the price of
cobalt is expected to remain high for
many years to come.
Since cobalt-based materials for bush-
ings, inserts, coatings and hard-facings
are directly affected by these significant
price fluctuations, the demand for substi-
tutes is also increasing. Tenneco Power-
train is therefore proactively investigat-
ing alternatives to cobalt and looking to
reduce the content level of this material
as far as possible in its bushing products,
while still offering comparable levels
of wear resistance across the entire tem-
perature range of typical applications.
PROCEDURE AND
TESTING METHODOLOGY
By focusing on sintered materials for
high temperature bushing applications
it was possible to use the flexible proto-
type manufacturing options offered by
powder metallurgy. For this investiga-
tion the starting points were two proven
and validated Tenneco Powertrain mate-
rials which represent two extremes in
terms of cobalt content: on the one side
FM-8100, an iron-based material with-
out cobalt and on the other side FM-T95A
with approximately 54 % cobalt by
weight. FM-T95A being a typical repre-
sentative of cobalt-based materials which
contains a level of cobalt that is compa-
rable to the cast materials that are well
known and proven materials for tribo-
logical applications.
The question to be answered is:
what percentage of cobalt is actually
required to achieve the advantage of
reduced wear, in particular at tempera-
tures in the lower range (< 500 °C)?
For a first basic examination, material
specimens with different cobalt percent-
ages in the range of 0 to 54 % were
produced. The following were chosen
and tested:
– FM-8100 with 0 % cobalt
– FM-T87 with 8 % cobalt
– FM-T88 with 17 % cobalt
– FM-T89 with 35 % cobalt
– FM-T95A with 54 % cobalt.
43
DE VELO PMENT MATERIAL S
FIGURE 2 Wear results of the test series for assessment of the various cobalt contents (© Tenneco Inc.)
Applications that use materials contain-
ing cobalt usually operate in the dry
boundary friction system, i.e. there is no
liquid lubricant present and there are
coefficients of friction f > 0.1 [4]. This
could be represented by a so-called ball-
on-disk set-up for a basic test with the
ball made of aluminum oxide (Al2O3)
serving as a wear-resistant friction part-
ner on the tested materials (specimens
FIGURE 3 FM-T88A microstructure (500 × magnified) (© Tenneco Inc.)
44
as listed above). The testing device to
be used is a tribometer freely available
on the market. A predetermined load is
applied to the ball for the test and then
rubbed over the material specimens in
a reciprocating sliding motion for 4 h.
Under the same boundary conditions
and parameters, the test is then repeated
at 200, 400 and 600 °C with new speci-
mens in each case.
FIGURE 2 shows the results of this test
series. The decrease in the wear depth as
both the cobalt content and the test tem-
perature increase is clearly identifiable.
With 17 % cobalt, a wear-reducing effect
is already detectable, and this still con-
tinues to increase slightly as the percent-
age rises. In the 400-°C specimens, the
greatest decrease in wear is observed
between the 8- and 17-% specimens.
Based on these results, it was possible
to start developing a new material based
on FM-T88 which, in addition to the
adjusted cobalt content, also meets pro-
duction and quality requirements, includ-
ing the manufacturability and mixing of
the metal powder, the sintering process,
machinability and quality assurance.
The result is a sintered steel with 22 %
Cr, 17 % Co and 17 % Ni which has
been given the designation FM-T88A
by Tenneco Powertrain, FIGURE 3.
To verify the results of the basic tests,
collaborative trials were conducted with
a major global vehicle manufacturer com-
paring the wear resistance of FM-T88A
to series production materials in a pro-
duction representative shaft-in-bush-
ing test rig. The test rig simulates the
installation situation and loading of
the wastegate bushing in the turbo-
charger and can be operated at a tem-
perature of up to 800 °C. The known
materials FM-8100 (0 % Co), FM-T95A
(54 % Co) and the new development
FM-T88A (17 % Co) were tested. The
FIGURE 4 Test results for maximum combined wear depth of bushing and shaft as a function of temperature (© Tenneco Inc.)
aim of this test was to demonstrate
the performance of the newly devel-
oped material with regards to wear
resistance which should be close to
FM-T95A, i.e. the cobalt-based mate-
rial. A commonly used nickel-based
alloy was utilized in this test as the
shaft material. The wear test was car-
ried out at six different temperature
points – 20, 100, 200, 300, 500 and
800 °C – using new specimens in each
case with constant load application and
each test running for 70 h. The maxi-
mum wear depth was then used to
assess the degree of wear in each case.
FIGURE 5 Bushing cross section after 70 h test bed run at 200 °C (worn surface on the left) (© Tenneco Inc.)
MTZ worldwide 10|2019
RESULTS
The results of this test series, summa-
rized in FIGURE 4, confirm the base-
line investigations completed using
the tribometer. They show that adding
17 % cobalt (FM-T88A) to the alloy
results in a significant wear reduction
in the 200 to 300 °C temperature range
compared to the cobalt-free FM-8100.
The wear depth being considered here
is the total of shaft and bushing wear.
The test results also confirm the wear
pattern of FIGURE 1. As the temperatures
increase, the wear rates converge at a
similarly low level; see values at 500 and
800 °C. The results show that a cobalt
content in the iron-based material as
low as 17 % achieves a significant level
of wear reduction and approaches that
of the cobalt-based reference material.
Both FM-T88A and FM-T95A showed
significantly lower wear depths at 200
than at 100 °C which is why the inves-
tigation is focused on the 200 °C spe-
cimens. In contrast, the cobalt-free
material (FM-8100) displays its maxi-
mum wear at this temperature. Look-
ing more closely at the worn surfaces,
there are already flat layers of oxide
forming on FM-T88A in the 200 °C
specimens, similar to higher cobalt
content materials. So here a tribo-layer
contributes to wear reduction from
200 °C, in contrast to the cobalt-free
material where the oxide layer only
forms from 300 °C upwards.
The views of the worn surface,
FIGURE 5 and FIGURE 6, show an exten-
sive coverage layer. EDX (Energy-dis-
persive X-ray spectroscopy) analysis
identifies that the light gray zones
(spectrum 1) represent the base mate-
rial FM-T88A, while the dark gray
zones (spectrum 2) represent oxide
layers. The oxide layer in FM-T88A
with 17 % cobalt therefore builds up
at similarly low temperatures to the
cobalt-based materials. In the cross-
section, the oxide layer already appears
as a stable 5 µm thick structure.
45
DE VELO PMENT MATERIAL S
SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK
The initial question was whether it is
possible to replace cobalt-based materi-
als with cobalt-free materials. For high-
temperature shaft-in-bushing systems,
which need to offer the best wear resis-
tance possible across a temperature
range from 0 to 1000 °C and which cur-
rently rely on cobalt-based materials,
the answer according to current knowl-
edge is no. Even in the lower tempera-
ture range up to 500 °C, cobalt-based
materials provide comparatively good
wear resistance, due to the formation
of an oxide layer at temperatures from
200 °C upward. The oxide layer acts
in this case as a wear-reducing sliding
film tribo-layer. In cobalt-free materi-
als, this oxide layer only forms at higher
temperatures. But it is possible to reduce
the cobalt content using powder metal-
lurgy. The wear resistance of different
cobalt concentrations was assessed in
a baseline investigation with a tribo-
meter. The result of material develop-
ment based on the findings of this
investigation is the iron-based mate-
rial FM-T88A with approximately 17 %
cobalt. In the production representa-
46
FIGURE 6 Image of the microstructure from a scan-
ning electron microscope (× 100 magnified), worn
surface on inner diameter (light gray = base mate-
rial, dark gray = oxide layer) (© Tenneco Inc.)
tive test rig set-up, it was possible to
compare the new material’s wear resis-
tance to that of cobalt-free iron and
cobalt-based materials from series appli-
cations. In this study too, the new mate-
rial gave convincing results in the 200
to 500 °C temperature range. In addition,
at points where the cobalt-free material
displayed maximum wear, FM-T88A
showed low wear depths similar to the
cobalt-based material. The reason for
this was demonstrated in the early
build-up of an oxide layer in the 200 °C
specimens. In the interests of further
development work, test parts made of
FM-T88A are currently being tested
in customer applications. Other shaft
materials are also being examined in
combination with FM-T88A.
REFERENCES
[1] Czichos, H.; Habig, K.-H.: Tribologie-Handbuch
[Tribology Manual]. Wiesbaden: Springer, 2015
[2] Köllner, C.: The Dark Side of Our Raw-materi-
als Supply Chain. In: ATZworldwide 1/2018,
Special 120 Years of ATZ, pp. 127-131
[3] Amoruso, B.: Rechargeable Batteries. Online:
https://www.cobaltinstitute.org/rechargeable
-batteries.html, access: December 13, 2018
[4] Sommer, K.; Rudolf, H.; Schöfer, J.:
Verschleiß metallischer Werkstoffe.
Wiesbaden: Springer, 2018
 PROF. DR.
HELMUT LIST
AVL LIST GMBH

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PARTICU LATE FILTER
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DE VELO PMENT SIMUL ATION AND TESTING

Insights into the Development Process Using © Daimler

Portable Emissions Measurement Systems

In order to evaluate and limit the actual emissions on the road, the European Commission
has introduced the topic of RDE by passing the WLTP legislation in the recent years [1–4].
Since September 2017 measurements on the street are mandatory for the approval of
new vehicle types. Portable emissions measurement systems therefore arrived at the daily
business of development measurements at Mercedes-Benz. The process of these development
measurements is briefly outlined below, the challenges are dealt with afterward in more detail.

48

PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The process for obtaining valid road
emission data is roughly divided into
five process steps, FIGURE 1. Starting with
a suitable adaptation of the vehicle and
the installation of the Portable Emissions
Measurement System (PEMS), the valida-
tion measurement on the chassis dyna-
mometer follows. These validation mea-
surements are not only a recommended
legal specification, but also a fixed com-
ponent for a high-quality and reliable
MTZ worldwide 10|2019
measurement. Only if the validation
was successful the next step of real
road measurement may be carried out,
which will be post-processed and vali-
dated afterwards. To illustrate the pro-
cess steps and the diversity of influenc-
ing factors on an RDE trip, an example
of a test series is presented at the end.
VEHICLE ADAPTATION
The installation of the PEMS at the test
vehicle may seem trivial at first, but can
AUTHORS
Dr.-Ing. Christiane Betz
is Expert for PEMS and RDE
at Daimler AG in Stuttgart
(Germany).
Andreas Ziegler, M. Sc.
is Expert for PEMS and RDE
at Daimler AG in Stuttgart
(Germany).
Dr.-Ing. Eckhart Nitzschke
is Manager of Powertrain
Test Bench Calibration and
RDE at Daimler AG in Stuttgart
(Germany).
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Harald Behrendt
is Senior Manager for Power train
Testing at Daimler AG in Stuttgart
(Germany).
be one of the greatest challenges of a
test series. The complexity of adapta-
tion varies enormously, originating
from the vehicle and tailpipe alterna-
tives arising from the Mercedes-Benz
portfolio. It may vary from Smarts with
single-piping to G-Classes with side-
pipes. Mercedes-Benz uses stainless 
steel adapters for the piping and pays
particular attention to the absence of
silicone tubes. By avoiding the contact
of silicones with the hot emission flow,
incorrect measurements are prevented.
49
 DE VELO PMENT SIMUL ATION AND TESTING

FIGURE 1 Procedure of a portable emissions measurement systems test series (© Daimler)

While the PEMS is typically mounted
on the trailer hitch, there are some
exceptions – for example due to the
permissible weight on the trailer hitch,
setup of the PEMS or vehicles without
trailer hitch. In these cases, some share
of the measurement devices has to be
placed inside the vehicle. For the mea-
surement of the exhaust flow rate for
vehicles without trailer hitch, engineers
from Mercedes-Benz have developed
and patented a unique solution by using
the towing sling on the rear. The differ-
ent parts of the measurement devices
are listed in the following section.
PORTABLE EMISSIONS
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
PEMSs consist of various analyzing
components. The devices used for
development measurement purposes
contain the following parts:
– Gas PEMS for determining the
gaseous components CO, CO2,
NO and NO2 from the partial flow
– PN (Particle Number) PEMS
for determining the number of
particles from the partial flow
– Exhaust Flow Meter (EFM) to
determine the exhaust volume
flow and temperature in full flow
– ambient sensors: GPS receiver
for determining the position and
speed, as well as humidity and
pressure sensors.
While the specifications and measuring
ranges for the individual components are
specified by European RDE legislation
[4], the use of different analyzers and
measurement principles for determining
these components is still possible. For
the determination of NOx emissions for
example, an Non-dispersive Ultra Violet
(NDUV) analyzer or Chemiluminescence
Detector (CLD) can be used. From this
analyzer variation different dependen-
cies and influencing factors appear that
can also be noticed in the emission
results, FIGURE 2.
Therefore, the implementation of
the validation tests on the chassis dyna-
mometer is exceptionally important,
as well as the knowledge of the mea-
surement uncertainty during road
driving. The latter is checked annu-
ally by the European legislator and is
currently 0.43 (margin factor for NOx)
or 0.5 (margin factor for PN).
In order to carry out valid measure-
ments with the PEMS, regular calibra-
tion checks before and after each mea-
surement have to be carried out. In
this case, determination of the zero point
as well as the concentration of a known
gas is checked using calibration gases
of specific concentrations and examined
for any drifts during the test. In order to
proof the validity of these analyzer drifts,

20 FIGURE 2 Absolute NOx deviations of two portable emissions

PEMS manufacturer 1 measurement systems of different manufacturers in comparison
15
from bag emissions [mg/km]

PEMS manufacturer 2 to bag emissions (© Daimler)

Absolute NOx deviation

10

-5

-10

-15

-20
WLTC 1 WLTC 2 WLTC 3 WLTC 4

Pollutant Zero response drift Span response drift

CO 2 ≤ 2000 ppm per test ≤ 2 % of reading or ≤ 2000 ppm per test(1)

CO ≤ 75 ppm per test ≤ 2 % of reading or ≤ 75 ppm per test(1)

TABLE 1 Permissible analyzer drift over a portable emissions
NO x ≤ 5 ppm per test ≤ 2 % of reading or ≤ 5 ppm per test(1) measurement systems test in accordance with [3];
(1) the greater value applies (© Daimler)

50
FIGURE 3 Vehicle setup with gas and PN portable emissions measurement systems on a chassis dynamometer (© Daimler)

the legal specifications are used even
for development trips, TABLE 1.
As the gas and PN PEMSs only deter-
mine the components in a share of the
emission flow, a suitable sampling is
essential. According to the legal require-
ments the sampling probe is to be placed
after the EFM, and the slanted opening
should be oriented with the direction
of flow. There should also be sufficient
straight piping before and after the
sampling to rule out incorrect measure-
ments and turbulences during road
or validation tests [4].
VALIDATION TEST
The validation test, described in the
European legislation, is carried out
on a chassis dynamometer and marks
the beginning of each development test
series at Mercedes-Benz. The WLTC,
where the vehicle emissions are mea-
sured in parallel by PEMSs and the ref-
erence chassis dynamometer, is particu-
larly suitable for validating the PEMS,
FIGURE 3. For this purpose, the legal tol-
erances are used, TABLE 2. If the toler-
ances are exceeded, troubleshooting
begins and the test has to be repeated.
Experience shows that the CO2 compo-
nent is particularly suitable for detect-
ing adaptation errors, leakage or ana-
lyzer defects. If the validation test was
successful the next process step starts,
the RDE trip.

RDE TRIP
Parameter Permissible tolerances Before carrying out an RDE test drive, the
Distance 250 m of the laboratory reference vehicle has to be preconditioned by driv-
ing for at least 30 min and then stored
CO 2 10 g/km or 10 % of the laboratory reference (1)
under ambient conditions for 6 to 56 h
CO 150 mg/km or 15 % of the laboratory reference (1) (soak) [3]. The objectives of development
NO x 15 mg/km or 15 % of the laboratory reference (1) and certification tests may differ. While
the legal requirements for the boundary
PN 1 × 1011 #/km or 50 % of the laboratory reference (1)
conditions have to be complied with for
TABLE 2 Permissible tolerances of the PEMS in comparison to the laboratory reference [3]; a certification measurement, FIGURE 4, a
(1) the greater value applies (© Daimler) development test may be limited to some
MTZ worldwide 10|2019 51
DE VELO PMENT SIMUL ATION AND TESTING

boundaries, for example the city part.
Some development test goals may
require the intentional exceeding of
the RDE boundary conditions such
as the ambient temperature.
It should also be noted that an individ-
ual RDE test – due to the large number
of influencing factors and the measure-
ment uncertainty – may not be signifi-
cant. A repetition of the test during the
series of measurements is therefore rea-
sonable. Possible influencing factors on
the emissions results are amongst others
the ambient conditions, traffic, driving
dynamics and driving style as well as the
vehicle weight. The measurement uncer-
tainty due to the influencing factors is
explained in more detail in the following
section by using a measurement example.
EVALUATION AND
VALIDATION OF RESULTS
Post-processing the raw data (volume
concentrations in %, ppm or number)
toward emission values (mass/km or
number/km), which can be compared
with the legal limits, is very complex.
On the one hand, the PEMS manufac-
turers need the validation by a techni-
cal service or a self-validation for their
evaluation software. On the other hand,
the calculation and validation of emis-
sion values has been revised again and
again in the course of the various RDE
legislative packages. The current legisla-
tion provides an unweighted calcula-
tion of the emission results, followed by
validation of the boundary conditions,
the dynamic criteria and the final result,
FIGURE 5.
Similar to the RDE trips, the calcula-
tion of the measurement results can
also be carried out from a certification
or development perspective. While all
homologation values – emission result
factors, extended factors and Ki factors
[4] – are required for the certification
results, but may not be known at an
early development stage, unweighted
results may hold more information for
the developer. For the following test
series, which was limited to the urban
part, a development calculation with-
out compliance with the RDE boundary
conditions was performed.
EX AMPLE OF A SERIES
OF MEASUREMENTS
In order to better understand the influ-
ences on a real emission test, a com-
prehensive series of measurements
was carried out at Mercedes-Benz at
the beginning of 2019. Therefore a B-
Class model was tested with the new
four-cylinder diesel engine (B 220 d,
OM 654q), which already fulfills the
Euro 6d Norm today. The aim was to
vary the payload (vehicle with PEMS
without payload; Vehicle with PEMS
loaded to maximum permissible vehicle
weight), driving dynamics (different
drivers with different driving styles
and programs) and engine temperature
(cold start compared to Tcoolant > Tambient),
so that dependencies in the emission
results can be detec ted, FIGURE 6. The

Trip duration Driving dynamics

Normality of dynamic
Between 90
and 120 min RDE boundary conditions conditions (v∙apos, rpa)

Altitude Urban Rural Weather and traffic

Moderate: < 700 m All weather and
• > 16 km • > 16 km
Extended: between traffic conditions
700 and 1300 m • Cold start period: vehicle stop • May be interrupted by short
≤ 90 s; idling time after first periods of urban operation
ignition ≤ 15 s
• Stop periods: 6 to 30 % of
urban duration; individual
Ambient temperature stop duration ≤ 300 s Positive altitude gain
Moderate: 0 to 30 ˚C • Average speed: < 1200 m/100 km
Extended: -7 to 0 ˚C and 15 to 40 km/h (entire trip and
30 to 35 ˚C 34 % 33 % urban part)
< 100 m between start
and end point
%

Vehicle test mass
Up to 90 % of the
permissible payload
kg
33 %
Motorway
• > 16 km
• May be interrupted by short periods Auxiliary systems
of urban or rural operation Operation in their
typically intended
• For ≥ 5 min velocity > 100 km/h
use (for example AC)
• Average speed: 90 to 110 km/h

60 90 145 160
Urban Rural Motorway ≤ 3 % of motorway

duration

FIGURE 4 RDE boundary conditions [1–4] (© Daimler)

52
 have a decisive influence on NOx emis-
PEMS data
sions, the payload plays only a minor role,
Requirements 1: FIGURE 6. The driving dynamics seems
Boundary • Distance shares (urban, rural and motorway), to show linear dependencies to the NOx
Invalid trip N cold start period... emissions, when only the cold starts
conditions
• Ambient conditions (altitude, temperature) are considered. In the tests, the particle
• ...
number was not influenced by any of
Y the investigated variables.
Requirements 2:
As desired, the influences of the vari-
• Dynamic conditions for whole test and trip
Invalid trip N Dynamics and ables on this vehicle and trip combina-
altitude gain shares (v∙apos; rpa)
• Cumulative altitude gain for whole test and tion can be observed. In addition, the
urban part spreading of the different measurement
Y
values in comparison to the three WLTC
Requirements 3: test results – green measuring points in
Overall • Overall dynamics using the method of FIGURE 6 – show the high range of vari-
Invalid trip N moving windows ants and the measurement uncertainty
dynamics
• Comparison with reference values from the of a RDE trip with portable emissions
WLTP
measurement technology.
• Trip validity
Y

Requirements fulfilled CONCLUSION

Overall, the PEMS process contains five

Emissions calculation
ambient temperature added an additio-
nal variable that cannot be influenced
(temperatures between -2 and 12 °C).
FIGURE 6 shows the results of 41 mea-
surements carried out for NOx and partic-
ulate emissions. All emission results are
below 80 mg/km and 6 × 1011 particles/
FIGURE 5 Verification of RDE trip validity
according to 2018/1832 [4] (© Daimler)
km, corresponding to the WLTC Euro 6d
limits on emission chassis dynamometer
for diesel vehicles. Note that these mea-
surements are not certification-compliant,
as the route does not include the Euro-
pean RDE boundary conditions, FIGURE 4.
While the engine temperature seems to
steps. Each one should be completed
with extensive experience and a distinct
awareness of quality. The validity of the
final results is determined starting by
the choice of suitable adaptation to the
post-processing of the measuring test. In
order to trust a measured value without
knowing the context, the limits of the
measurement devices and the explicit
boundary conditions must be known.
Every RDE trip is different and engineers
have to take that into account.

REFERENCES
[1] Official Journal of the European Union,
1,0E+12 Regulation (EU) 2016/427 of the Commission,
March 10, 2016
<

EU6d: CF = 1,0 = 6,0E+11 PN/km

1,0E+11 [2] Official Journal of the European Union,
PN [#/km]

Regulation (EU) 2016/646 of the Commission,

April 20, 2016
1,0E+10
[3] Official Journal of the European Union,
Regulation (EU) 2017/1154 of the Commission,
1,0E+09 June 07, 2017
[4] Official Journal of the European Union,
1,0E+08 Cold start “empty car”
Cold start “loaded car” Regulation (EU) 2018/1832 of the Commission,
200 Hot start “empty car” November 05, 2018
180 Hot start “loaded car” [5] Nun, J.; Wieler, A.; Andres, C.; Betz, T.:
WLTC
OM 654q – The first Mercedes-Benz four-cylinder
160
Dynamic index > diesel engine with RDE stage 2. In: MTZworldwide
140 regulation limit 7-8/2019, pp. 48-55
NOx [mg/km]

120
<

100 EU6d: CF = 1,0 + 0,43 (margin) = 114 mg NOx/km

80
<

CF = 1,0 = 80 mg NOx/km
60
40
20
0
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
soft Driving style [dynamic index: v∙apos 95] dynamic

FIGURE 6 NOx and PN emissions as a function of driving style

(Mercedes B 220 d, Stuttgart urban trip) [5] (© Daimler)

MTZ worldwide 10|2019 53

DE VELO PMENT SIMUL ATION AND TESTING

Microanalytical Method for Mass

Emissions Data in Actual Road Traffic

Exhaust measurements on test benches and under RDE conditions AUTHOR

can provide information on the exhaust behavior of vehicle types.
However, they are not suitable for assessing the influence of road
traffic on air pollution. Horiba has developed in cooperation with
the Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research a
system that can measure the actual emissions of a vehicle fleet Frank Heepen
is Global Product Manager for
for use in mass data analysis. Smart Emissions Measurement
Systems at Horiba in Oberursel
(Germany).

STARTING POINT
In the discussion of a more realistic
determination of the nitrogen oxide,
particulate, and ammonia emissions
of motor vehicles, the responsible tech-
nical committee of the European Union
decided in May 2015 that the previous
54
measurements for type approval on
air-conditioned exhaust gas chassis
dynamometers would have to be supple-
mented by the measurement of emis-
sions in actual road traffic. The RDE
tests required for this purpose are done
with Portable Emissions Measurement
Systems (PEMSs) and utilize a prescribed
testing method; the results are then
revised using so-called conformity
factors, which are still the subject of
legal controversy in the EU.
This individual measurement using
RDE tests can provide certain informa-
tion on the exhaust behavior of vehicle
types, but it is restricted to a few mea-

surements in standard conditions. How-
ever, the discussion of driving bans in
inner cities because of high immissions,
meaning emissions of pollutants into the
outside air beyond a prescribed limit,
requires additional methods in order to
assess the contribution of road traffic
to total emissions. One approach is mass
determination of actual emissions of
vehicles in the field under the respective
operating conditions, which can vary
greatly depending on region, climate,
and time of year. For this purpose, the
largest possible test vehicle fleet is
equipped with the corresponding hard-
ware modules, such as sensors and data
loggers, as well as certain software mod-
ules. The mass data collected is then used
for centralized analysis.
The systems for mass determination
of actual emissions are referred to as
Smart Emissions Measurement Systems
MTZ worldwide 10|2019
© Horiba
(SEMSs). In the Netherlands, SEMS
tests have been running for a number
of years. Based on the RDE 4 guidelines
(EU 2018/1832), since December 2018,
in addition to PEMS and Remote Sens-
ing Device (RSD) measurements, SEMS
measurements have also been defined
as a factor in vehicle selection in the
process of homologation. The data is
used by authorities in selecting vehicles
for type approval and in assessing the
compliance of vehicle types (In-service
Conformity, ISC).
SMART EMISSIONS
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
In the future, SEMS measurements will
run for months, years, and even for the
entire life of vehicles and provide great
volumes of data for analysis. This would
make it possible to determine in advance
the degree to which the internal combus-
tion engines in cars and trucks, as well
as diesel locomotives, ships, and con-
struction equipment, contribute to over-
all emissions of air pollutants for specific
regions. This would help the authorities
in communities, regions, and EU coun-
tries to get greater transparency regard-
ing the actual causes of air pollution and
contribute to the ability to take effective
measures to keep air clean. Up until now,
the limit values have been specified on
the basis of emission factors that are not
based on mass data but on the values
determined for type approval.
In SEMS measurement, a variety of
factors are determined that influence
actual vehicle emissions. Among other
things, they include the vehicle type,
motor and fuel type (in the previous
implementation only diesel), special
equipment, operating conditions, such
as topography and climate, as well as
the driving cycle.
COMPILATION OF THE DATA
The SEMS measurements do justice
to the effect that the emission behavior
of motor vehicles on the road and over
the entire life of the vehicle is different
from those in the test bench and in
RDE measurements. The full potential
of SEMS data can be developed when
combined in a central database together
with the data from on-board emissions
measurement systems and measure-
ments on the test bench, FIGURE 1. As
an additional data source, they make it
possible to detect differences compared
to standard test methods and to delve
ever deeper into the data analysis.
The resulting possibilities are many
and varied. For instance, the mass data
can be used to calculate the exhaust
emissions of vehicle fleets and com-
plete vehicle inventories. In addition,
the data can also be used to determine
the exhaust behavior of individual vehi-
cle types over their service life, in order
to optimize the drive train development.
It is also possible to assess the influence
of environmental and operating condi-
tions on emissions, so that anomalies
and outliers can be identified. Beyond
that, the data collection would enable
lawmakers to update the emission fac-
tors in a targeted manner and to exer-
cise control over regulatory measures.
Another possibility resulting from this
55
DE VELO PMENT SIMUL ATION AND TESTING

FIGURE 1 Combination of data from test bench measurements, on-board emissions

measurements, and SEMS measurements in a central database (© Horiba)

combination of data is the relatively
simple assessment of vehicles that are
currently not subject to any legally
prescribed ISC monitoring, such as vehi-
cles with high mileages of more than
150,000 km. The data is collected anony-
mously in order to meet data privacy
requirements.
plausibility; a transmitter module then
transmits the corrected data to a server
in the form of a Comma-separated Values
(CSV) file. FIGURE 3 shows an overview
of the structure and the individual com-
ponents of a SEMS.
Processing software is installed on
the server to collect and prepare the
data. Depending on the respective
measurement task, additional sensor
data can be integrated – for example
the exhaust gas temperature at the tail
pipe, exhaust gas pressure, ambient
pressure, or the GPS signal. The SEMS
data is then provided either as a cor-
rected CSV file, which contains the pure

SYSTEM DESIGN
AND FUNCTIONALIT Y

The paramount objective in developing

and designing the SEMS was to provide
a small, light, and economical system
for widespread use in the largest test
fleet possible. The hardware consists
of multiple sensors, which measure
exhaust pollutants (NOx and NH3) and
are installed either on an additional
pipe on the exhaust system or – prefe-
rably in a highly integrated approach –
on the exhaust pipe itself, FIGURE 2.
An important requirement in this con-
text is that the installed sensors do not
influence the exhaust behavior, which
is easier to achieve with a solution on
the exhaust pipe itself. Via the OBD
interface, in addition to the sensor sig-
nals, other driving data can be transmit-
ted to a data logger, which, for example,
can be located in the vehicle interior.
The control software of the data logger
consolidates and checks the data for FIGURE 2 Installation of the sensors of a SEMS on the exhaust pipe itself (© Horiba)

56
FIGURE 3 System design and components of a SEMS from collection to consolidation and analysis of the data (© Horiba)
emissions data, or it can be exported as a
graphical analysis or database. The data
analyses can then be the basis for more
in-depth studies and data compilations.
PRACTICAL EX AMPLES
This section presents examples of con-
crete test runs, which can offer options
for SEMS measurements. In order to
get the most differentiated and thus
informative exhaust gas values, Groß-
glockner High Alpine Road (Austria)
was selected as test field, because its
topology can be expected to provide
great variance in exhaust behavior.
MTZ worldwide 10|2019
As shown in FIGURE 4, the exhaust
behavior during the test drive is repre-
sented graphically on a map and illus-
trated at one-second intervals using a
color scale. The exact emissions data
to be displayed is basically a matter of
choice. In this case, tabs enable the user
to select from the values at the tail pipe
for CO2, NH3, and NOx; shown here are
the NOx values. The changes in the
colors illustrate that during the drive,
depending on location, the NOx emis-
sions cover the entire range from 0 to
10 mg/kg while driving downhill to
more than 150 mg/km for severe uphill
slopes. On the right, the calculated val-
ues for the drive are shown, in this
example the mean and maximum val-
ues for NOx, NH3, and CO2 emissions,
but also speed, ambient temperature,
humidity, and air pressure. In addi-
tion, other graphical illustrations can
be selected, for example, in order to
display additional route information,
such as the elevation profile. The illus-
trations can be zoomed on the screen
and are synchronized with one another.
Such a detailed illustration can
be seen in FIGURE 5. In this case, the
exhaust behavior relative to the route
profile can be read very precisely using
the five-level color scale. In addition,
FIGURE 4 Analysis of emissions
data using a test drive example
(© Horiba)
57
 DE VELO PMENT SIMUL ATION AND TESTING
FIGURE 5 Detailed illustration of a particular section of the route (© Horiba)
FIGURE 6 Illustration of the emissions data in a particular area on the basis of multiple trips (© Horiba)
the synchronization of data is also illus-
trated here: Clicking a point on the map
or on the graphical illustration displays
the corresponding point on the graphic
or the map. When the user clicks on a
maximum value in the graphical illus-
tration, for example, the corresponding
point is displayed on the map. In addi-
tion, with the aid of a mouseover effect,
the respective values up to a selected
58
point on the route can be listed, such
as the CO2, NH3, and NOx emissions, the
distance traveled, and fuel consumption.
Whereas the two previous examples
are based on a single trip, FIGURE 6
shows the combined emissions data
for multiple trips. This constitutes the
core purpose of SEMS measurements,
making it possible to illustrate emissions
under actual driving conditions in a par-
ticular area. The goal is to be able to
assess the influence of various condi-
tions, such as ambient temperatures,
speed limits, traffic lights, and personal
driving styles. However, for wide-scale
data collection, a corresponding mea-
surement fleet is needed.
SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK
SEMS provides a method for measur-
ing and assessing the actual emis-
sions behavior of a great number of
vehicles. For one thing, in the future,
these ana lyses will be able to reduce
the number of individual, complicated
RDE measurements. For another, this
will create a valid database for actual
analysis of the contribution of road
traffic to total emissions, meaning the
emission of pollutants into the ambi-
ent air. This would help the authorities
in communities, regions, and EU coun-
tries to get greater transparency regard-
ing the actual causes of air pollution
and contribute to the ability to take
effective measures to keep air clean.
Beyond that, the data collection would
enable lawmakers to update the immis-
sion factors in a targeted manner and
to exercise control over regulatory
measures.
In the initial stage, the SEMS was
developed for diesel motors; it is con-
ceivable, however, that it could be used
in the future for gasoline engines as
well, in order to expand the database.
In addition, a great variety of other
sensors can refine the measurements,
for instance to record particulate
mass (PM10 and PM2.5 and smaller),
as well as the number of particles.
However, the most important step is
to expand the fleet of measurement
vehicles in internal and external proj-
ects – for instance with vehicle manu-
facturers, testing organizations, and
authorities.
REFERENCE
[1] Tschöke, H.; et al. (ed.): Handbuch
Dieselmotoren. Wiesbaden: Springer
Fachmedien Wiesbaden, 2016
 Register now
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MTZ worldwide 10|2019 59

DE VELO PMENT SE ALINGS

ElroSeal-e – A New Standard

for Electric Drives © ElringKlinger Kunststofftechnik

Electric mobility and alternative drive systems are responses AUTHORS

to climate change, diminishing fossil resources, and local environ-

mental pollution. Electric motors form the basis of battery-powered,
fuel cell, and hybrid drives. ElringKlinger has developed a series
of gaskets for high-speed applications, based on the Speedflon
high-performance seals, especially for electric mobility. Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Uwe Koch
is the responsible Product
Engineer for Rotary Shaft Seals at
ElringKlinger Kunststofftechnik
GmbH in Bietigheim-Bissingen
(Germany).
HIGH SPEEDS even higher values. Extreme challenges
arise from the necessary shaft diameters
The trend is toward integrated e-axles, due to very high circumferential speeds
where the electric motor, transmission, in combination with operating condi-
and drive axle are combined in a single tions at high and low temperatures,
unit. At the transition between the elec- the required chemical resistance, and
tric motor and transmission, speeds of potential dry-running phases. Conven-
12,000 to 17,000 rpm create conditions tional elastomer rotary shaft seals reach Dr.-Ing. Uwe Wallner
is Head of Product Development at
that place substantially greater demands their limits here. ElringKlinger Kunststofftechnik
on the gasket than the speeds of a com- Based on experience with very high- GmbH in Bietigheim-Bissingen
bustion engine, and the trend is toward speed Speedflon rotary shaft seals [1] (Germany).

60
 for speeds exceeding 150,000 rpm, Recommended
ElringKlinger Engineered Plastics has Description Design example Special feature
circumferential speed
developed the new ElroSeal sealing sys-
tem modules, TABLE 1, to meet these diffi-
Reduced-friction
cult conditions for specific applications. ElroSeal-e 20 to 40 m/s
seal design
All seals can be optimized specifi-
cally for customers and adapted to the
required speeds and direction of rota-
tion. Spiral structures on the shaft, or ElroSeal-e
40 to 60 m/s Single-spring design
special profiling of the sealing lip, can Speedflon
generate a hydrodynamic transport effect
that further improves dynamic oil seal- Double-spring design
ing behavior. The benefit is that this is with patented pressure
possible with very low radial sealing Speedflon 60 to ≥ 100 m/s relief system for turbo-
chargers and other
lip contact pressure and low frictional applications
losses. Combined with ElringKlinger’s
alternating spiral design, the sealing TABLE 1 Representatives of the ElroSeal family of seals (© ElringKlinger)
function can be ensured in both direc-
tions of rotation.

TEST CYCLE freely programmable speed is 16,000 rpm

MATERIAL
The use of the right sealing lip material
also plays a critical role. ElroSeal seals
are produced with sealing lips made of
PTFE compounds. The fillers incorpo-
rated in the PTFE base material have
been adapted specifically to this applica-
tion by in-house material development.
Soft shafts can be sealed successfully
with the use of special filler materials.
Electrically conductive fillers can also be
incorporated in the sealing lip material
to prevent static charge buildup. The
best results with respect to wear under
dry running conditions were shown by
the material polytetraflon HS 22157,
which produced the results listed below.
To evaluate the sealing properties and
promote targeted further development,
ElringKlinger runs specially developed
rotary shaft seal test benches that can
map speeds of up to 150,000 rpm. The
results below were obtained using test
benches with a maximum speed of
50,000 rpm, designed especially for
applications in electric mobility.
Various approaches exist to determine
service life, leakage, or wear behavior.
There are manufacturer-specific test
cycles based on ISO 19865-4, FIGURE 1.
The test cycle shown describes a typi-
cal driving situation with city traffic,
country roads, and freeway portions. The
at maximum, the medium temperature is
135 °C, the pressure corresponds to the
ambient pressure. This cycle is repeated
until the required test duration has been
reached. FIGURE 2 shows the result of the
wear test.
FRICTIONAL LOSS AND WEAR
The wear curve shows a typical pattern
for rotary shaft seals, with greater wear
during the run-in phase and asymptotic
behavior toward the end. Rotary shaft
seals lubricated with oil were investi-
gated. Wear behavior with insufficient
lubrication, and partial dry running, is
shown in the limit curve.

20,000 200

15,000 150
Shaft speed [rpm]

Temperature [°C]

10,000 100

5000 50

0 0

Rotation speed Temperature

-5000 -50
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Duration [min]
FIGURE 1 Temperature and speed cycle per ISO 19865-4 (© ElringKlinger)

MTZ worldwide 10|2019 61

 DE VELO PMENT SE ALINGS

100
Test with rotation speed cycle Limit curve
90

80

70
Remaining seal lip [%]

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000
Duration [h]
FIGURE 2 Wear curve for ElroSeal-e with 38 mm shaft diameter; speed cycle per ISO 19865-4 up to 16,000 rpm
(© ElringKlinger)

The frictional loss of a rotary shaft seal
is critical to its functional behavior. Too
much frictional loss can cause high tem-
peratures, leading to rapid failure of the
sealing system. The frictional losses of
ElroSeal seals at various speeds are shown
in FIGURE 3. Regardless of the direction of
rotation, the frictional loss increases as
speed increases at a constant temperature.
At an increased temperature of 135 °C, the
seal shows permissible levels of frictional
loss. This means that the seal functions
without leaking, even under deteriorating
lubrication conditions.
ElroSeal rotary shaft seals demonstrate
only a slight decrease in radial sealing
lip contact pressure with very low fric-
tional loss after running with oil or dry,
FIGURE 4. The comparison with an elastic
sealing lip material shows significantly
higher residual force here.
ElroSeal PTFE rotary shaft seals
demonstrate a significantly lower drop in
radial force, both in lubricated and dry
conditions, in comparison with the mea-
sured elastomer rotary shaft seal.
STATIC LEAK TIGHTNESS
In addition to the dynamic properties,
static leak tightness is another signifi-
cant property when considering the sys-
tem. Static sealing behavior of the shaft
seal is determined in part by pressing
the seal into the installation space. This
property is checked with a static air leak
test on the test bench or as an end-of-line
test during assembly. Static leak tight-
ness is tested according to an internal
standard at a temperature of 23 °C and
test air overpressure of 0.2 bar after 5 s.
The maximum permissible pressure drop
is 0.05 bar.
In application, the shaft seals are
typically pressed into aluminum in-
stallation spaces. The ElroSeal design
has been customized for this applica-
tion in terms of press-in force and static
sealing behavior. This means that Elro-
Seal seals can be used in aluminum
installation spaces, even with subop-

140 140
120 120
Friction power [W]

Temperature [°C]

100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
-5000 8000 16,000 16,000
Rotation speed [rpm]
Temperature Friction power
FIGURE 3 Frictional loss at various speeds and temperatures; ElroSeal-e with 38 mm shaft diameter; constant speed per DIN 3760 (© ElringKlinger)

62
 installation space was measured again
in the region of the press-in surface.
100
With a surface roughness of Rz 6.9 µm,
Remaining radial force [%]

Dry running Oil running significant smoothing of the aluminum

80
surface was evident. The special outer
60 geometry produced compression of the
aluminum installation space without
40 forming chips. When the seal is pressed
out afterward, running counter to the
20 press-in direction, only a slightly lower
press-out force was measured in compar-
0 ison with the press-in force, FIGURE 5.
ElroSeal Elastomer RWDR The percentage contact area increas-
FIGURE 4 Radial force after 100 h of testing under dry-running and oil-lubricated es in the example shown from 22.2 to
conditions, after running the test cycle for 100 h at a maximum of 16,000 rpm 84.8 %. Static leak tests demonstrate
(© ElringKlinger)
that ElroSeal rotary shaft seals fulfill
the requirements for static leaktight-
ness without any additional elastic
housing coating.
timal surface roughness in the instal- ness. Tests show no problems when
lation space and without additional installing ElroSeal-e in aluminum
SUMMARY
elastic coatings on the outer diameter installation space with high rough-
of the housing. ness. An elastomeric layer at the ElroSeal rotary shaft seals demonstrate
This has the advantage that critical outer diameter is not necessary. excellent leakage behavior, even in the
conditions can be avoided after tempe- To test this, ElroSeal seals with conditions required for electric mobility.
rature effects, aging, or chemical ex- stainless steel housings were pressed After long periods of dry running, the
posure in comparison with elastomer- into an aluminum installation space shaft seal still holds up without leak ing
coated outer housings, by reducing with a uniform H8 borehole. The outer in a subsequent oil run. By smoothing
press-in force. In the example above, surface roughness of the shaft seal was the aluminum installation space, the
the press-out force after the test cycle produced at a standard surface rough- ElroSeal-e rotary shaft seal places no
(100 h, 135 °C, transmission oil) was ness of ≤ Rz 8 µm. The inner aluminum special requirements on the surface
determined as only 23 % of the press- surface is produced in a turning process there. The sealing concept is also ideal
in force. ElroSeal PTFE rotary shaft with a surface roughness of Rz 21.1 µm. for very high-speed applications due
seals demonstrated very good residual To evaluate the press-in conditions, an to its low and constant frictional loss
force, at 67 % press-out force to press- average press fit was set up between the and very good wear resistance over the
in force. outer diameter of the seal housing and required service life. For these reasons,
Much discussed is the influence the diameter of the installation space. ElroSeal rotary shaft seals are already
of the surface conditions of the in- After pressing in the seal with about in use in many electric mobility
stallation space on static leak tight- 6000 N, the surface of the aluminum applications.

REFERENCE
[1] Cankar, M.; Koch, U.: New Radial Shaft Seals
for Turbo Applications. In: MTZworldwide 11/2016,
(a)
pp. 56-60
Surface roughness [μm]

20.00
μm
0

-20.00

(b)
Surface roughness [μm]

10.00
μm
0

-10.00

FIGURE 5 Surface roughness of the installation space before installation (a)

and after installation (b) (© ElringKlinger)

MTZ worldwide 10|2019 63

DE VELO PMENT FUEL S

Element Contents in Biodiesel

© DBFZ

The Arbeitsgemeinschaft Qualitätsmanagement Biodiesel e. V. tity of renewable fuel actually used is

lower. Besides, the maximum contribu-
(AGQM) has regularly carried out unannounced samplings among
tion of selected options to attain this tar-
their members (biodiesel producers and traders) for years now. The get is limited. The FQD stipulates that
analysis results thus gained have allowed the developers of vehicles, the greenhouse gas reduction caused by
fuel is to amount to at least 6 % in 2020
engines and exhaust gas aftertreatment systems a realistic overview by using biofuels compared with the fos-
about the actual contents of inorganic elements in biodiesel. sil reference, while no relevant target has
been defined for 2030 yet. In Germany,
both the RED and the FQD are imple-
mented in the Federal Emissions Con-
trol Act. The national implementation
MOTIVATION than 80 % until the new fuels are avail- of RED II is still pending [6].
able in sufficient quantity and quality, so At the same time, the pollutant emis-
Combustion engines and especially the that fossil resources can be saved [5]. The sion limits of vehicles operated with
diesel engine have been in the focus of use of pure biodiesel (Fatty Acid Methyl heavy-duty and light-duty diesel engines
criticism since the scandal called diesel Ester, FAME) is particularly attractive in are continuously being tightened. The
gate. The future is likely to be a mixture individual traffic sectors, such as for agri- use of exhaust gas aftertreatment sys-
of e-mobility and hybrid drives, involving cultural equipment, but also in the con- tems, such as Diesel Particle Filters (DPF)
various types of renewable fuels. Pure text of a closed energy circuit. or Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR), is
combustion engines will necessarily It is the provisions of the Renewable obligatory in order to comply with these
continue to operate in individual fields Energy Directive (RED, 2009/28/EC) exhaust gas limits. The introduction of
of application (maritime, air and heavy- and of the Fuel Quality Directive (FQD, RDE tests for passenger cars or of in-ser-
duty traffic, mobile heavy-duty working 2009/30/EG) that are largely applicable vice conformity tests for heavy-duty en-
machinery). Intensive research is there- to Europe. The RED stipulates a share gines for the purpose of type approvals
fore going on in many places in the fields of at least 10 % of renewable energies makes these exhaust gas aftertreatment
of power-based and, further ahead, CO2- for the traffic sector in 2020. The RED II systems even more complex, in order to
neutral types of fuel [1–4]. The substitu- (Directive EU 2018/2001), in effect from be able to comply with these limits in
tion of fuel based on mineral oil through 2021, stipulates an increase of this share each operating cycle. The use of these
biofuels is an effective measure to to 14 % by 2030. As a result of crediting complex exhaust gas aftertreatment sys-
achieve greenhouse gas savings of more various options several times, the quan- tems that are operated with biodiesel is
64
 AUTHORS
Dipl.-Ing. Jörg Schröder
is responsible for research
concerning motor fuels and
the engine test bench in the
department biorefineries at the
DBFZ in Leipzig (Germany).
Maren Dietrich, M. Sc.
is responsible for quality assurance
at AGQM Biodiesel e. V. in Berlin
(Germany).
Dipl.-Ing. Markus Winkler
is responsible for fuels and biofuels
at Deutz AG in Cologne (Germany).
Dr. Richard Wicht
is Managing Director at AGQM
Biodiesel e. V. in Berlin (Germany).
generally considered with a critical eye in
view of their exposure to inorganic ele-
ments. The European biodiesel standard
EN 14214 regulates these parameters fun-
damentally, so as to get qualities that are
comparable with conventional diesel fuel
according to EN 590. Limits conforming
to the current state of measurement tech-
nology are specifically set for the inor-
ganic elements of sodium, potassium, cal-
cium, magnesium, phosphorus and sul-
fur. If these limits were actually reached,
it would result in reducing the efficiency
of the aftertreatment systems [7]. The
inorganic elements could generate ashes
(for example oxides) during the combus-
tion process in the engine which, as a
result, will block the particle filter or neu-
tralize, due to their alkaline properties,
MTZ worldwide 10|2019
FIGURE 1 Annual average values of alkali metals (© AGQM)
the reaction centers of the SCR catalysts.
It will also lead to sintering or to damage
of wash coats, so that the efficiency of the
catalysts is permanently impaired [8–10].
ELEMENT CONTENTS IN BIODIESEL
Between 2011 and 2018, an annual quan-
tity of biodiesel ranging from 68 to 87 PJ
was marketed in Germany [6]. During
this period the AGQM took more than
670 biodiesel samples in unannounced
sample tests at their members and ana-
lyzed these samples. More than 4000
analysis data sets of metal, phosphorus
and sulfur contents found in the bio-
diesel were collected during these tests.
The results of these sample tests have
been published annually since 2010 in a
quality report and additionally in the
form of an overview paper since 2016.
The element contents of alkali met-
als, alkaline earth metals and phospho-
rus are determined by Inductively Cou-
pled Plasma with Optical Emission Spec-
trometry (ICP-OES) according to DIN
EN 14538 for alkali and alkaline earth
metals and according to DIN EN 14107
for phosphorus. The sulfur content is
determined by ultraviolet fluorescence
spectroscopy (DIN EN ISO 20846). Alkali
metals can get into the product as cat-
alysts, when potassium or sodium hy-
droxides or methylates are used dur-
ing the biodiesel production. Residues
thereof exist mainly in the form of
soaps that have not been completely
removed in the scrubbing process. On
the other hand, alkaline earth metals,
such as calcium and magnesium, are
introduced into the biodiesel either
with the raw material or by using non-
softened water in the scrubbing process.
FIGURE 1 and FIGURE 2 show the
annual mean values of the alkali metal
and alkaline earth metal contents in bio-
diesel. According to the currently valid
biodiesel standard DIN EN 14214, the ad-
missible limit for the total alkali metal or
alkaline earth metal content is 5 mg/kg.
The mean values of < 1.0 mg/kg for
alkali metals and < 0.3 mg/kg for al-
kaline earth metals are clearly below
the limits specified in the standard.
While a difference can be made be-
tween the two elements potassium
and sodium among the alkali metals,
the annual mean values for calcium
and magnesium and, additionally from
2015, the total values of both metals are
typically below the determination limit
of 0.1 mg/kg.
FIGURE 3 shows the annual mean val-
ues for the phosphorus content. Accord-
ing to DIN EN 14214, the admissible
limit is 4 mg/kg. The phosphorus con-
tent must already be taken into consid-
eration when selecting the raw material,
since plant-based oils may contain phos-
pholipids. Phosphorus can also get into
the biodiesel when using phosphoric
acid during the neutralization. However,
since it can be easily removed by wash-
ing with water, the phosphorus content,
which with an average of < 0.7 mg/kg
is clearly below the limit as specified
in the standard, can be attributed to
natural sources.
65
DE VELO PMENT FUEL S
FIGURE 2 Annual average values of alkaline earth metals (© AGQM)
FIGURE 3 Annual average values of phosphorus (© AGQM)
Both DIN EN 14214 and DIN EN 590
limit the content of sulfur, an abso-
lute catalyst poison, to a maximum
of 10 mg/kg. Mineral diesel must
be desulfurized in an expensive and
laborious procedure. The sulfur in the
biodiesel originates usually from the
raw material used. During their growth,
plants are absorbing sulfur compounds,
with the sulfur content usually ranging
between 2 and 7 mg/kg. Animal fat and
Used Cooking Oil (UCO) contain sulfur
in the form of protein compounds, where
the concentration with up to 30 mg/kg
is clearly higher. The sulfur content
can be reduced markedly by cleaning
or distilling the biodiesel properly. The
annual mean values for the sulfur con-
66
tent in the biodiesel samples are shown
in FIGURE 4, with the contents leveling far
below the limit specified in the standards.
EFFECTS ON THE EXHAUST
GAS AFTERTREATMENT SYSTEMS
The efficiency of exhaust gas aftertreat-
ment systems will decrease irrecover-
ably over the time as a result of thermal,
chemical and mechanical stress that
causes a deactivation of the catalytically
active centers. Typical thermal deactiva-
tion mechanisms are the sintering of
precious metal particles and wash coats,
precious metal oxidation or the forma-
tion of metal alloys. Chemical deactiva-
tion is caused by (ir)reversible poisoning
and chemical blockage, by mechanical
deactivation through abrasion, by coking
and insufficient stability. The ingress of
toxic elements from fuels is therefore one
of the deactivation causes [10].
The reduced service life of DPFs is
usually caused by a continuous expo-
sure to inorganic residues (ashes) which,
in turn, can mechanically block the
filter surface within the filter. Major
sources are, apart from the fuel, the
engine oil used and abrasion from the
engine itself. Ashes, on the other hand,
are generated by the combustion of com-
pounds from P, S, Zn, Ca, Mg, Al, Si and
Fe and settle in the form of calcium
phosphate or zinc pyrophosphate in the
DPF, to name just two examples. Nei-
ther the active nor the passive regene-
ration of the filter can dissolve these
blockages [8, 9].
Diesel Oxidation Catalysts (DOC) are
mainly deactivated due to the precious
metal particles being sintered at tem-
peratures of over 600 °C. However, some
of the elements referred to above also
influence the catalyst behavior at the
DOC. It has been observed, among other
things, that sulfates can reduce the spe-
cific surface as a result of pores being
blocked and that sulfates react with the
precious metals, so that the catalyst’s
deactivation is further accelerated. It is
also known, contrary to the above, that
phosphorus most of all all changes the
platinum particle morphology of the pre-
cious metal particles by forming alumi-
num phosphate on the carrier material,
by which, at least partly, the agglomera-
tion of the platinum particles is posi-
tively counteracted [9].
Vanadium-based SCR catalysts are,
above all, deactivated by alkali metals
and alkaline earth metals. They bind
and block the Brønsted-acid centers
which reduces their capacity to adsorb
ammonia. In this respect, potassium
shows the strongest interaction with
the acid centers. It can be said in gen-
eral about Vanadium-based SCR cata-
lysts that the basicity of the relevant
elements will determine the deactiva-
tion potential (K > Na > Ca > Mg) [9].
As far as zeolite-based SCR catalysts
are concerned, alkali metals and alka-
line earth metals are also known as
so-called storage poisons which, like in
vanadium-based SCR catalysts, reduce
the density of acidic centers, so that less
ammonia can be adsorbed. Depending

FIGURE 4 Annual average values of sulfur (© AGQM)
on the zeolite type used, thermal effects
may also influence the stability [9].
If the limits for the elements described
herein and required in DIN EN 14214
were reached, it would have a very high
poisoning effect or result in a high accu-
mulation, so that the use of biodiesel in
engines with SCR catalysts and DPF were
impossible [7]. The values gained from
the AGQM sample tests show the element
contents being clearly below the required
limits, somewhere in the range of diesel
fuel values, FIGURE 5. Therefore, it can
be concluded that the deactivation of the
catalyst system will not be more potent
when biodiesel is used than during the
operation with diesel fuel. Besides, field
tests of the Deutz AG have shown that
FIGURE 5 Comparison of the potential element load of exhaust aftertreatment systems by fuels (© AGQM)
MTZ worldwide 10|2019
the analyzed B0 and B7 fuels can have
higher element contents than the bio-
diesel of the AGQM members.
A lower element load from bio-
diesel has also been confirmed within
the FVV/FNR research project “Diesel Kat
Aging,” in the course of which DOC and
SCR catalysts have been aged for about
1000 operating hours on an engine test
bench with biodiesel according to DIN EN
14214 and examined subsequently with
regard to the catalyst behavior. Only min-
imal differences as regards the HC/CO
conversion and the light-off temperatures
at the DOC as well as the NO conversion
at the SCR have been established com-
pared with the relevant fresh materi-
als during the period under review [9].
SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK
The evaluation of the data from the
unannounced sample tests in the years
between 2011 and 2018 shows that the
actual values of the element content in
biodiesel are clearly below the relevant
limits specified in the standards. From
this it can be concluded that the element
load of the exhaust gas aftertreatment
system will not be higher when operat-
ing with biodiesel than with diesel fuel.
The AGQM will continue carrying out
unannounced sample tests among their
members to track and monitor the devel-
opment of biodiesel quality and publish
it in the annual quality report.
REFERENCES
[1] Omari, A.; Heuser, B.; Wiartalla, A.; Schönen,
M.: Electricity-generated Fuels for Mobile Machin-
ery. In: MTZworldwide 12/2018, pp. 60-65
[2] Auer, M.; Ganzer, G.; Müller-Baum, P.; Stiesch,
G.: Synthetic Fuels in Large Engines – How Inter-
nal Combustion Engines Become CO 2-neutral.
In: MTZworldwide 03/2019, pp. 48-51
[3] Joint project, Closed Carbon Cycle Mobility –
Climate Neutral Fuels for the Traffic of the Future,
funding reference 03EIV021C. Online: https://
www.owi-aachen.de/de/forschung-entwicklung/
brenn-kraftstoffe/projekte-zu-brenn-kraft-und
-schmierstoffen/c3-mobility/, access: May 13, 2019
[4] Wollmerstädt, H.; Kuchling, T.; Dombrowski, L.;
Petrick, I.; Kureti, S.: Flüssige Energieträger aus
Mikroalgen. In: EEK, 135 th Year, Issue 1 (2019),
pp. 27-34
[5] Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und
Ernährung, BLE, Referat 221: Evaluations- und
Erfahrungsbericht für das Jahr 2017. Bonn, 2018
[6] Naumann, K.; Schröder, J.; Oehmichen, K.;
Etzold, H.; Müller-Langer, F.; Remmele, E.; Thuneke,
K.; Raksha, T.; Schmidt, P.: DBFZ Report No. 11,
Monitoring Biokraftstoffsektor. 4 th edition. Leipzig,
2019
[7] Knuth, H.-W.; Stein, H.; Wilharm, T.; Winkler,
M.: Element Pollution of Exhaust Aftertreatment
Systems By Using Biodiesel. In: MTZworldwide
06/2012, pp. 20-25
[8] Dittler, A.; Gärtner, U.: Ascheentfernung aus
Partikelfiltern durch Flüssigreinigung. 11th FAD-
Conference The Challenge – Exhaust Aftertreat-
ment for Diesel Engines. Dresden, 2013
[9] Eschrich, R.; Worch, D.; Böhm, J.; Hartmann, F.;
Schröder, J.; Müller-Langer, F.; Gläser, R.: Aging of
Diesel Exhaust Catalysts in Use with Biofuels.
Final Report. Leipzig, 2014
[10] Lanzerath, P.: Alterungsmechanismen von
Abgaskatalysatoren für Nutzfahrzeug-Diesel-
motoren. Darmstadt, Technical University,
Dissertation, 2011
THANKS
Special thanks go to our colleagues Dr. Kati Görsch
and Dr. Franziska Müller-Langer (DBFZ) and Analytik-
Service Gesellschaft ASG for the determination of
the database.
67
DE VELO PMENT FUEL S

EFFICIENCY. ECONOMY. MOBILITY.

A secure future – the challenge facing the developers of mobile machines and commercial vehicles is to acquire the knowledge
they will need tomorrow without losing sight of future technologies. Companies can only protect their investment in modern
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knowledge from the fields of research and development and reports on the entire spectrum of commercial vehicle technology both
on and off the road. In addition to the print edition, we offer an interactive e-magazine. You can also benefit from the extensive
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 ON OUR OWN

New MTZ Conference Encourages

Interdisciplinary Cooperation
The Expert Forum Powertrain
is a new platform for special-
ists in powertrain technology.
The established conferences
on Charge Cycle and Emission
Control, Friction in the Power-
train and Vehicle, and Simu-
lation and Testing are being
merged under one roof. The aim
is to promote interdisciplinary

© ATZlive| Alex Kraus

cooperation and strengthen
systems thinking.

The continued success of our mechanical engineering-based
automotive sector will depend on finding the optimum solutions
for the (partial) electrification of powertrains and the use of new
fuels. What is more, the connectivity of powertrain and vehicle
systems is becoming increasingly important – and this is in the
context of new legislation, more critical environmental issues,
and a demand for sustainability.
The important interconnection of sub-disciplines and the need
to strengthen systems thinking motivated the ATZlive conference
advisory boards and experts to merge the established conferences
on “Charge Cycle and Emission Control”, “Friction in the Power-
train and Vehicle”, and “Simulation and Testing” into a single
event: the “Expert Forum Powertrain”. The unique character of
the three conferences and their level of technical depth will
remain unchanged.
The 12th MTZ Conference “Charge Cycle and Emission Con-
trol” will focus on electrified powertrains, complete system
optimization, charge exchange and load control, supercharging,
emission control, and components. The topics of the 8th ATZ
Conference “Friction in the Powertrain and Vehicle” will include
complete system optimization, electrified powertrains, internal
combustion engines, transmissions and axle drives, tribology,
and thermal management. The 21st MTZ Conference “Simulation
and Testing” will examine such subjects as powertrains, RDE,
the interconnection of simulation and testing, complete systems,
and NVH.

Expert Forum Powertrain

Date: October 23 and 24, 2019

Location: Congress Park Hanau, near Frankfurt a. M.
Networking Dinner: Schloss Philippsruhe Hanau
Conference Fee: € 1,295.00 plus VAT
Top Speakers: Prof. Dr. Peter Gutzmer, Schaeffler; Dr. Bruno Kistner, Porsche; Jörg Rückauf, Mahle
Cooperation Partner: APL, AVL, FEV, Mahle, Schaeffler
Registration: https://www.atzlive.de/veranstaltungen/ladungswechsel-und-emissionierung/
https://www.atzlive.de/veranstaltungen/reibung-in-antrieb-und-fahrzeug/
https://www.atzlive.de/veranstaltungen/simulation-und-test/

MTZ worldwide 10|2019 69

RESE ARCH FUEL S AND LUBRICANTS

Low-emission Fuel with High Biogenic

Content and High Oxidation Stability

Compared to fossil diesel fuel, biodiesel has significantly lower carbon monoxide, particulate mass and
hydrocarbon emissions. In contrast, however, there are higher nitrogen oxide emissions and a reduced
aging stability. In a joint research project, the Transfer Center for Automotive Technology at Coburg
University (TAC) and the University of Applied Sciences and Arts in Lemgo (Germany) have analyzed how
the oxidation stabilization of biodiesel by hydrazides can be further improved.

AUTHORS

Dr. Ferdinand Bär

is Guest Scientist at
the Transfer Center for
Automotive Technology
at Coburg University of
Applied Sciences and
Arts (TAC) (Germany).

Dr. Olaf Schröder

is Senior Scientist at
the Transfer Center for
Automotive Technology
at Coburg University
of Applied Sciences and
Arts (TAC) (Germany).

Prof. Dr. Jürgen Krahl

is President of the
Uni versity of Applied
Sciences and Arts
in Lemgo (Germany).

© TAC

70
1 MOTIVATION
2 HYDR A ZIDES AS FUEL ADDITIVES
3 USE OF HYDR A ZIDES TO REDUCE NITRO GEN OXIDE EMIS SIONS
4 USE OF HYDR A ZIDES TO STABILIZE OXIDATION
5 SUMMARY
1 MOTIVATION
The discussion about statutory limits on NOx emissions and the
demand for technical solutions to keep diesel engine emissions
within these limits show the importance of researching and further
developing technologies aimed at reducing emissions from com-
bustion engines. In this regard, the focus is usually placed on solu-
tions for an engine’s interior (such as exhaust gas recirculation or
targeted adjustment of fuel injection), solutions for other parts of
a vehicle (in the form of exhaust gas treatment), or replacement
of combustion engines with electric motors. Until now, less atten-
tion has been given to low-emission fuels, even though research
in this area has already produced many promising results.
Many studies have shown that biodiesel produces significantly
less carbon monoxide, particulate matter and hydrocarbons than
petrodiesel during combustion, thereby contributing to emissions
reduction [1]. However, using biodiesel in engines not optimized
for the fuel may increase NOx emissions. Furthermore, biodiesel
is more prone to oxidative aging, which causes the fuel to have
decreased storage stability and necessitates the use of additives
to counteract the problem. To allow fuels to have a high biodiesel
content despite these issues, additives had been developed to
reduce NOx emissions as well as to increase the fuel’s storage sta-
bility. The promising results are a milestone in the development
of fuels with low NOx emissions suitable for use in cities.
The lower storage stability of biodiesel via-à-vis petrodiesel is
due to the unsaturated hydrocarbon compounds that make bio-
diesel more susceptible to oxidation reactions. Allylic and bis-
allylic C-H bonds are especially prone to oxidation [2]. Biodiesel
contains a high level of fatty acid methyl esters with such C-H
bonds (approximately 90 % in Rapeseed oil Methyl Esters, RME).
Radical abstraction of hydrogen atoms at these sites can initiate
autoxidation chain reactions, which lead to the formation of
organic acids, short-chain by-products, and long-chain molecules.
This can negatively affect a fuel’s corrosiveness, cetane number,
viscosity and ability to pass through filters. In addition, the reac-
tion between fatty acid methyl esters and oxygen causes a fuel’s
polarity to increase, which may result in phase separation in mix-
tures of non-polar paraffinic diesel and aged biodiesel [3]. For
typical storage durations, this oxidative ageing of fuel can be alle-
viated by adding antioxidants. Antioxidants can donate hydrogen
MTZ worldwide 10|2019
radicals, which can form stable products with radicals resulting
from autoxidation. The remaining antioxidant radicals are stabi-
lized through steric or mesomeric effects, allowing them to stop
the autoxidation chain reactions.
However, additional measures, such as increasing the concen-
tration of antioxidants, must be taken if a fuel containing biodiesel
is expected to remain unused for long periods. For example, this
may happen in plug-in hybrid vehicles whose batteries are regu-
larly charged on the power grid, which means that the combustion
engine is rarely used and the fuel may stay in its tank for a long
time. As the number of new plug-in hybrid vehicles registered in
the past years [4] continues to grow, this issue will become increas-
ingly relevant.
Why NOx emissions increase slightly when biodiesel is burned
is not yet fully understood in the current state of research. It is
known, however, that introducing additives to diesel fuel can
reduce NOx emissions. For example, Varatharajan et al. (2011) [5]
showed that at a concentration of 0.025 % (m/m), aminic antiox-
idants such as p-phenylenediamine can reduce NOx emissions by
up to 43 %. Using the antioxidant N,N′-diphenyl-1,4-phenylendi-
amine (DPPD) at concentrations of 0.2 % (m/m), Varatharajan and
Cheralathan (2013) [6] were able to achieve a reduction in NOx
emissions of about 26 %. Palash et al. (2014) [7] demonstrated
that a 16.54 % reduction in NOx emissions could be achieved
using 0.15 % (m/m) DPPD in a mixture of 80 % diesel and 20 %
jatropha oil methyl ester. In 2013, Von İleri and Koçar [8] pub-
lished a study involving engine tests that investigated the effect
of the phenolic antioxidants butylhydroxyanisole (BHA), butylhy-
droxytoluene (BHT) and tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) as well as
of the nitrogen-containing substance 2-ethylhexyl nitrate (EHN)
on emissions. In the study, a 4.63 % reduction in NOx emissions
could be achieved using EHN. The study also showed that the
phenolic antioxidants were able to reduce NOx emissions. The
reduction in NOx emissions is explained by the antioxidants’ radical-
scavenging properties. The stabilization of radicals can, as a result,
FIGURE 1 Surface charge density of acethydrazide: red areas depict
negative partial charges, blue areas positive partial charges (© TAC)
71
RESE ARCH FUEL S AND LUBRICANTS

FIGURE 2 Possible modifications for formation of hydrogen bridge bonds between acethydrazide molecules (© TAC)

not only occur during oxidation reactions, but also interfere with lyzer) combustion chamber manufactured by ASG Analytik-Service
the chemistry of combustion and inhibit the formation of NOx. GmbH. This chamber simulates combustion inside a diesel engine
under isometric conditions and without intake air swirl during the
loading and injection process. The use of the AFIDA combustion
2 HYDRA ZIDES AS FUEL ADDITIVES
chamber for testing NOx emissions can be traced back to Tanugula
The studies presented here are based on experiments by Krahl et (2010) [11], who was the first to perform tests on stearic acid
al. (2010) [9], which showed that NOx emissions can be cut by up hydrazide for the purpose of NOx reduction.
to 45 % in combustion chamber tests by adding stearic acid hydra- One particular advantage of the combustion chamber tests is
zide at a concentration of 2 % (m/m). The reduction in NOx emis- that only a small amount of fuel is required for measurements.
sions is the result of hydrazide decomposing during combustion The amount of fuel required is at most around 40 to 50 ml;
into hydrazine, which then breaks down into NH2, which reacts this is over 1000 times lower than the amount required for per-
with NOx to form N2 and H2O. It should be noted that NOx reduc- forming similar tests using complete engines. Therefore, the
tion according to this mechanism can only take place stoichiomet- hydrazides only had to be synthesized in small batches; this is
rically. Each hydrazide group deployed can reduce at most two advantageous as the synthesis processes can sometimes be
NOx molecules.
However, the stearic acid hydrazide used by Krahl et al. (2010)
[9] is very poorly soluble in non-polar or partially polar solvents
such as petrodiesel or biodiesel. This poor solubility of hydrazides
is due to their quadrupole nature, FIGURE 1, which causes them
to have a high potential to form strong hydrogen bridge bonds,
FIGURE 2. Krahl et al. (2010) [9] overcame this problem by adding
high concentrations of solubilizers. And because these solubilizers
had to be used at concentrations of up to 2 % (m/m), they consti-
tuted a rather significant component in the fuel. As such, it
seemed worthwhile to further develop hydrazides in terms of their
solubility. In this study, the chemical structure of hydrazides
was altered, and the effectiveness of the modified hydrazides
were tested.
The hydrazides presented here have a solubility of at least
7.26 mmol/kg in the biodiesel fuels tested. Depending on the
molar mass of the additives, this corresponds to an adjusted con-
centration of around 1000 ppm. Improvement in solubility was
achieved by surrounding the hydrazide group with sterically
demanding molecular groups to prevent the formation of hydrogen
bridge bonds, FIGURE 3 [10].

3 USE OF HYDRA ZIDES TO REDUCE

NITROGEN OXIDE EMISSIONS

Hydrazides that do not require solubilizers to dissolve in biodiesel FIGURE 3 Hydrazides with a solubility of at least 7.26 mmol/kg in biodiesel
were tested using an AFIDA (Advanced Fuel Ignition Delay Ana- (© TAC)

72

time-consuming. FIGURE 4 shows the schematic diagram of the
combustion chamber.
The combustion chamber tests showed that adding hydrazides
to RME at a concentration far below the 2 % (m/m) used by Krahl
et al. (2010) could reduce NOx emissions, FIGURE 5 and FIGURE 6.
NOx emissions were reduced by approximately 10 % by adding
0.1 % (m/m) benzoic acid hydrazide or 0.1 % (m/m) phenylacetic
acid hydrazide. However, after the injection system on the com-
bustion chamber was modified to significantly increase the ignition
delay, these results could not be reproduced; likewise, the addi-
tion of the phenolic antioxidants used in the abovementioned stud-
ies (such as BHT) yielded no reduction in NOx emissions. The
results obtained before the modification suggest that the mecha-
nism proposed by Krahl et al. (2010) seemed implausible. This is
because the results cannot be explained by a mass balance of the
reduced NOx and by the number of hydrazide molecules used in
a stoichiometric reaction. In view of this, it is proposed that
another mechanism is responsible for the effect of antioxidants in
the reduction of NOx. The approach to explaining the mechanism
is based on the fact that, as with antioxidants, hydrazides too have
radical-scavenging properties, which interferes with the combus-
tion chemistry. After the combustion chamber was modified there
was no NOx reduction, because the NOx-reducing species must be
MTZ worldwide 10|2019
FIGURE 4 Schematic diagram of
the AFIDA combustion chamber
(© H. Stein, Analytik
Service Gesellschaft)
present during NOx formation for them to effectively reduce NOx
molecules. Owing to the longer ignition delay, these species may
already have decomposed or been oxidized themselves before they
could interfere with the combustion chemistry.
4 USE OF HYDRA ZIDES TO STABILIZE OXIDATION
To demonstrate any possible radical-scavenging properties they
may have, the hydrazides were tested, analogously to antioxidants,
for their oxidation-stabilizing characteristics. These experiments
were carried out using the Rancimat test as specified in DIN EN
15751 and the PetroOxy test as specified in DIN EN 16091. These
techniques thermo-oxidatively accelerate the aging of fuels, yield-
ing what is known an induction period, which is an indicator of a
fuel’s storage stability.
It was shown that hydrazides at a concentration of 7.26 mmol/kg
(≌ 1000 ppm) significantly increased the oxidation stability of
the RME tested and that its effectiveness is comparable to com-
mercially available antioxidants such as butylhydroxytoluene,
FIGURE 7. The antioxidative effect of hydrazides can be explained
by the fact that hydrogen radicals can split from the hydrazide
group and that these radicals, as with aminic antioxidants, are
then able to interfere with oxidation chain reactions.
73
RESE ARCH FUEL S AND LUBRICANTS
FIGURE 5 AFIDA combustion chamber measurements
with benzoic acid hydrazide in RME (© TAC)
FIGURE 6 AFIDA combustion chamber measurements
with phenylacetic acid hydrazide in RME (© TAC)
74
To rule out any interactions with antioxidants that naturally occur
in biodiesel, such as tocopherols, oxidation stability experiments
were also performed with distilled RME. Because of the absence
of naturally occurring antioxidants, the distilled RME showed no
oxidation stability in the Rancimat test and only very low oxidation
stability in the PetroOxy test. These tests were also performed on
2,4,6-tris-isopropylbenzoic acid hydrazide; this substance was
synthesized for this purpose using a complex method and was
especially optimized for good solubility and oxidation stability [12].
The hydrazide groups are shielded by the sterically demanding
isopropyl groups located close to them, which hinders the forma-
tion of hydrogen bridge bonds and significantly improves the sol-
ubility. The isopropyl groups also stabilize the radical hydrazide
group after the hydrazide group has donated a hydrogen radical,
thereby also increasing the antioxidation potential, FIGURE 8.
5 SUMMARY
In summary, the lower oxidation stability of biodiesel compared
with petrodiesel can be considerably improved by using hydra-
zides. Furthermore, other results suggest that hydrazides can also
reduce NOx emissions in the presence of conditions that are opti-
mal for the release of the active species. Future research in the
field of hydrazides must concentrate on further improving their
antioxidation potential and on studying their NOx-reducing prop-
erties using engine tests. The study showed that oxidation stability
can be further improved by designing hydrazides for this specific
purpose, e.g. steric shielding of the hydrazide group. This will also
improve the solubility of the hydrazides in question, enabling them
to be used at higher concentrations or in fuel mixtures with a low
or even no biodiesel content. For example, this is beneficial for
applications where hydrazides are used to reduce NOx emissions
of paraffinic biofuels, such as Hydrogenated Vegetable Oils (HVO).
The results of this study show that there still remains potential
for reducing emissions through goal-driven fuel design and that
further research may be able to make a promising contribution to
creating low-emission fuels suitable for use in cities.
FIGURE 7 Rancimat and PetroOxy
measurements with an additive
concentration of 7.26 mmol/kg
in RME (© TAC)
FIGURE 8 Rancimat and PetroOxy measurements with an additive concentration of 7.26 mmol/kg in RME (© TAC)

REFERENCES
[1] Bär, F.; Eskiner, M.; Fan, Z.; Rossner, M.; Munack, A.; Krahl, J.:
In-situ measurement of fuel properties by means of dielectric- and
fluorescence spectroscopy. 12 th FAD Conference, Dresden, 2014
[2] Rizwanul Fattah, I. M.; Masjuki, H. H.; Kalam, M. A.; Mofijur, M.; THANKS
Abedin, M. J.: Effect of antioxidant on the performance and emission
characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with palm biodiesel blends. The authors would like to thank everyone who has contributed to making this
In: Energy Conversion and Management 79 (2014), pp. 265-272 research work a success. They include Prof. Henning Hopf, Institute for Organic
[3] Schaper, K.: Entwicklung von Multikomponentenblends für Chemistry, Technische Universität Braunschweig, and Markus Knorr, Transfer
Dieselmotoren mit hohem regenerativen Anteil bei Verwendung
Center for Automotive Technology at Coburg University (TAC). A big thanks also
von 1-Alkoholen und Tributylcitrat nach Maßgabe der Dieselkraft-
stoffnorm DIN EN 590. Göttingen: Cuvillier, 2017 goes to the Union for the Promotion of Oil and Protein Plants (UFOP) for sup-
[4] KBA-Jahresbilanz der Neuzulassungen 2017. Online: https://www.kba. porting the study.
de/DE/Statistik/Fahrzeuge/Neuzulassungen/neuzulassungen_node.html;
jsessionid=79131BA735A7279747E5530EA3F42FA8.live11292
[5] Varatharajan, K.; Cheralathan, M.; Velraj, R.: Mitigation of NO x
emissions from a jatropha biodiesel fuelled DI diesel engine using antioxi-
dant additives. In: Fuel Processing Technology 90 (2011), pp. 2721-2725
[6] Varatharajan, K.; Cheralathan, M.: Effect of aromatic amine
antioxidants on NO x emissions from a soybean biodiesel powered
DI diesel engine. In: Fuel Processing Technology 106 (2013),
pp. 526-532
[7] Palash, S. M.; Kalam, M. A.; Masjuki, H. H.; Arbab, M. I.;
Masum, B. M.; Sanjid, A.: Impacts of NO x reducing antioxidant
additive on performance and emissions of a multi-cylinder diesel
engine fueled with Jatropha biodiesel blends. In: Energy Conversion
and Management 77 (2014), pp. 577-585
[8] İleri, E.; Koçar, G.: Effects of antioxidant additives on engine
performance and exhaust emissions of a diesel engine fueled
with canola oil methyl ester-diesel blend. In: Energy Conversion
and Management 76 (2013), pp. 145-154
[9] Krahl, J.; Tanugula, S.; Hopf, H.: Diesel Fuel Additives to Reduce NO x
Emissions from Diesel Engines Operated on Diesel and Biodiesel Fuels
by SNCR. SAE International 2010-01-2280 2010(2010-01-2280), 2010
[10] Bär, F.: Entwicklung eines Kraftstoffs mit hohem Biogenitätsgehalt,
hoher Oxidationsstabilität und geringen Stickoxidemissionen. Göttingen:
Cuvillier, 2018
[11] Tanugula, S. K.: Synthesis of Glycerol Based Fuel Additives
to Reduce NO x Emissions from Diesel Engines Operated on Diesel
and Biodiesel Fuels by SNCR. Braunschweig, TU, Thesis, 2010
[12] Bär, F.; Hopf, H.; Knorr, M.; Krahl, J.: Synthesis, characterization
and antioxidant properties of 2,4,6-tris-isopropylbenzoic acid hydrazide
in biodiesel. In: Fuel Processing Technology 215 (2017), pp. 249-257

MTZ worldwide 10|2019 75

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The next issue will be published on October 11, 2019
CO V E R S T ORY
Electrified Drives
Electrification is used in drive sys-
tems in various forms and to vary-
ing degrees. It ranges from the
replacement of auxiliary compo-
nents originally driven by the com-
bustion engine, such as fans in
the coolant circuit, through hybri-
dization, to purely electrically driven
vehicles. The aim is always to
improve the efficiency of the drive
and thus to save resources and
reduce emissions.
AVL has equipped a diesel-pow-
ered SUV with a 48-V hybrid module
in P2 configuration. This has made
it possible to reduce CO2 emissions
MTZ worldwide 10|2019
IS SUE 11 | 2 019 PRE VIE W
DE V E L OP MEN T
Transient Simulation of
Flow Noise in Exhaust Mufflers
Modular Waste Heat Recovery
System with Electric Power Output
Reference Fuel Cell System
for Electric Vehicles
Compact Electric Motors for
Test Benches with an Internally
Developed Simulation Solution
Automated Design and Optimization
of Transmissions for Electric Vehicles
© Daimler
R E S E A RCH
Impact of Biogenic Fuels on
the Fatigue Behavior of Steels
in real driving by 11 % in the RDE
cycle and even by 30 % in urban
traffic. Daimler is now offering a
plug-in hybrid system for compact-
class vehicles. Thanks to the com-
paratively powerful electric motor
with 75 kW and a 15.6 kWh battery,
the vehicle can be operated purely
electrically by most users in every-
day life. In the interview, Dipl.-Ing.
Jochen Tüting, Managing Director
of Chery Europe GmbH, which was
founded in 2018, explains how the
Chinese electric car manufacturer
intends to establish itself on the
European market.
77
GUEST C OMMENTARY
Everything Has Already Been Said
The themes of MTZ 5/2019 included the mix of drive systems on
our roads, renewable fuels, and visions of the future. These are
subjects that the mainstream media are now relatively well-in-
formed about, but the general mood is nevertheless one of gloom
rather than optimism. This is despite the fact that you only need
basic arithmetic to come up with an easily understandable fore-
cast of future developments.
The volume of traffic on our roads is growing and it will not
realistically be possible to reduce fuel consumption by as much
as we need to. Rail travel is too expensive and bus timetables
are not reliable. Both of these methods of transport remain
generally unattractive, despite decades of debate.
Politicians are looking to battery electric vehicles to save the
day, but they involve considerable CO2 emissions from battery
production and the German energy mix, not to mention the
major ethical and geopolitical concerns about the extraction
of the raw materials. Given the technology currently avail-
able, storing electrical energy seems to make no sense, parti-
cularly in mobile applications. The batteries are too heavy
and too expensive and the recycling schemes are inadequate.
If there were a prospect of cost-effective fuel cell systems
becoming widely available over the next three years then
the German government’s target of 25 % electric vehicles
on the roads by 2030 would be achievable. Rapid refueling,
the range of the vehicles, and the absence of carbon and NOx
in the exhaust gases make this technology extremely attractive.
But how would the hydrogen be produced and distributed and
how would we store it in our cars?
If we look at Germany’s overall carbon footprint, it becomes
apparent that only 15 % of the total energy consumption of
78
Prof. Frank Atzler
Head of the Chair of Com-
bustion Engines and Drive
Technology at the Technical
University of Dresden
© Niels Gigler
3800 TWh is renewable. Public objections to the construc-
tion of large-scale power lines and wind farms are not helpful
in this respect. Where will the power for electric cars or for
producing renewable fuels come from? One important measure
is to improve efficiency and reduce consumption in all areas
of our lives, but this alone is not enough.
I don’t want to mention the words “master plan” because
the concept is just as discredited as that of “sustainability.”
Before we begin expanding our charging infrastructure, it
would make sense to increase renewable energy production
in the form of solar power, wind energy, hydrogen, methanol,
and carbon dioxide to chemicals. Then we should extend our
rail and public transport networks and introduce more car-
sharing schemes and minibus apps. However, people living
in rural areas will still need their own cars.
We also have to adopt a new way of thinking and move
away from our existing dogmatic approach. Society must
understand the risks and side effects of all the available
technologies and strategies. Public education measures of
this kind are normally the job of government. But where are
the large-scale advertising campaigns, the expert opinions,
and the public debates, which do not involve “alternative facts”
or talking up the solutions that happen to be opportune for
the politicians? We need to come to grips with the problem
and take action. We must not become disheartened and sim-
ply go on discussing everything to death. However, I fear that
this highly reputable magazine and our industry associations
do not have a broad enough reach for this call to have any
effect. The other problem is that since 2015 we have lost a
lot of our credibility.
RESEARCH. KNOWLEDGE. PROGRESS.
Developing the future – today‘s production facilities need to meet the requirements of tomorrow. This is one of the main
challenges facing vehicle manufacturers. Innovations in manufacturing processes, resource use, the effectiveness of value
chains and increasing automation and digitization are all helping to shape smart vehicle production. ATZproduction provides
the latest information from the fields of research and development and includes in-depth technical reports on all aspects of
vehicle manufacturing. In addition to the print edition, we offer an interactive e-magazine. You can also benefit from the
extensive information in our unique online archive, which gives you the option of downloading PDF files.

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ISSN (Online)
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02 May 2019 | Volume

06
production W O R L
D W I D E
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ELECT RIC VEHIC

LE PRODU CTION

The Challenge of
Mass Production
MACHIN ING TECHNO
LOGY
Has to be Optimiz PLASTIC FREEFO
ed for New RMERS
Materia ls and Offer Flexible AUTOMA TION
Components Possibilities in
Additive Manufa Requires Reliable
cturing Validation of
Human-robot
/// INTERVI EW Collaboration
Andrea s Schick
[Schaef fler]
/// GUEST C OMMENT
ARY Christopher

www.my-specialized-knowledge.com/ATZproduction-worldwide
Reuß [Edag]
 The Powertrain of Tomorrow
Finding the global powertrain mix
14th International MTZ Conference on Future Powertrains
22 and 23 January 2020 | Hanau near Frankfurt/Main | Germany

ELECTRIFIED COMPLETE SYSTEM

From hybrids to fuel cell drive systems

COMBUSTION ENGINES
Different role in partnership with electric motors

ENERGY STORAGE AND ENERGY RESOURCES

Traction batteries and CO2-neutral fuels

/// SCIENTIFIC DIRECTOR

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