What is an organization?

 A social unit of people that is structured and managed to meet a need or to pursue collective
goals. All organizations have a management structure that determines relationships between the
different activities and the members, and subdivides and assigns roles, responsibilities, and
authority to carry out different tasks. Organizations are open systems--they affect and are
affected by their environment.

Types of Organization

 Public sector organizations

Public sector organisations -These are organisations that are owned and run by the state or
Government for the people and the taxes that people pay to the government is used to finance
most of these organisations. Like Prisons, Universities, Hospitals.

 Commercial organizations
Sole Trader- Is the type of business that owned by an individual or one person. Partnership - is
a type of business that consists of two or more owners in the enterprise who share management
and profits. Franchise, Owner manager and

 Voluntary organizations
These are organisations that are not or profit and non-governmental with the duty of social
activities.
Mechanistic Organization And Organic Organization
Importance of theory

 Theory provides concepts to name what we observe and to explain relationships between
concepts. Theory allows us to explain what we see and to figure out how to bring about change.
Theory is a tool that enables us to identify a problem and to plan a means for altering the
situation.
 Theory is to justify reimbursement to get funding and support - need to explain what is being
done and demonstrate that it works - theory and research
 Theory is to enhance the growth of the professional area to identify a body of knowledge with
theories from both within and without the area of distance learning. That body of knowledge
grows with theory and research. Theory guides research.
Importance of research

 The main purpose of research is to inform action, to prove a theory, and contribute to
developing knowledge in a field or study.
 Increase and widen the information
 Solve problems
 Enhancement of knowledge and to spread it
Organizational theory

 that explain the behaviour of individuals or groups or subgroups, who interacts with each other
to perform the activities intended towards the accomplishment of a common goal.
 studies the effect of social relationships between the individuals within the organization along
with their actions on the organization as a whole
 guide managers and leaders actions
 make prediction of forthcoming events
Time and Motion studies

 Time-and-motion study, in the evaluation of industrial performance, analysis of the time spent
in going through the different motions of a job or series of jobs.
 These studies came to be adopted on a wide scale as a means of improving the methods of work
by subdividing the different operations of a job into measurable elements.
 Such analyses were, in turn, used as aids to standardization of work and in checking the
efficiency of people and equipment and the mode of their combination.
Organization can be viewed from three system perspectives
Rational system perspectives

 The rational system perspective focuses on the formal structures of an organization and sees
the organization as a group of people who work together to pursue specific goals.
 uses a formal structure to define the role of each member of the organization
 the process of management will be rational and predictable when roles and goals clearly
defined.
 For instance, the goal of a car dealership is to make a profit by selling cars. Every employee of
the dealership has a clearly defined role in this process. The salespeople meet with customers
and sell the cars. The manager is in charge of training, motivating and supervising the
salespeople. In theory, the individual personalities of the people who work at the dealership
should not be a major factor because each person has a place in the system and only has to
fulfill his own role correctly.
  Advantages : it creates a simple, streamlined, and clear-cut decision making process. clearly
defining a problem or a situation and stating the necessary outcome can be an important factor
for problem solving and improving a situation.
 Disadvantages : it doesn’t consider the people working within the business. A lack of concern
for ethical considerations can spell trouble for a business. In addition, identifying and
researching all possible alternatives especially for a complex decision can be time-consuming
and expensive.

Natural system perspectives

 The natural system perspective advances the idea that informal and interpersonal structures
within an organization are more important than formal structures.
 Considering more on the informal structure and the emotional, non-rational motivations that
operate in organizations
 Stresses the behavioural structure and are more interested in examining what is done rather than
what is decided or planned.
 Commitment and motivation are more salient variables.
 Also recognized a necessity for the organization to meet the human, personal needs of its
components.
Open system/ Sosial system

 An open system is a system that regularly exchanges feedback with its external environment.
 provides a framework for thinking about processes such as change
 Involves paying attention to feedback and integrating this information rather than proceeding
with a rigid idea of how change should occur.
 Stresses on equifinality where the organization achieve a same or similar results using different
processes.
 Interacts with its environment by exchanging energy, materials and information with an aim of
system renewal and growth.
Key properties of open system

 Inputs : consists of human and other resources such as information, energy and materials
coming into the system
 Transformations are the processes of converting inputs into outputs.
 Outputs are the results of what is transformed by the system and sent to the environment.
 Feedback is information regarding the actual performance or the results of the system, Feedback
can be used to maintain the system in a steady state, can be used to correct deficiencies in the
transformation process or the inputs
 Boundaries is the borders or limits of the system
 Homeostasis is a measure of how effective an organization is and most effective organizations,
according to systems theory, adapt to their environments.
 Entropy is the law of nature which suggests that all organized forms move towards
disorganization and demise. In order to survive, open systems must move to arrest the entropic
process; they must acquire negative entropy.
 The idea of equifinality suggests that similar results may be achieved with different initial
conditions and in many different ways
School as open system
  Inputs are the human, material, financial, or information resources used in the teaching and
learning process. Teaching and Learning Process involves the interaction between and among
the parts. Outputs are the graduates and/or services produced. Feedback encompasses
Information concerning the outputs or the teaching and learning process that influences decision
making and the selection of inputs during the next academic year. Environment comprises the
external environment of the school including the social, political, and economic forces that
impinge on the school’s operation.

 In schools, the interaction between students and teachers is part of the transformation process.
The output may be students’ knowledge, skills, abilities, and attitudes. Feedback serves as a
control mechanism. Negative feedback from the outputs or environment can be used to correct
deficiencies in the learning process. The inputs are used to teach students who are then exported
into the outside environment. These graduates continue to contribute energy to the school
system in the form of one or more resources.
The four model frame

 Structural frame (same as rational)

It's mainly a task-orientated Frame. It concentrates on strategy; setting measurable goals;
clarifying tasks, responsibilities and reporting lines; agreeing metrics and deadlines; and
creating systems and procedures. Reorganization or redesign may help remedy the structural
misalignment
 Human resource frame (same as natural)
The human resource frame emphasizes understanding people and their relationships. It chiefly
focuses on giving employees the power and opportunity to perform their jobs well, while at the
same time, addressing their needs for human contact, personal growth, and job satisfaction.
 The Political Frame addresses the problem of individuals and interest groups having sometimes
conflicting (often hidden) agendas, especially at times when budgets are limited and the
organization has to make difficult choices. In this Frame you will see coalition-building (a
temporary alliance for combined action), conflict resolution work, and power-base building to
support the leader's initiatives.
 The Symbolic Frame addresses people's needs for a sense of purpose and meaning in their work.
It focuses on inspiring people by making the organization's direction feel significant and
distinctive. It includes creating a motivating vision, and recognising superb performance
through company celebrations.

Examples

 Where a leader ascertains that the biggest problem in a group is lack of motivation and
commitment, the leader should probably adopt a Symbolic and/or Human Resource (Frame)
approach.
 If the main group challenge is instead confusion around priorities and responsibilities, then
the leader will probably be more successful adopting Structural and Political (Frames)
orientation.
 If the group is experiencing uncertainty and anxiety about direction, then Symbolic and
Political (Frames) leadership behaviours are more likely to produce effective results.
Four leadership strategies
  Transformational leadership : Transformational leadership is a leadership style in which leaders
encourage, inspire and motivate employees to innovate and create change that will help grow
and shape the future success of the company
 Ethical leadership : Ethical leadership means guiding your people, leading by example, and
doing the "right thing" without abandoning your personal or organizational values
 Political leadership is a concept central to understanding political processes and outcomes.
 Managerial leadership combines the skills of a manager and the qualities of a leader. The
concept of managerial leadership is important because it combines managerial and leadership
roles for the more effective task performance, organizational effectiveness and human
satisfactions.
Structural configuration

 Strategic Apex composed of senior management and the senior leadership, to ensure the
organisation follows its mission and manages its relationship with its environment.
 The Operating Core which consists of those doing the basic work and whose output can be
directly linked to the goods and services that the organization makes and sells.
 The Middle Level Managers who are the “sandwich” layer between the apex and the operating
core. This element is peopled by those who take orders from above and pass them as work to
the operating core and supervise them.
 The fourth element is the Technostructure that is composed of planners, analysts, and trainers
who perform the intellectual work.
 Support staff work in functions such as research and development, public relations and legal
services. Their outputs do not contribute directly to the core purposes of the organisation, but
their activities contribute to the efficiency and effectiveness of the strategic apex, middle line
and operating core.
Organisation structures

 The simple structure is centralised and often autocratic, with power emanating from the
strategic apex. Typically, control is exerted by the chief executive or small, influential executive
team. Perhaps due to its simplicity, the structure can be flexible and sometimes informal, with
a strongly defined sense of mission.
 Machine bureaucracy : This structure relies heavily on a robust technostructure. Due to the
high degree of standardisation, the tasks performed by the operating core can be rigid, offering
little discretion for the individual. Motivation can be difficult and the organisation can be
unreceptive to the need for change
 Professional bureaucracy : is based on clear lines of authority and standard administrative
practices, is more democratic than the machine bureaucracy and that it is easier to motivate
people. Examples : Schools and Hospitals The operating core is the major coordinating
influence.
  A divisional structure is a manner of designing an organization so that it is split up into semi-
autonomous units called divisions. Large corporations, especially large multinational
corporations, utilize a divisional structure. For example, General Motors was one of the first
companies to implement the divisional structure. This type of structure is also referred to as a
multidivisional structure, or M-form, organization.
 Adhocracy, an organizational design whose structure is highly flexible, loosely coupled, and
amenable to frequent change. direct supervision and defined processes are less important.
Research and development can be a primary driver of adhocracies

Bureaucracy characterictics

 Hierarchy of authority : The hierarchy of authority is a system in which different positions are
related in order of precedence and in which the highest rung on the ladder has the greatest
power.
 Division of labor : Every employee has a specific place within the organisation and is expected
to solely focus on his/ her area of expertise. Going beyond your responsibilities and taking on
tasks of colleagues is not permitted within a bureaucracy.
 Impersonal orientation : Official views are free from any personal involvement, emotions and
feelings. Decisions are solely made on the basis of rational factors, rather than personal factors.
To prevent nepotism or involvement from outsiders or politics.
 By enforcing strict rules, the organisation can more easily achieve uniformity and all employee
efforts can be better coordinated.
 The right position of labour in a bureaucratic organization will allow them to specialise further
and become expects in their own field and they will be highly motivated.