Michelson-Morley Experiment

11/9/2019 Michelson–Morley experiment - Wikipedia
Michelson–Morley experiment
The Michelson–Morley experiment was an attempt to detect the existence of aether, a supposed
medium permeating space that was thought to be the carrier of light waves. The experiment was
performed between April and July 1887 by Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley at what is now
Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio, and published in November of the same year.[1] It
compared the speed of light in perpendicular directions, in an attempt to detect the relative motion of
matter through the stationary luminiferous aether ('aether wind'). The result was negative, in that
Michelson and Morley found no significant difference between the speed of light in the direction of
movement through the presumed aether, and the speed at right angles. This result is generally considered
to be the first strong evidence against the then-prevalent aether theory, and initiated a line of research
that eventually led to special relativity, which rules out a stationary aether.[A 1] Of this experiment, Figure 1. Michelson and Morley's interferometric
Einstein wrote, "If the Michelson–Morley experiment had not brought us into serious embarrassment, no setup, mounted on a stone slab that floats in an
one would have regarded the relativity theory as a (halfway) redemption."[A 2]:219 annular trough of mercury
Michelson–Morley type experiments have been repeated many times with steadily increasing sensitivity.
These include experiments from 1902 to 1905, and a series of experiments in the 1920s. More recent optical resonator experiments confirmed the absence of any
aether wind at the 10−17 level.[2][3] Together with the Ives–Stilwell and Kennedy–Thorndike experiments, Michelson–Morley type experiments form one of the
fundamental tests of special relativity theory.[A 3]
Contents
Detecting the aether
1881 and 1887 experiments
Michelson experiment (1881)
Michelson–Morley experiment (1887)
Most famous "failed" experiment
Light path analysis and consequences
Observer resting in the aether
Observer comoving with the interferometer
Mirror reflection
Length contraction and Lorentz transformation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson–Morley_experiment 1/23
Special relativity
Incorrect alternatives
Subsequent experiments
Recent experiments
Optical tests
Recent optical resonator experiments
Other tests of Lorentz invariance
See also
References
Notes
Experiments
Bibliography (Series "A" references)
External links
Detecting the aether

Physics theories of the late 19th century assumed that just as surface water waves must have a supporting substance, i.e., a "medium", to move across (in this case
water), and audible sound requires a medium to transmit its wave motions (such as air or water), so light must also require a medium, the "luminiferous aether", to
transmit its wave motions. Because light can travel through a vacuum, it was assumed that even a vacuum must be filled with aether. Because the speed of light is
so great, and because material bodies pass through the aether without obvious friction or drag, it was assumed to have a highly unusual combination of properties.
Designing experiments to investigate these properties was a high priority of 19th century physics.[A 4]:411ff
Earth orbits around the Sun at a speed of around 30 km/s (18.64 mi/s), or 108,000 km/h (67,000 mph). The Earth is in motion, so two main possibilities were
considered: (1) The aether is stationary and only partially dragged by Earth (proposed by Augustin-Jean Fresnel in 1818), or (2) the aether is completely dragged by
Earth and thus shares its motion at Earth's surface (proposed by Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet in 1844).[A 5] In addition, James Clerk Maxwell (1865) recognized
the electromagnetic nature of light and developed what are now called Maxwell's equations, but these equations were still interpreted as describing the motion of
waves through an aether, whose state of motion was unknown. Eventually, Fresnel's idea of an (almost) stationary aether was preferred because it appeared to be
confirmed by the Fizeau experiment (1851) and the aberration of star light.[A 5]
According to the stationary and the partially-dragged aether hypotheses, Earth and the aether are in relative motion, implying that a so-called "aether wind"
(Fig. 2) should exist. Although it would be possible, in theory, for the Earth's motion to match that of the aether at one moment in time, it was not possible for the
Earth to remain at rest with respect to the aether at all times, because of the variation in both the direction and the speed of the motion. At any given point on the
Earth's surface, the magnitude and direction of the wind would vary with time of day and season. By analyzing the return speed of light in different directions at
various different times, it was thought to be possible to measure the motion of the Earth relative to the aether. The expected relative difference in the measured
speed of light was quite small, given that the velocity of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun has a magnitude of about one hundredth of one percent of the speed of
light.[A 4]:417ff
During the mid-19th century, measurements of aether wind effects of first order, i.e., effects proportional
to v/c (v being Earth's velocity, c the speed of light) were thought to be possible, but no direct
measurement of the speed of light was possible with the accuracy required. For instance, the Fizeau–
Foucault apparatus could measure the speed of light to perhaps 5% accuracy, which was quite inadequate
for measuring directly a first-order 0.01% change in the speed of light. A number of physicists therefore
attempted to make measurements of indirect first-order effects not of the speed of light itself, but of
variations in the speed of light (see First order aether-drift experiments). The Hoek experiment, for
example, was intended to detect interferometric fringe shifts due to speed differences of oppositely
propagating light waves through water at rest. The results of such experiments were all negative.[A 6] This
could be explained by using Fresnel's dragging coefficient, according to which the aether and thus light are
partially dragged by moving matter. Partial aether-dragging would thwart attempts to measure any first Figure 2. A depiction of the concept of the "aether
wind"
order change in the speed of light. As pointed out by Maxwell (1878), only experimental arrangements
capable of measuring second order effects would have any hope of detecting aether drift, i.e., effects
proportional to v2/c2.[A 7][A 8] Existing experimental setups, however, were not sensitive enough to measure effects of that size.
1881 and 1887 experiments
Michelson experiment (1881)

Michelson had a solution to the problem of how to construct a device sufficiently accurate to detect aether
flow. In 1877, while teaching at his alma mater, the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Michelson
conducted his first known light speed experiments as a part of a classroom demonstration. In 1881, he left
active U.S. Naval service while in Germany concluding his studies. In that year, Michelson used a
prototype experimental device to make several more measurements.
The device he designed, later known as a Michelson interferometer, sent yellow light from a sodium flame
(for alignment), or white light (for the actual observations), through a half-silvered mirror that was used
Michelson's 1881 interferometer. Although
to split it into two beams traveling at right angles to one another. After leaving the splitter, the beams
ultimately it proved incapable of distinguishing
traveled out to the ends of long arms where they were reflected back into the middle by small mirrors.
between differing theories of aether-dragging, its
They then recombined on the far side of the splitter in an eyepiece, producing a pattern of constructive construction provided important lessons for the
and destructive interference whose transverse displacement would depend on the relative time it takes design of Michelson and Morley's 1887
light to transit the longitudinal vs. the transverse arms. If the Earth is traveling through an aether instrument.[note 1]
medium, a beam reflecting back and forth parallel to the flow of aether would take longer than a beam
reflecting perpendicular to the aether because the time gained from traveling downwind is less than that lost traveling upwind. Michelson expected that the Earth's
motion would produce a fringe shift equal to 0.04 fringes—that is, of the separation between areas of the same intensity. He did not observe the expected shift; the
greatest average deviation that he measured (in the northwest direction) was only 0.018 fringes; most of his measurements were much less. His conclusion was
that Fresnel's hypothesis of a stationary aether with partial aether dragging would have to be rejected, and thus he confirmed Stokes' hypothesis of complete aether
dragging.[4]
However, Alfred Potier (and later Hendrik Lorentz) pointed out to Michelson that he had made an error of calculation, and that the expected fringe shift should
have been only 0.02 fringes. Michelson's apparatus was subject to experimental errors far too large to say anything conclusive about the aether wind. Definitive
measurement of the aether wind would require an experiment with greater accuracy and better controls than the original. Nevertheless, the prototype was
successful in demonstrating that the basic method was feasible.[A 5][A 9]
Michelson–Morley experiment (1887)

In 1885, Michelson began a collaboration with Edward Morley, spending considerable time and money to confirm with higher accuracy Fizeau's 1851 experiment
on Fresnel's drag coefficient,[5] to improve on Michelson's 1881 experiment,[1] and to establish the wavelength of light as a standard of length.[6][7] At this time
Michelson was professor of physics at the Case School of Applied Science, and Morley was professor of chemistry at Western Reserve University (WRU), which
shared a campus with the Case School on the eastern edge of Cleveland. Michelson suffered a nervous breakdown in September 1885, from which he recovered by
October 1885. Morley ascribed this breakdown to the intense work of Michelson during the preparation of the experiments. In 1886, Michelson and Morley
successfully confirmed Fresnel's drag coefficient – this result was also considered as a confirmation of the stationary aether concept.[A 1]
This result strengthened their hope of finding the aether wind. Michelson and Morley created an improved version of the Michelson experiment with more than
enough accuracy to detect this hypothetical effect. The experiment was performed in several periods of concentrated observations between April and July 1887, in
the basement of Adelbert Dormitory of WRU (later renamed Pierce Hall, demolished in 1962).[A 10][A 11]
As shown in Fig. 5, the light was repeatedly reflected back and forth along the arms of the interferometer, increasing the path length to 11 m (36 ft). At this length,
the drift would be about 0.4 fringes. To make that easily detectable, the apparatus was assembled in a closed room in the basement of the heavy stone dormitory,
eliminating most thermal and vibrational effects. Vibrations were further reduced by building the apparatus on top of a large block of sandstone (Fig. 1), about a
foot thick and five feet square, which was then floated in a circular trough of mercury. They estimated that effects of about 0.01 fringe would be detectable.
Michelson and Morley and other early experimentalists using interferometric techniques in an attempt to measure the properties of the luminiferous aether, used
(partially) monochromatic light only for initially setting up their equipment, always switching to white light for the actual measurements. The reason is that
measurements were recorded visually. Purely monochromatic light would result in a uniform fringe pattern. Lacking modern means of environmental temperature
control, experimentalists struggled with continual fringe drift even when the interferometer was set up in a basement. Because the fringes would occasionally
disappear due to vibrations caused by passing horse traffic, distant thunderstorms and the like, an observer could easily "get lost" when the fringes returned to
visibility. The advantages of white light, which produced a distinctive colored fringe pattern, far outweighed the difficulties of aligning the apparatus due to its low
coherence length. As Dayton Miller wrote, "White light fringes were chosen for the observations because they consist of a small group of fringes having a central,
sharply defined black fringe which forms a permanent zero reference mark for all readings."[A 12][note 3]
Use of partially monochromatic light (yellow sodium light) during initial alignment enabled the
researchers to locate the position of equal path length, more or less easily, before switching to white
light.[note 4]
The mercury trough allowed the device to turn with close to zero friction, so that once having given the
sandstone block a single push it would slowly rotate through the entire range of possible angles to the
"aether wind," while measurements were continuously observed by looking through the eyepiece. The
hypothesis of aether drift implies that because one of the arms would inevitably turn into the direction of
the wind at the same time that another arm was turning perpendicularly to the wind, an effect should be
noticeable even over a period of minutes.
The expectation was that the effect would be graphable as a sine wave with two peaks and two troughs per
rotation of the device. This result could have been expected because during each full rotation, each arm
would be parallel to the wind twice (facing into and away from the wind giving identical readings) and
perpendicular to the wind twice. Additionally, due to the Earth's rotation, the wind would be expected to
show periodic changes in direction and magnitude during the course of a sidereal day.
Because of the motion of the Earth around the Sun, the measured data were also expected to show annual
variations.
Figure 5. This figure illustrates the folded light
path used in the Michelson–Morley interferometer
that enabled a path length of 11 m. a is the light
Most famous "failed" experiment
source, an oil lamp. b is a beam splitter. c is a
After all this thought and preparation, the experiment became what has been called the most famous compensating plate so that both the reflected and
failed experiment in history.[A 13] Instead of providing insight into the properties of the aether, Michelson transmitted beams travel through the same
and Morley's article in the American Journal of Science reported the measurement to be as small as one- amount of glass (important since experiments
were run with white light which has an extremely
fortieth of the expected displacement (Fig. 7), but "since the displacement is proportional to the square of
short coherence length requiring precise matching
the velocity" they concluded that the measured velocity was "probably less than one-sixth" of the expected
of optical path lengths for fringes to be visible;
velocity of the Earth's motion in orbit and "certainly less than one-fourth."[1] Although this small monochromatic sodium light was used only for
"velocity" was measured, it was considered far too small to be used as evidence of speed relative to the initial alignment[4][note 2]). d, d' and e are mirrors.
aether, and it was understood to be within the range of an experimental error that would allow the speed e' is a fine adjustment mirror. f is a telescope.
to actually be zero.[A 1] For instance, Michelson wrote about the "decidedly negative result" in a letter to
Lord Rayleigh in August 1887:[A 14]
The Experiments on the relative motion of the earth and ether have been completed and the result
decidedly negative. The expected deviation of the interference fringes from the zero should have been
0.40 of a fringe – the maximum displacement was 0.02 and the average much less than 0.01 – and then
not in the right place. As displacement is proportional to squares of the relative velocities it follows that if
the ether does slip past the relative velocity is less than one sixth of the earth’s velocity.
— Albert Abraham Michelson, 1887
From the standpoint of the then current aether models, the experimental results were conflicting. The Fizeau
experiment and its 1886 repetition by Michelson and Morley apparently confirmed the stationary aether with partial Figure 6. Fringe pattern produced
aether dragging, and refuted complete aether dragging. On the other hand, the much more precise Michelson–Morley with a Michelson interferometer
experiment (1887) apparently confirmed complete aether dragging and refuted the stationary aether.[A 5] In addition, using white light. As configured
here, the central fringe is white
the Michelson–Morley null result was further substantiated by the null results of other second-order experiments of
rather than black.
different kind, namely the Trouton–Noble experiment (1903) and the experiments of Rayleigh and Brace (1902–1904).
These problems and their solution led to the development of the Lorentz transformation and special
relativity.
After the "failed" experiment Michelson and Morley ceased their aether drift measurements and started to
use their newly developed technique to establish the wavelength of light as a standard of length.[6][7]
Light path analysis and consequences
Observer resting in the aether Figure 7. Michelson and Morley's results. The
upper solid line is the curve for their observations
The beam travel time in the longitudinal direction can be derived as follows:[A 15] Light is sent from the
at noon, and the lower solid line is that for their
source and propagates with the speed of light in the aether. It passes through the half-silvered mirror at evening observations. Note that the theoretical
the origin at . The reflecting mirror is at that moment at distance (the length of the interferometer curves and the observed curves are not plotted at
arm) and is moving with velocity . The beam hits the mirror at time and thus travels the distance . the same scale: the dotted curves, in fact,
At this time, the mirror has traveled the distance . Thus and consequently the travel represent only one-eighth of the theoretical
displacements.
time . The same consideration applies to the backward journey, with the sign of
reversed, resulting in and . The total travel time is:
Michelson obtained this expression correctly in 1881, however, in transverse direction he obtained the
incorrect expression
because he overlooked the increased path length in the rest frame of the aether. This was corrected by
Alfred Potier (1882) and Lorentz (1886). The derivation in the transverse direction can be given as follows
(analogous to the derivation of time dilation using a light clock): The beam is propagating at the speed of
light and hits the mirror at time , traveling the distance . At the same time, the mirror has traveled
the distance in the x direction. So in order to hit the mirror, the travel path of the beam is in the y
direction (assuming equal-length arms) and in the x direction. This inclined travel path follows from
the transformation from the interferometer rest frame to the aether rest frame. Therefore, the
Expected differential phase shift between light
Pythagorean theorem gives the actual beam travel distance of . Thus
traveling the longitudinal versus the transverse
and consequently the travel time , which is the same for the arms of the Michelson–Morley apparatus
backward journey. The total travel time is:
The time difference between Tℓ and Tt before rotation is given by[A 16]
By multiplying with c, the corresponding length difference before rotation is
and after rotation
Dividing by the wavelength λ, the fringe shift n is found:
Since L ≈ 11 meters and λ≈500 nanometers, the expected fringe shift was n ≈ 0.44. So the result would be a delay in one of the light beams that could be detected
when the beams were recombined through interference. Any slight change in the spent time would then be observed as a shift in the positions of the interference
fringes. The negative result led Michelson to the conclusion that there is no measurable aether drift.[1]
Observer comoving with the interferometer

If the same situation is described from the view of an observer co-moving with the interferometer, then the effect of aether wind is similar to the effect experienced
by a swimmer, who tries to move with velocity against a river flowing with velocity .[A 17]
In the longitudinal direction the swimmer first moves upstream, so his velocity is diminished due to the river flow to . On his way back moving downstream,
his velocity is increased to . This gives the beam travel times and as mentioned above.
In the transverse direction, the swimmer has to compensate for the river flow by moving at a certain angle against the flow direction, in order to sustain his exact
transverse direction of motion and to reach the other side of the river at the correct location. This diminishes his speed to , and gives the beam travel
time as mentioned above.
Mirror reflection
The classical analysis predicted a relative phase shift between the longitudinal and transverse beams which in Michelson and Morley's apparatus should have been
readily measurable. What is not often appreciated (since there was no means of measuring it), is that motion through the hypothetical aether should also have
caused the two beams to diverge as they emerged from the interferometer by about 10−8 radians.[A 18]
For an apparatus in motion, the classical analysis requires that the beam-splitting mirror be slightly offset from an exact 45° if the longitudinal and transverse
beams are to emerge from the apparatus exactly superimposed. In the relativistic analysis, Lorentz-contraction of the beam splitter in the direction of motion
causes it to become more perpendicular by precisely the amount necessary to compensate for the angle discrepancy of the two beams.[A 18]
Length contraction and Lorentz transformation

A first step to explaining the Michelson and Morley experiment's null result was found in the FitzGerald–Lorentz contraction hypothesis, now simply called length
contraction or Lorentz contraction, first proposed by George FitzGerald (1889) and Hendrik Lorentz (1892).[A 19] According to this law all objects physically
contract by along the line of motion (originally thought to be relative to the aether), being the Lorentz factor. This hypothesis was partly
motivated by Oliver Heaviside's discovery in 1888 that electrostatic fields are contracting in the line of motion. But since there was no reason at that time to assume
that binding forces in matter are of electric origin, length contraction of matter in motion with respect to the aether was considered an Ad hoc hypothesis.[A 9]
If length contraction of is inserted into the above formula for , then the light propagation time in the longitudinal direction becomes equal to that in the
transverse direction:
However, length contraction is only a special case of the more general relation, according to which the transverse length is larger than the longitudinal length by
the ratio . This can be achieved in many ways. If is the moving longitudinal length and the moving transverse length, being the rest lengths, then
it is given:[A 20]
can be arbitrarily chosen, so there are infinitely many combinations to explain the Michelson–Morley null result. For instance, if the relativistic value of
length contraction of occurs, but if then no length contraction but an elongation of occurs. This hypothesis was later extended by Joseph Larmor
(1897), Lorentz (1904) and Henri Poincaré (1905), who developed the complete Lorentz transformation including time dilation in order to explain the Trouton–
Noble experiment, the Experiments of Rayleigh and Brace, and Kaufmann's experiments. It has the form
It remained to define the value of , which was shown by Lorentz (1904) to be unity.[A 20] In general, Poincaré (1905)[A 21] demonstrated that only allows
this transformation to form a group, so it is the only choice compatible with the principle of relativity, i.e., making the stationary aether undetectable. Given this,
length contraction and time dilation obtain their exact relativistic values.
Special relativity
Albert Einstein formulated the theory of special relativity by 1905, deriving the Lorentz transformation and thus length contraction and time dilation from the
relativity postulate and the constancy of the speed of light, thus removing the ad hoc character from the contraction hypothesis. Einstein emphasized the kinematic
foundation of the theory and the modification of the notion of space and time, with the stationary aether no longer playing any role in his theory. He also pointed
out the group character of the transformation. Einstein was motivated by Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism (in the form as it was given by Lorentz in 1895) and
the lack of evidence for the luminiferous aether.[A 22]
This allows a more elegant and intuitive explanation of the Michelson–Morley null result. In a comoving frame the null result is self-evident, since the apparatus
can be considered as at rest in accordance with the relativity principle, thus the beam travel times are the same. In a frame relative to which the apparatus is
moving, the same reasoning applies as described above in "Length contraction and Lorentz transformation", except the word "aether" has to be replaced by "non-
comoving inertial frame". Einstein wrote in 1916:[A 23]
Although the estimated difference between these two times is exceedingly small, Michelson and Morley performed an experiment involving
interference in which this difference should have been clearly detectable. But the experiment gave a negative result — a fact very perplexing to
physicists. Lorentz and FitzGerald rescued the theory from this difficulty by assuming that the motion of the body relative to the æther produces a
contraction of the body in the direction of motion, the amount of contraction being just sufficient to compensate for the difference in time mentioned
above. Comparison with the discussion in Section 11 shows that also from the standpoint of the theory of relativity this solution of the difficulty was
the right one. But on the basis of the theory of relativity the method of interpretation is incomparably more satisfactory. According to this theory
there is no such thing as a "specially favoured" (unique) co-ordinate system to occasion the introduction of the æther-idea, and hence there can be no
æther-drift, nor any experiment with which to demonstrate it. Here the contraction of moving bodies follows from the two fundamental principles of
the theory, without the introduction of particular hypotheses; and as the prime factor involved in this contraction we find, not the motion in itself, to
which we cannot attach any meaning, but the motion with respect to the body of reference chosen in the particular case in point. Thus for a co-
ordinate system moving with the earth the mirror system of Michelson and Morley is not shortened, but it is shortened for a co-ordinate system
which is at rest relatively to the sun.
— Albert Einstein, 1916
The extent to which the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment influenced Einstein is disputed. Alluding to some statements of Einstein, many historians
argue that it played no significant role in his path to special relativity,[A 24][A 25] while other statements of Einstein probably suggest that he was influenced by
it.[A 26] In any case, the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment helped the notion of the constancy of the speed of light gain widespread and rapid
acceptance.[A 24]
It was later shown by Howard Percy Robertson (1949) and others[A 3][A 27] (see Robertson–Mansouri–Sexl test theory), that it is possible to derive the Lorentz
transformation entirely from the combination of three experiments. First, the Michelson–Morley experiment showed that the speed of light is independent of the
orientation of the apparatus, establishing the relationship between longitudinal (β) and transverse (δ) lengths. Then in 1932, Roy Kennedy and Edward Thorndike
modified the Michelson–Morley experiment by making the path lengths of the split beam unequal, with one arm being very short.[8] The Kennedy–Thorndike
experiment took place for many months as the Earth moved around the sun. Their negative result showed that the speed of light is independent of the velocity of
the apparatus in different inertial frames. In addition it established that besides length changes, corresponding time changes must also occur, i.e., it established the
relationship between longitudinal lengths (β) and time changes (α). So both experiments do not provide the individual values of these quantities. This uncertainty
corresponds to the undefined factor as described above. It was clear due to theoretical reasons (the group character of the Lorentz transformation as required by
the relativity principle) that the individual values of length contraction and time dilation must assume their exact relativistic form. But a direct measurement of one
of these quantities was still desirable to confirm the theoretical results. This was achieved by the Ives–Stilwell experiment (1938), measuring α in accordance with
time dilation. Combining this value for α with the Kennedy–Thorndike null result shows that β must assume the value of relativistic length contraction. Combining
β with the Michelson–Morley null result shows that δ must be zero. Therefore, the Lorentz transformation with is an unavoidable consequence of the
combination of these three experiments.[A 3]
Special relativity is generally considered the solution to all negative aether drift (or isotropy of the speed of light) measurements, including the Michelson–Morley
null result. Many high precision measurements have been conducted as tests of special relativity and modern searches for Lorentz violation in the photon, electron,
nucleon, or neutrino sector, all of them confirming relativity.
Incorrect alternatives
As mentioned above, Michelson initially believed that his experiment would confirm Stokes' theory, according to which the aether was fully dragged in the vicinity
of the earth (see Aether drag hypothesis). However, complete aether drag contradicts the observed aberration of light and was contradicted by other experiments as
well. In addition, Lorentz showed in 1886 that Stokes's attempt to explain aberration is contradictory.[A 5][A 4]
Furthermore, the assumption that the aether is not carried in the vicinity, but only within matter, was very problematic as shown by the Hammar experiment
(1935). Hammar directed one leg of his interferometer through a heavy metal pipe plugged with lead. If aether were dragged by mass, it was theorized that the
mass of the sealed metal pipe would have been enough to cause a visible effect. Once again, no effect was seen, so aether-drag theories are considered to be
disproven.
Walther Ritz's emission theory (or ballistic theory) was also consistent with the results of the experiment, not requiring aether. The theory postulates that light has
always the same velocity in respect to the source.[A 28] However de Sitter noted that emitter theory predicted several optical effects that were not seen in
observations of binary stars in which the light from the two stars could be measured in a spectrometer. If emission theory were correct, the light from the stars
should experience unusual fringe shifting due to the velocity of the stars being added to the speed of the light, but no such effect could be seen. It was later shown
by J. G. Fox that the original de Sitter experiments were flawed due to extinction,[9] but in 1977 Brecher observed X-rays from binary star systems with similar null
results.[10] Also terrestrial tests using particle accelerators have been made that were inconsistent with source dependence of the speed of light.[11] In addition,
Emission theory might fail the Ives–Stilwell experiment, but Fox questioned that as well.
Subsequent experiments
Although Michelson and Morley went on to different experiments after their first publication in 1887, both
remained active in the field. Other versions of the experiment were carried out with increasing
sophistication.[A 29][A 30] Morley was not convinced of his own results, and went on to conduct additional
experiments with Dayton Miller from 1902 to 1904. Again, the result was negative within the margins of
error.[12][13]
Miller worked on increasingly larger interferometers, culminating in one with a 32-meter (105 ft) (effective) arm
length that he tried at various sites, including on top of a mountain at the Mount Wilson Observatory. To avoid the
possibility of the aether wind being blocked by solid walls, his mountaintop observations used a special shed with
thin walls, mainly of canvas. From noisy, irregular data, he consistently extracted a small positive signal that varied
with each rotation of the device, with the sidereal day, and on a yearly basis. His measurements in the 1920s
amounted to approximately 10 km/s (6.2 mi/s) instead of the nearly 30 km/s (18.6 mi/s) expected from the
Earth's orbital motion alone. He remained convinced this was due to partial entrainment or aether dragging, Figure 8. Simulation of the
Kennedy/Illingworth refinement of the
though he did not attempt a detailed explanation. He ignored critiques demonstrating the inconsistency of his
Michelson–Morley experiment. (a)
results and the refutation by the Hammar experiment.[A 31][note 5] Miller's findings were considered important at
Michelson–Morley interference pattern in
the time, and were discussed by Michelson, Lorentz and others at a meeting reported in 1928.[A 32] There was monochromatic mercury light, with a dark
general agreement that more experimentation was needed to check Miller's results. Miller later built a non- fringe precisely centered on the screen.
magnetic device to eliminate magnetostriction, while Michelson built one of non-expanding Invar to eliminate any (b) The fringes have been shifted to the
remaining thermal effects. Other experimenters from around the world increased accuracy, eliminated possible left by 1/100 of the fringe spacing. It is
extremely difficult to see any difference
side effects, or both. So far, no one has been able to replicate Miller's results, and modern experimental accuracies
between this figure and the one above.
have ruled them out.[A 33] Roberts (2006) has pointed out that the primitive data reduction techniques used by
(c) A small step in one mirror causes two
Miller and other early experimenters, including Michelson and Morley, were capable of creating apparent periodic views of the same fringes to be spaced
signals even when none existed in the actual data. After reanalyzing Miller's original data using modern techniques 1/20 of the fringe spacing to the left and
of quantitative error analysis, Roberts found Miller's apparent signals to be statistically insignificant.[A 34] to the right of the step. (d) A telescope
has been set to view only the central dark
Using a special optical arrangement involving a 1/20 wave step in one mirror, Roy J. Kennedy (1926) and K.K. band around the mirror step. Note the
Illingworth (1927) (Fig. 8) converted the task of detecting fringe shifts from the relatively insensitive one of symmetrical brightening about the center
estimating their lateral displacements to the considerably more sensitive task of adjusting the light intensity on line. (e) The two sets of fringes have
been shifted to the left by 1/100 of the
both sides of a sharp boundary for equal luminance.[14][15] If they observed unequal illumination on either side of
fringe spacing. An abrupt discontinuity in
the step, such as in Fig. 8e, they would add or remove calibrated weights from the interferometer until both sides luminosity is visible across the step.
of the step were once again evenly illuminated, as in Fig. 8d. The number of weights added or removed provided a
measure of the fringe shift. Different observers could detect changes as little as 1/300 to 1/1500 of a fringe.
Kennedy also carried out an experiment at Mount Wilson, finding only about 1/10 the drift measured by Miller and no seasonal effects.[A 32]
In 1930, Georg Joos conducted an experiment using an automated interferometer with 21-meter-long (69 ft) arms forged from pressed quartz having very low
thermal coefficient of expansion, that took continuous photographic strip recordings of the fringes through dozens of revolutions of the apparatus. Displacements
of 1/1000 of a fringe could be measured on the photographic plates. No periodic fringe displacements were found, placing an upper limit to the aether wind of
1.5 km/s (0.93 mi/s).[16]
In the table below, the expected values are related to the relative speed between Earth and Sun of 30 km/s (18.6 mi/s). With respect to the speed of the solar system
around the galactic center of about 220 km/s (140 mi/s), or the speed of the solar system relative to the CMB rest frame of about 368 km/s (229 mi/s), the null
results of those experiments are even more obvious.
Arm length Fringe shift Fringe shift Upper Limit Experimental Null
Name Location Year Ratio
(meters) expected measured on Vaether Resolution result
Michelson[4] Potsdam 1881 1.2 0.04 ≤ 0.02 2 ∼ 20 km/s 0.02 yes
Michelson and < 0.02

Cleveland 1887 11.0 0.4 40 ∼ 4–8 km/s 0.01 yes
Morley[1] or ≤ 0.01
Morley and 1902–

Cleveland 32.2 1.13 ≤ 0.015 80 ∼ 3.5 km/s 0.015 yes
Miller[12][13] 1904
Miller[17] Mt. Wilson 1921 32.0 1.12 ≤ 0.08 15 ∼ 8–10 km/s unclear unclear
1923–
Miller[17] Cleveland 32.0 1.12 ≤ 0.03 40 ∼ 5 km/s 0.03 yes
1924
Miller
Cleveland 1924 32.0 1.12 ≤ 0.014 80 ∼ 3 km/s 0.014 yes
(sunlight)[17]
Tomaschek (star
Heidelberg 1924 8.6 0.3 ≤ 0.02 15 ∼ 7 km/s 0.02 yes
light)[18]
1925–
Miller[17][A 12] Mt. Wilson 32.0 1.12 ≤ 0.088 13 ∼ 8–10 km/s unclear unclear
1926
Pasadena/Mt.
Kennedy[14] 1926 2.0 0.07 ≤ 0.002 35 ∼ 5 km/s 0.002 yes
Wilson
Illingworth[15] Pasadena 1927 2.0 0.07 ≤ 0.0004 175 ∼ 2 km/s 0.0004 yes
Piccard &
with a Balloon 1926 2.8 0.13 ≤ 0.006 20 ∼ 7 km/s 0.006 yes
Stahel[19]
Piccard &
Brussels 1927 2.8 0.13 ≤ 0.0002 185 ∼ 2.5 km/s 0.0007 yes
Stahel[20]
Piccard &
Rigi 1927 2.8 0.13 ≤ 0.0003 185 ∼ 2.5 km/s 0.0007 yes
Stahel[21]
Michelson et
Mt. Wilson 1929 25.9 0.9 ≤ 0.01 90 ∼ 3 km/s 0.01 yes
al.[22]
Joos[16] Jena 1930 21.0 0.75 ≤ 0.002 375 ∼ 1.5 km/s 0.002 yes
Recent experiments
Optical tests
Optical tests of the isotropy of the speed of light became commonplace.[A 35] New technologies, including the use of lasers and masers, have significantly improved
measurement precision. (In the following table, only Essen (1955), Jaseja (1964), and Shamir/Fox (1969) are experiments of Michelson–Morley type, i.e.,
comparing two perpendicular beams. The other optical experiments employed different methods.)
Upper
Author Year Description
bounds
Louis Essen[23] 1955 The frequency of a rotating microwave cavity resonator is compared with that of a quartz clock ~3 km/s
Cedarholm et
1958 Two ammonia masers were mounted on a rotating table, and their beams were directed in opposite directions. ~30 m/s
al.[24][25]
Mössbauer rotor 1960– In a series of experiments by different researchers, the frequencies of gamma rays were observed using the
~2.0 cm/s
experiments 68 Mössbauer effect.
The frequencies of two He–Ne masers, mounted on a rotating table, were compared. Unlike Cedarholm et al., the
Jaseja et al.[26] 1964 ~30 m/s
masers were placed perpendicular to each other.
Both arms of the interferometer were contained in a transparent solid (plexiglass). The light source was a Helium–
Shamir and Fox[27] 1969 ~7 km/s
neon laser.
They searched for anisotropies of the speed of light behaving as the first and third of the Legendre polynomials.
Trimmer et
1973 They used a triangle interferometer, with one portion of the path in glass. (In comparison, the Michelson–Morley ~2.5 cm/s
al.[28][29]
type experiments test the second Legendre polynomial)[A 27]
Recent optical resonator experiments

Over the last several years, there has been a resurgence in interest in performing precise Michelson–Morley type
experiments using lasers, masers, cryogenic optical resonators, etc. This is in large part due to predictions of
quantum gravity that suggest that special relativity may be violated at scales accessible to experimental study. The
first of these highly accurate experiments was conducted by Brillet & Hall (1979), in which they analyzed a laser
frequency stabilized to a resonance of a rotating optical Fabry–Pérot cavity. They set a limit on the anisotropy of
the speed of light resulting from the Earth's motions of Δc/c ≈ 10−15, where Δc is the difference between the speed
of light in the x- and y-directions.[31]
As of 2009, optical and microwave resonator experiments have improved this limit to Δc/c ≈ 10−17. In some of
Figure 9. Michelson–Morley experiment
them, the devices were rotated or remained stationary, and some were combined with the Kennedy–Thorndike
with cryogenic optical resonators of a
experiment. In particular, Earth's direction and velocity (ca. 368 km/s (229 mi/s)) relative to the CMB rest frame form such as was used by Müller et al.
are ordinarily used as references in these searches for anisotropies. (2003).[30]
Author Year Description Δc/c

The frequency of a stationary cryogenic microwave oscillator, consisting of sapphire crystal operating in a whispering
Wolf et al.[32] 2003 gallery mode, is compared to a hydrogen maser whose frequency was compared to caesium and rubidium atomic
fountain clocks. Changes during Earth's rotation have been searched for. Data between 2001–2002 was analyzed.
Two optical resonators constructed from crystalline sapphire, controlling the frequencies of two Nd:YAG lasers, are set
Müller et al.[30] 2003 at right angles within a helium cryostat. A frequency comparator measures the beat frequency of the combined outputs
of the two resonators.
Wolf et al.[33] 2004 See Wolf et al. (2003). An active temperature control was implemented. Data between 2002–2003 was analyzed.
Wolf et al.[34] 2004 See Wolf et al. (2003). Data between 2002–2004 was analyzed.
Antonini et al.[35] 2005 Similar to Müller et al. (2003), though the apparatus itself was set into rotation. Data between 2002–2004 was analyzed.
Similar to Wolf et al. (2003). The frequency of two cryogenic oscillators was compared. In addition, the apparatus was
Stanwix et al.[36] 2005
set into rotation. Data between 2004–2005 was analyzed.
Herrmann et Similar to Müller et al. (2003). The frequencies of two optical Fabry–Pérot resonators cavities are compared – one
2005 cavity was continuously rotating while the other one was stationary oriented north–south. Data between 2004–2005
al.[37]
was analyzed.
Stanwix et al.[38] 2006 See Stanwix et al. (2005). Data between 2004–2006 was analyzed.
See Herrmann et al. (2005) and Stanwix et al. (2006). Data of both groups collected between 2004–2006 are combined
Müller et al.[39] 2007 and further analyzed. Since the experiments are located at difference continents, at Berlin and Perth respectively, the
effects of both the rotation of the devices themselves and the rotation of Earth could be studied.
The frequencies of a pair of orthogonal oriented optical standing wave cavities are compared. The cavities were
Eisele et al.[2] 2009
interrogated by a Nd:YAG laser. Data between 2007–2008 was analyzed.
Similar to Herrmann et al. (2005). The frequencies of a pair of rotating, orthogonal optical Fabry–Pérot resonators are
Herrmann et al.[3] 2009
compared. The frequencies of two Nd:YAG lasers are stabilized to resonances of these resonators.
Other tests of Lorentz invariance

Examples of other experiments not based on the Michelson–Morley principle, i.e., non-optical isotropy tests achieving an even higher level of precision, are Clock
comparison or Hughes–Drever experiments. In Drever's 1961 experiment, 7Li nuclei in the ground state, which has total angular momentum J = 3/2, were split
into four equally spaced levels by a magnetic field. Each transition between a pair of adjacent levels should emit a photon of equal frequency, resulting in a single,
sharp spectral line. However, since the nuclear wave functions for different MJ have different orientations in space relative to the magnetic field, any orientation
dependence, whether from an aether wind or from a dependence on the large-scale distribution of mass in space (see Mach's principle), would perturb the energy
spacings between the four levels, resulting in an anomalous broadening or splitting of the line. No such broadening was observed. Modern repeats of this kind of
experiment have provided some of the most accurate confirmations of the principle of Lorentz invariance.[A 36]
See also
Michelson–Morley Award
Moving magnet and conductor problem
The Light (Glass)
LIGO
References
Figure 10. 7Li-NMR spectrum of LiCl
(1M) in D2O. The sharp, unsplit NMR
Notes line of this isotope of lithium is
evidence for the isotropy of mass
1. Among other lessons was the need to control for vibration. Michelson (1881) wrote: "... owing to the extreme
and space.
sensitiveness of the instrument to vibrations, the work could not be carried on during the day. Next, the experiment
was tried at night. When the mirrors were placed half-way on the arms the fringes were visible, but their position
could not be measured till after twelve o'clock, and then only at intervals. When the mirrors were moved out to the
ends of the arms, the fringes were only occasionally visible. It thus appeared that the experiments could not be
performed in Berlin, and the apparatus was accordingly removed to the Astrophysicalisches Observatorium in
Potsdam ... Here, the fringes under ordinary circumstances were sufficiently quiet to measure, but so
extraordinarily sensitive was the instrument that the stamping of the pavement, about 100 meters from the
observatory, made the fringes disappear entirely!"
2. Michelson (1881) wrote: "... a sodium flame placed at a produced at once the interference bands. These could
then be altered in width, position, or direction, by a slight movement of the plate b, and when they were of
convenient width and of maximum sharpness, the sodium flame was removed and the lamp again substituted. The
screw m was then slowly turned till the bands reappeared. They were then of course colored, except the central
band, which was nearly black."
3. If one uses a half-silvered mirror as the beam splitter, the reflected beam will undergo a different number of front-
surface reflections than the transmitted beam. At each front-surface reflection, the light will undergo a phase
inversion. Because the two beams undergo a different number of phase inversions, when the path lengths of the
two beams match or differ by an integral number of wavelengths (e.g. 0, 1, 2 ...), there will be destructive
interference and a weak signal at the detector. If the path lengths of the beams differ by a half-integral number of
wavelengths (e.g., 0.5, 1.5, 2.5 ...), constructive interference will yield a strong signal. The results are opposite if a
cube beam-splitter is used, because a cube beam-splitter makes no distinction between a front- and rear-surface
reflection.
4. Sodium light produces a fringe pattern that displays cycles of fuzziness and sharpness that repeat every several
hundred fringes over a distance of approximately a millimeter. This pattern is due to the yellow sodium D line being
actually a doublet, the individual lines of which have a limited coherence length. After aligning the interferometer to
display the centermost portion of the sharpest set of fringes, the researcher would switch to white light.
5. Thirring (1926) as well as Lorentz pointed out that Miller's results failed even the most basic criteria required to
believe in their celestial origin, namely that the azimuth of supposed drift should exhibit daily variations consistent
with the source rotating about the celestial pole. Instead, while Miller's observations showed daily variations, their
oscillations in one set of experiments might center, say, around a northwest–southeast line.
Experiments
1. Michelson, Albert A.; Morley, Edward W. (1887). "On the Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether". American Journal of Science. 34 (203):
333–345. doi:10.2475/ajs.s3-34.203.333 (https://doi.org/10.2475%2Fajs.s3-34.203.333).
2. Eisele, Ch.; Nevsky, A. Yu.; Schillerv, S. (2009). "Laboratory Test of the Isotropy of Light Propagation at the 10−17 level" (http://www.exphy.uni-duesseldorf.de/
Publikationen/2009/Eisele%20et%20al%20Laboratory%20Test%20of%20the%20Isotropy%20of%20Light%20Propagation%20at%20the%2010-17%20Level%
202009.pdf) (PDF). Physical Review Letters. 103 (9): 090401. Bibcode:2009PhRvL.103i0401E (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009PhRvL.103i0401E).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.103.090401 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.103.090401). PMID 19792767 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1979276
7).
3. Herrmann, S.; Senger, A.; Möhle, K.; Nagel, M.; Kovalchuk, E. V.; Peters, A. (2009). "Rotating optical cavity experiment testing Lorentz invariance at the
10−17 level". Physical Review D. 80 (100): 105011. arXiv:1002.1284 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1002.1284). Bibcode:2009PhRvD..80j5011H (https://ui.adsabs.harv
ard.edu/abs/2009PhRvD..80j5011H). doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.80.105011 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.80.105011).
4. Michelson, Albert A. (1881). "The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether" (https://zenodo.org/record/1450060/files/article.pdf) (PDF).
American Journal of Science. 22 (128): 120–129. doi:10.2475/ajs.s3-22.128.120 (https://doi.org/10.2475%2Fajs.s3-22.128.120).
5. Michelson, Albert A.; Morley, Edward W. (1886). "Influence of Motion of the Medium on the Velocity of Light". Am. J. Sci. 31 (185): 377–386.
doi:10.2475/ajs.s3-31.185.377 (https://doi.org/10.2475%2Fajs.s3-31.185.377).
6. Michelson, Albert A.; Morley, Edward W. (1887). "On a method of making the wave-length of sodium light the actual and practical standard of length" (http://ww
w.ajsonline.org/content/s3-34/204/427.full.pdf+html). American Journal of Science. 34 (204): 427–430. doi:10.2475/ajs.s3-34.204.427 (https://doi.org/10.247
5%2Fajs.s3-34.204.427).
7. Michelson, Albert A.; Morley, Edward W. (1889). "On the feasibility of establishing a light-wave as the ultimate standard of length" (http://www.ajsonline.org/con
tent/s3-38/225/181.full.pdf+html). American Journal of Science. 38 (225): 181–6. doi:10.2475/ajs.s3-38.225.181 (https://doi.org/10.2475%2Fajs.s3-38.225.18
1).
8. Kennedy, R. J.; Thorndike, E. M. (1932). "Experimental Establishment of the Relativity of Time". Phys. Rev. 42 (3): 400–408. Bibcode:1932PhRv...42..400K (ht
tps://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1932PhRv...42..400K). doi:10.1103/PhysRev.42.400 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.42.400).
9. Fox, J. G. (1965), "Evidence Against Emission Theories", American Journal of Physics, 33 (1): 1–17, Bibcode:1965AmJPh..33....1F (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.
edu/abs/1965AmJPh..33....1F), doi:10.1119/1.1971219 (https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.1971219).
10. Brecher, K. (1977). "Is the speed of light independent of the velocity of the source". Physical Review Letters. 39 (17): 1051–1054.
Bibcode:1977PhRvL..39.1051B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977PhRvL..39.1051B). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.39.1051 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhy
sRevLett.39.1051).
11. Filippas, T.A.; Fox, J.G. (1964). "Velocity of Gamma Rays from a Moving Source". Physical Review. 135 (4B): B1071–1075. Bibcode:1964PhRv..135.1071F (ht
tps://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1964PhRv..135.1071F). doi:10.1103/PhysRev.135.B1071 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.135.B1071).
12. Morley, Edward W. & Miller, Dayton C. (1904). "Extract from a Letter dated Cleveland, Ohio, August 5th, 1904, to Lord Kelvin from Profs. Edward W. Morley
and Dayton C. Miller". Philosophical Magazine. 6. 8 (48): 753–754. doi:10.1080/14786440409463248 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440409463248).
13. Morley, Edward W. & Miller, Dayton C. (1905). "Report of an experiment to detect the Fitzgerald–Lorentz Effect". Proceedings of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences. XLI (12): 321–8. doi:10.2307/20022071 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20022071).
14. Kennedy, Roy J. (1926). "A Refinement of the Michelson–Morley Experiment" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1084733). Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences. 12 (11): 621–629. Bibcode:1926PNAS...12..621K (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1926PNAS...12..621K).
doi:10.1073/pnas.12.11.621 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.12.11.621). PMC 1084733 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1084733).
15. Illingworth, K. K. (1927). "A Repetition of the Michelson–Morley Experiment Using Kennedy's Refinement" (https://authors.library.caltech.edu/5885/1/ILLpr27.p
df) (PDF). Physical Review. 30 (5): 692–696. Bibcode:1927PhRv...30..692I (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1927PhRv...30..692I).
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.30.692 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.30.692).
16. Joos, G. (1930). "Die Jenaer Wiederholung des Michelsonversuchs". Annalen der Physik. 399 (4): 385–407. Bibcode:1930AnP...399..385J (https://ui.adsabs.h
arvard.edu/abs/1930AnP...399..385J). doi:10.1002/andp.19303990402 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19303990402).
17. Miller, Dayton C. (1925). "Ether-Drift Experiments at Mount Wilson" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1085994). Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences. 11 (6): 306–314. Bibcode:1925PNAS...11..306M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1925PNAS...11..306M). doi:10.1073/pnas.11.6.306
(https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.11.6.306). PMC 1085994 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1085994).
18. Tomaschek, R. (1924). "Über das Verhalten des Lichtes außerirdischer Lichtquellen" (http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k153753/f115). Annalen der Physik.
378 (1): 105–126. Bibcode:1924AnP...378..105T (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1924AnP...378..105T). doi:10.1002/andp.19243780107 (https://doi.org/10.
1002%2Fandp.19243780107).
19. Piccard, A.; Stahel, E. (1926). "L'expérience de Michelson, réalisée en ballon libre" (http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3136h/f420). Comptes Rendus. 183
(7): 420–421.
20. Piccard, A.; Stahel, E. (1927). "Nouveaux résultats obtenus par l'expérience de Michelson" (http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3137t/f152). Comptes Rendus.
184: 152.
21. Piccard, A.; Stahel, E. (1927). "L'absence du vent d'éther au Rigi" (http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k31384/f1198). Comptes Rendus. 184: 1198–1200.
22. Michelson, A. A.; Pease, F. G.; Pearson, F. (1929). "Results of repetition of the Michelson–Morley experiment". Journal of the Optical Society of America. 18
(3): 181. Bibcode:1929JOSA...18..181M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1929JOSA...18..181M). doi:10.1364/josa.18.000181 (https://doi.org/10.1364%2Fjo
sa.18.000181).
23. Essen, L. (1955). "A New Æther-Drift Experiment". Nature. 175 (4462): 793–794. Bibcode:1955Natur.175..793E (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1955Natur.
175..793E). doi:10.1038/175793a0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F175793a0).
24. Cedarholm, J. P.; Bland, G. F.; Havens, B. L.; Townes, C. H. (1958). "New Experimental Test of Special Relativity". Physical Review Letters. 1 (9): 342–343.
Bibcode:1958PhRvL...1..342C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1958PhRvL...1..342C). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.1.342 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev
Lett.1.342).
25. Cedarholm, J. P.; Townes, C. H. (1959). "New Experimental Test of Special Relativity". Nature. 184 (4696): 1350–1351. Bibcode:1959Natur.184.1350C (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1959Natur.184.1350C). doi:10.1038/1841350a0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F1841350a0).
26. Jaseja, T. S.; Javan, A.; Murray, J.; Townes, C. H. (1964). "Test of Special Relativity or of the Isotropy of Space by Use of Infrared Masers". Phys. Rev. 133
(5a): 1221–1225. Bibcode:1964PhRv..133.1221J (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1964PhRv..133.1221J). doi:10.1103/PhysRev.133.A1221 (https://doi.org/1
0.1103%2FPhysRev.133.A1221).
27. Shamir, J.; Fox, R. (1969). "A new experimental test of special relativity". Il Nuovo Cimento B. 62 (2): 258–264. Bibcode:1969NCimB..62..258S (https://ui.adsa
bs.harvard.edu/abs/1969NCimB..62..258S). doi:10.1007/BF02710136 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02710136).
28. Trimmer, William S.; Baierlein, Ralph F.; Faller, James E.; Hill, Henry A. (1973). "Experimental Search for Anisotropy in the Speed of Light". Physical Review
D. 8 (10): 3321–3326. Bibcode:1973PhRvD...8.3321T (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973PhRvD...8.3321T). doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.8.3321 (https://doi.or
g/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.8.3321).
29. Trimmer, William S.; Baierlein, Ralph F.; Faller, James E.; Hill, Henry A. (1974). "Erratum: Experimental search for anisotropy in the speed of light". Physical
Review D. 9 (8): 2489–2489. Bibcode:1974PhRvD...9R2489T (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974PhRvD...9R2489T). doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.9.2489.2 (ht
tps://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.9.2489.2).
30. Müller, H.; Herrmann, S.; Braxmaier, C.; Schiller, S.; Peters, A. (2003). "Modern Michelson–Morley experiment using cryogenic optical resonators". Phys. Rev.
Lett. 91 (2): 020401. arXiv:physics/0305117 (https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0305117). Bibcode:2003PhRvL..91b0401M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003
PhRvL..91b0401M). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.91.020401 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.91.020401). PMID 12906465 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.go
v/pubmed/12906465).
31. Brillet, A.; Hall, J. L. (1979). "Improved laser test of the isotropy of space". Phys. Rev. Lett. 42 (9): 549–552. Bibcode:1979PhRvL..42..549B (https://ui.adsabs.
harvard.edu/abs/1979PhRvL..42..549B). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.42.549 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.42.549).
32. Wolf; et al. (2003). "Tests of Lorentz Invariance using a Microwave Resonator" (https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2440/101285/3/hdl_101
285.pdf) (PDF). Physical Review Letters. 90 (6): 060402. arXiv:gr-qc/0210049 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0210049). Bibcode:2003PhRvL..90f0402W (https://u
i.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003PhRvL..90f0402W). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.060402 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.90.060402).
PMID 12633279 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12633279).
33. Wolf, P.; Tobar, M. E.; Bize, S.; Clairon, A.; Luiten, A. N.; Santarelli, G. (2004). "Whispering Gallery Resonators and Tests of Lorentz Invariance". General
Relativity and Gravitation. 36 (10): 2351–2372. arXiv:gr-qc/0401017 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0401017). Bibcode:2004GReGr..36.2351W (https://ui.adsabs.h
arvard.edu/abs/2004GReGr..36.2351W). doi:10.1023/B:GERG.0000046188.87741.51 (https://doi.org/10.1023%2FB%3AGERG.0000046188.87741.51).
34. Wolf, P.; Bize, S.; Clairon, A.; Santarelli, G.; Tobar, M. E.; Luiten, A. N. (2004). "Improved test of Lorentz invariance in electrodynamics" (https://digital.library.ad
elaide.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2440/101283/3/hdl_101283.pdf) (PDF). Physical Review D. 70 (5): 051902. arXiv:hep-ph/0407232 (https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-p
h/0407232). Bibcode:2004PhRvD..70e1902W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PhRvD..70e1902W). doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.70.051902 (https://doi.org/
10.1103%2FPhysRevD.70.051902).
35. Antonini, P.; Okhapkin, M.; Göklü, E.; Schiller, S. (2005). "Test of constancy of speed of light with rotating cryogenic optical resonators". Physical Review A. 71
(5): 050101. arXiv:gr-qc/0504109 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0504109). Bibcode:2005PhRvA..71e0101A (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PhRvA..71e0
101A). doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.71.050101 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevA.71.050101).
36. Stanwix, P. L.; Tobar, M. E.; Wolf, P.; Susli, M.; Locke, C. R.; Ivanov, E. N.; Winterflood, J.; Kann, van F. (2005). "Test of Lorentz Invariance in Electrodynamics
Using Rotating Cryogenic Sapphire Microwave Oscillators". Physical Review Letters. 95 (4): 040404. arXiv:hep-ph/0506074 (https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0506
074). Bibcode:2005PhRvL..95d0404S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PhRvL..95d0404S). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.95.040404 (https://doi.org/10.110
3%2FPhysRevLett.95.040404). PMID 16090785 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16090785).
37. Herrmann, S.; Senger, A.; Kovalchuk, E.; Müller, H.; Peters, A. (2005). "Test of the Isotropy of the Speed of Light Using a Continuously Rotating Optical
Resonator". Phys. Rev. Lett. 95 (15): 150401. arXiv:physics/0508097 (https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0508097). Bibcode:2005PhRvL..95o0401H (https://ui.adsab
s.harvard.edu/abs/2005PhRvL..95o0401H). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.95.150401 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.95.150401). PMID 16241700 (http
s://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16241700).
38. Stanwix, P. L.; Tobar, M. E.; Wolf, P.; Locke, C. R.; Ivanov, E. N. (2006). "Improved test of Lorentz invariance in electrodynamics using rotating cryogenic
sapphire oscillators". Physical Review D. 74 (8): 081101. arXiv:gr-qc/0609072 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0609072). Bibcode:2006PhRvD..74h1101S (https://u
i.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PhRvD..74h1101S). doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.74.081101 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.74.081101).
39. Müller, H.; Stanwix, Paul L.; Tobar, M. E.; Ivanov, E.; Wolf, P.; Herrmann, S.; Senger, A.; Kovalchuk, E.; Peters, A. (2007). "Relativity tests by complementary
rotating Michelson–Morley experiments". Phys. Rev. Lett. 99 (5): 050401. arXiv:0706.2031 (https://arxiv.org/abs/0706.2031). Bibcode:2007PhRvL..99e0401M
(https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PhRvL..99e0401M). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.050401 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.99.050401).
PMID 17930733 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17930733).
Bibliography (Series "A" references)

1. Staley, Richard (2009), "Albert Michelson, the Velocity of Light, and the Ether Drift", Einstein's generation. The origins of the relativity revolution, Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-77057-4
2. Albrecht Fölsing (1998). Albert Einstein: A Biography. Penguin Group. ISBN 0-14-023719-4.
3. Robertson, H. P. (1949). "Postulate versus Observation in the Special Theory of Relativity" (https://web.archive.org/web/20181024192313/https://journals.aps.
org/rmp/pdf/10.1103/RevModPhys.21.378). Reviews of Modern Physics. 21 (3): 378–382. Bibcode:1949RvMP...21..378R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
949RvMP...21..378R). doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.21.378 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.21.378). Archived from the original (http://cds.cern.ch/recor
d/1061896/files/RevModPhys.21.378.pdf) (PDF) on 2018-10-24.
4. Whittaker, Edmund Taylor (1910). A History of the theories of aether and electricity (https://archive.org/details/historyoftheorie00whitrich) (1. ed.). Dublin:
Longman, Green and Co.
5. Janssen, Michel; Stachel, John (2010). "The Optics and Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" (http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/Preprints/P265.PDF) (pdf). In
Stachel, John (ed.). Going Critical. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-1308-9.
6. Laub, Jakob (1910). "Über die experimentellen Grundlagen des Relativitätsprinzips (On the experimental foundations of the principle of relativity)". Jahrbuch
der Radioaktivität und Elektronik. 7: 405–463.
7. Maxwell, James Clerk (1878), "Ether" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Ether), in Baynes, T.S. (ed.),
Encyclopædia Britannica, 8 (9th ed.), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, pp. 568–572
8. Maxwell, James Clerk (1880), "On a Possible Mode of Detecting a Motion of the Solar System through the Luminiferous Ether", Nature, 21 (535): 314–5,
Bibcode:1880Natur..21S.314. (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1880Natur..21S.314.), doi:10.1038/021314c0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F021314c0)
9. Miller, A.I. (1981). Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911). Reading: Addison–Wesley. p. 24.
ISBN 978-0-201-04679-3.
10. Fickinger, William (2005). Physics at a Research University: Case Western Reserve, 1830–1990. Cleveland. pp. 18–22, 48. ISBN 978-0977338603. "The
Dormitory was located on a now largely unoccupied space between the Biology Building and the Adelbert Gymnasium, both of which still stand on the CWRU
campus."
11. Hamerla, Ralph R. (2006). An American Scientist on the Research Frontier: Edward Morley, Community, and Radical Ideas in Nineteenth-Century Science (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=6EcZa6hutfcC&pg=PA123). Springer. pp. 123–152. ISBN 978-1-4020-4089-4.
12. Miller, Dayton C. (1933). "The Ether-Drift Experiment and the Determination of the Absolute Motion of the Earth". Reviews of Modern Physics. 5 (3): 203–242.
Bibcode:1933RvMP....5..203M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1933RvMP....5..203M). doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.5.203 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevMod
Phys.5.203).
13. Blum, Edward K.; Lototsky, Sergey V. (2006). Mathematics of physics and engineering (https://books.google.com/?id=nFRG2UizET0C). World Scientific. p. 98.
ISBN 978-981-256-621-8., Chapter 2, p. 98 (https://books.google.com/books?id=nFRG2UizET0C&pg=PA98)
14. Shankland, R.S. (1964). "Michelson–Morley experiment". American Journal of Physics. 31 (1): 16–35. Bibcode:1964AmJPh..32...16S (https://ui.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/abs/1964AmJPh..32...16S). doi:10.1119/1.1970063 (https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.1970063).
15. Feynman, R.P. (1970), "The Michelson–Morley experiment (15-3)", The Feynman Lectures on Physics, 1, Reading: Addison Wesley Longman, ISBN 978-0-
201-02115-8
16. Albert Shadowitz (1988). Special relativity (Reprint of 1968 ed.). Courier Dover Publications. pp. 159–160. ISBN 978-0-486-65743-1.
17. Teller, Edward; Teller, Wendy; Talley, Wilson (2002), Conversations on the Dark Secrets of Physics (https://books.google.com/books?id=QClyAWecl60C&pg=P
A10), Basic books, pp. 10–11, ISBN 978-0786752379
18. Schumacher, Reinhard A. (1994). "Special Relativity and the Michelson-Morley Interferometer". American Journal of Physics. 62 (7): 609–612.
Bibcode:1994AmJPh..62..609S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994AmJPh..62..609S). doi:10.1119/1.17535 (https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.17535).
19. Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1895), Attempt of a Theory of Electrical and Optical Phenomena in Moving Bodies, Leiden: E.J. Brill
20. Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1904), "Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light", Proceedings of the Royal
Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, 6: 809–831
21. Poincaré, Henri (1905), "On the Dynamics of the Electron", Comptes Rendus, 140: 1504–1508 (Wikisource translation)
22. Einstein, A (June 30, 1905). "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" (https://web.archive.org/web/20091229162203/http://www.pro-physik.de/Phy/pdfs/ger_890
_921.pdf) (PDF). Annalen der Physik (in German). 17 (10): 890–921. Bibcode:1905AnP...322..891E (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1905AnP...322..891E).
doi:10.1002/andp.19053221004 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19053221004). Archived from the original (http://www.pro-physik.de/Phy/pdfs/ger_890_921.
pdf) (PDF) on December 29, 2009. Retrieved 2009-11-27. English translation: Perrett, W. Walker, J. (ed.). "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" (http://w
ww.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/specrel/www/). Translated by Jeffery, GB. Fourmilab. Retrieved 2009-11-27.
23. Einstein, A. (1916), Relativity: The Special and General Theory, New York: H. Holt and Company
24. Stachel, John (1982), "Einstein and Michelson: the Context of Discovery and Context of Justification", Astronomische Nachrichten, 303 (1): 47–53,
Bibcode:1982AN....303...47S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982AN....303...47S), doi:10.1002/asna.2103030110 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fasna.21030
30110)
25. Michael Polanyi, Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy, ISBN 0-226-67288-3, footnote page 10–11: Einstein reports, via Dr N Balzas in
response to Polanyi's query, that "The Michelson–Morley experiment had no role in the foundation of the theory." and "..the theory of relativity was not founded
to explain its outcome at all."[1] (https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rtu8kCpvz4C&lpg=PP1&pg=PT19#v=onepage&q=&f=false)
26. Jeroen, van Dongen (2009), "On the Role of the Michelson–Morley Experiment: Einstein in Chicago", Archive for History of Exact Sciences, 63 (6): 655–663,
arXiv:0908.1545 (https://arxiv.org/abs/0908.1545), doi:10.1007/s00407-009-0050-5 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00407-009-0050-5)
27. Mansouri, R.; Sexl, R.U. (1977). "A test theory of special relativity: III. Second-order tests". Gen. Rel. Gravit. 8 (10): 809–814. Bibcode:1977GReGr...8..809M
(https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977GReGr...8..809M). doi:10.1007/BF00759585 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00759585).
28. Norton, John D. (2004). "Einstein's Investigations of Galilean Covariant Electrodynamics prior to 1905" (http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/archive/00001743/).
Archive for History of Exact Sciences. 59: 45–105. Bibcode:2004AHES...59...45N (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004AHES...59...45N).
doi:10.1007/s00407-004-0085-6 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00407-004-0085-6).
29. Swenson, Loyd S. (1970). "The Michelson–Morley–Miller Experiments before and after 1905". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 1 (2): 56–78.
Bibcode:1970JHA.....1...56S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970JHA.....1...56S). doi:10.1177/002182867000100108 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0021828
67000100108).
30. Swenson, Loyd S., Jr. (2013) [1972]. The Ethereal Aether: A History of the Michelson-Morley-Miller Aether-drift Experiments, 1880–1930 (https://books.google.
com/books?id=kQTUAAAAQBAJ). University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-75836-0.
31. Thirring, Hans (1926). "Prof. Miller's Ether Drift Experiments". Nature. 118 (2959): 81–82. Bibcode:1926Natur.118...81T (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/192
6Natur.118...81T). doi:10.1038/118081c0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F118081c0).
32. Michelson, A. A.; et al. (1928). "Conference on the Michelson–Morley Experiment Held at Mount Wilson, February, 1927". Astrophysical Journal. 68: 341–390.
Bibcode:1928ApJ....68..341M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1928ApJ....68..341M). doi:10.1086/143148 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F143148).
33. Shankland, Robert S.; et al. (1955). "New Analysis of the Interferometer Observations of Dayton C. Miller". Reviews of Modern Physics. 27 (2): 167–178.
Bibcode:1955RvMP...27..167S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1955RvMP...27..167S). doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.27.167 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevM
odPhys.27.167).
34. Roberts, T.J. (2006). "An Explanation of Dayton Miller's Anomalous "Ether Drift" Result". arXiv:physics/0608238 (https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0608238).
35. Relativity FAQ (2007): What is the experimental basis of Special Relativity? (http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/experiments.html)
36. Haugan, Mark P.; Will, Clifford M. (May 1987). "Modern tests of special relativity" (http://docuserv.ligo.caltech.edu/docs/public/P/P870007-00.pdf) (PDF).
Physics Today. 40 (5): 67–76. Bibcode:1987PhT....40e..69H (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987PhT....40e..69H). doi:10.1063/1.881074 (https://doi.org/1
0.1063%2F1.881074). Retrieved 14 July 2012.
External links
Quotations related to Michelson–Morley experiment at Wikiquote
Media related to Michelson-Morley experiment at Wikimedia Commons
Mathematical analysis of the Michelson Morley Experiment at Wikibooks
Roberts, T; Schleif, S (2007). Dlugosz, JM (ed.). "What is the experimental basis of Special Relativity?" (http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/e
xperiments.html). Usenet Physics FAQ. University of California, Riverside.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michelson–Morley_experiment&oldid=922825543"
This page was last edited on 24 October 2019, at 15:36 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and
Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

Michelson-Morley Experiment

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Michelson-Morley Experiment

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

11/9/2019 Michelson–Morley experiment - Wikipedia

Detecting the aether

1881 and 1887 experiments

Michelson experiment (1881)

Michelson–Morley experiment (1887)

— Albert Abraham Michelson, 1887

Light path analysis and consequences

backward journey. The total travel time is:

By multiplying with c, the corresponding length difference before rotation is

and after rotation

Dividing by the wavelength λ, the fringe shift n is found:

Observer comoving with the interferometer

Length contraction and Lorentz transformation

— Albert Einstein, 1916

Michelson[4] Potsdam 1881 1.2 0.04 ≤ 0.02 2 ∼ 20 km/s 0.02 yes

Michelson and < 0.02

Morley and 1902–

Recent optical resonator experiments

Author Year Description Δc/c

Other tests of Lorentz invariance

Bibliography (Series "A" references)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michelson–Morley_experiment&oldid=922825543"

This page was last edited on 24 October 2019, at 15:36 (UTC).

You might also like