First Part of The Book-Fridmann Nets

FAO FISHING MANUALS
CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

FAO Fishing Manuals
Calculations for
fishing gear designs
by
Prof A L Fridman, Dr Tech Sc
Revised, edited and enlarged by

P J G Carrothers, P Eng
Published by arrangement with the

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
by Fishing News Books Ltd
Farnham, Surrey, England
FAO 1986
The copyright in this book is vested in the Food and Agriculture Organiza-
tion of the United Nations for which Fishing News Books Ltd. acts as
publisher. The book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, by any
method or process, without written permission from the copyright holder.
This applies in particular to photocopying of the designs and plans.
Applications for any desired permission should be addressed to the
Director, Publications Division, Food and Agriculture Organization, Via
delle Terme di Caracalla, Rome, Italy, accompanied by a detailed explana-
tion of the purpose and extent of the reproduction desired.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Fridman, A.L.
Calculations for fishing gear designs.
(FAO fishing manuals)
1. FisheriesEquipment and supplies
Design and construction Mathematics
I. Title II. Carrothers, P.J.G. HI. Food
and Agriculture Organization IV. Series
639 '.2 '028 SH344
ISBN 0-85238-141-7
Typeset by
Mathematical Composition Setters Ltd
Salisbury, Wiltshire
Printed in Great Britain by
Adlard & Son Ltd
Bartholomew Press
Dorking, Surrey
CONTENTS
page
List of figures ix
List of tables xiii
List of numerical examples xv
List of appendices xvi
Nomenclature xvii
Introduction xxi
A. Theory 1
1 The theory of fishing gear and fishing systems 1
1 . 1 Development of fishing gear and fishing systems 1
1 .2 Theoretical representation of fishing 4

1 .3 Classifications of fishing gear 9
1 .4 Efficiency and selectivity of fishing gear fishery
regulations 12
1.4.1. Efficiency 12
1.4.2. Selectivity 15
1.5 Technical features of fishing gear and fishing systems . . 16

1 .6 Economic evaluation of improvements through
comparative fishing 17
2 Netting geometry and the nature of internal forces 19
2.1 The properties of nets 19

2.2 The shape and area of netting 19
2.3 Estimation of netting yarn (twine) thickness, length and
projected area 22
VI CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS
2.4 Estimation of netting weight 27

2.5 Correlation between netting loads and hanging ratios ... 32
2.6 The strength of netting 35
2.7 Breaking stress, specific stress and tenacity of twine 37
2.8 Calculation for tailoring nets (taper cuts) 42
3 External forces acting on fishing gear 48
3.1 The nature of forces acting on fishing gear 48
3.1.1 Gravity and hydrostatic forces 48

3.1.2 Hydrodynamic forces acting on fishing nets 53
3.1.2.1 Hydrodynamic pressure from water flow 53

3.1.2.2 Hydrodynamic coefficient 53
3.1.2.3 Coefficients of drag and sheer (normal to velocity) forces 54
3.1.2.4 The solidity ratio and filtration coefficient for netting . . 55
3.1.2.5 Reynolds number 57
3.1.2.6 A simple, approximate method for estimating
hydrodynamic resistance 58
3.1.2.7 Drag of fishing nets of complex shape 59
3.1.3 Hydrodynamic drag force of fishing lines and ropes 64

3.1.4 Hydrodynamic forces on fishing gear auxiliaries 66
3.1.5 Ground effect 69
3.1.5.1 Friction 69
3.1.5.2 Calculating the ground effect 70
3.1.5.3 Rolling friction 70
3.1.5.4 Stationary gear 71
3.1.6 Forces generated by fish 74
4 Methods for calculating fishing gear as a system of

flexible lines 76
4.1 Simplified presentation to permit calculation 76

4.2 Estimating the shape and tension of flexible lines 76
4.3 Experimental determination of the shape and tension of
flexible lines by mechanical simulation 84
5 Model tests of fishing gear 88
5.1 Introduction 88
5.2 Principles of model testing 88
5.2.1 Geometric similarity 88

5.2.2 Kinematic similarity 91
5.2.3 Force similarity 92
5.2.4 Dynamic similarity 94
5.2.5 Similarity criteria 94
CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS Vll
5.3 Installations for model tests 95
5.3.1 Towing ponds, lakes or lagoons 95

5.3.2 Model tow tanks 97
5.3.3 Flume tank 99
5.3.4 Wind tunnel 101
5.3.5 Small model tanks 102
5.3.6 Vertical towing tank 105
5.4 Similarity considerations in the construction and testing

of fishing gear models 106
5.4.1 Conditions of approximate similarity 106

5.4.2 Geometric similarity 107
5.4.3 Boundary conditions 108
5.4.4 Initial conditions of motion 109
5.4.5 Force similarity 110
5.4.6 Weight similarity Ill
5.4.7 Unsteady motion 116
5.4.8 Scale effect 120
5.5 Model tests of sinkers, anchors, floats, doors and kites . 123
5.6 Practical aspects of model testing procedures 124
5.6.1 Calculations for the rope frame of the model 126

5.6.2 Calculations for model warps 127
5.6.3 Calculations for the rigging of models 128
5.6.4 Measuring the characteristics of the model 129
5.6.5 Test procedures and conversion of results from model to
full-scale 130
B. Design 133
6 General principles of designing commercial fishing gear . 133
6.1 The objectives of fishing gear design 133

6.2 Design stages 135
6.3 Formulating design requirements and approach to the
solution of design problems 137
6.4 Determining the principal design features based on the
prototype gear 138
6.5 Additional scaling factors for designing principal gear
components from prototype data 140
6.6 Determining the scaling factors for twine and rope
diameters 143
6.7 Calculating auxiliary components for rigging fishing
gear 146
6.8 Preparing drawings and specifications 147
6.9 The final design stages and tests 149
Viil CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS
7 Designing trawls 152
7.1 Formulation of technical requirements 152

7.2 Fish behaviour and fishing conditions 153
7.3 Calculation of mesh size 153
7.4 Technical parameters of the trawler 154
7.5 Selecting the prototype 157
7.6 Trawling speed 160
7.7 Tentative estimation of principal dimensions of the new
trawl design 161
7.8 Preliminary determination of the additional scaling
factors 162
7.9 Improving an established trawl 167
7.10 Preparing trawl plans 168
7.11 Calculations for floats, ballast (sinkers) and bobbins ... 170
7.12 Otter board (trawl door) calculations 174
7.13 Warp calculations 176
7.14 Re-calculating the total drag and mouth opening of the
trawl 180
8 Designing purse seines 185
8.1 Design objectives and procedure 185

8.2 Characteristics of the target fish and the fishing grounds 188
8.3 Vessel characteristics 188
8.4 Selecting the prototype seine 189
8.5 Calculating the seine length 191
8.6 Determining the depth of the seine 197
8.7 Determining the time, depth and speed of the sinking
leadline 198
8.8 Calculating the mesh size and twine diameter for seine
netting 200
8.9 Hanging netting to the breast lines (gavels) 203
8.10 Specifying the main lines 204
8.11 Calculations for the rigging of the seine 206
8.12 Specifying the purse line 207
9 Designing gill nets 209
9.1 Dimensions, hanging, mesh size, twine thickness, colour 209

9.2 Calculating the rigging of gill nets 212
9.3 Drifting behaviour of the nets and warp 215
Appendices 219
Bibliography 239
LIST OF FIGURES
page
The theory of fishing gear and fishing systems
Generalized information model of a fishing system 3

Information model of a trap net system 3
Information model of a trap net system where there are
devices to modify fish behaviour and to monitor the
fishing gear 3
Set gill net 4
Trap or pound net 5
Beach seine 5
Purse seine 6
Mid-water trawl 6
Lift net 7
Handline 7
Trolling line 8
Longlines (surface and set) 8
Fish pump 9
Absolute fishing efficiency 14
Size distribution of fish caught in a gill net IS
Selectivities of trawl codends of different mesh opening 16
Netting geometry and the nature of internal forces
Hanging ratios in hung netting 20

Mesh proportions 21
Netting geometry for twine lengths, twine area, solidity
ratio and filtration coefficient 25
Knot-yarn length factor as a function of twine thickness
and mesh size for single-knot netting 28
Plan of a purse seine wing 29
Dependence between hanging ratios and netting
utilization coefficient 30
Netting panel for a trawl wing 31
Netting plan for a trap net 32
Vector forces in the netting plane 33
Horizontal contraction caused by vertical loads 34
2. 1 1 Calculation of the taper cutting rate 43

2.12 Types of cut used to form a taper 43
2.13 Taper cut across a strip of netting 45
2.14 Cutting rate as a function of taper ratio 47
3 External forces acting on fishing gear
3.1 Classes of external forces acting on fishing gear 48

3.2 Determining the buoyancy of floating bodies 52
3.3 Determining the buoyed weight of submerged bodies ... 52
3.4 Netting panel at various angles of incidence to the
direction of motion 54
3.5 Types of hydrodynamic force depending on netting
orientation 54
3.6 Hydrodynamic drag and sheer force coefficients for
plane netting as a function of angle of incidence 55
3.7 Netting solidity parameter K n = 2EkD t /mi as a function
of the ratio of twine thickness to mesh size 57
3.8 Hydrodynamic drag of netting at various solidity ratios
as a function of Reynolds number 58
3.9 Slack netting inflated by water flow 60
3.10 Netting cone and cylinder developed for estimating
hydro-dynamic resistance 60
3.11 The wing of a set net 61
3.12 Velocity profile over a fixed bed 62
3.13 Dimensions of a stylized net 63
3.14 Definition of rope sag 65
3.15 Drag and sheer force coefficients for various types of
trawl door as a function of angle of incidence (a) 67
3.16 Reynolds number effect on drag coefficients 67
3.17 Sheer and drag coefficients for flat rectangular trawl
doors 69
3.18 Trawl bobbin geometry 71
3.19 Force vectors on set gear ballast 72

flexible lines
4.1 Shape and force diagram of a net 77
4.2 A flexible line suspended under the force of its own
gravitation 77
4.3 A suspended flexible line influenced by its own buoyancy 78
4.4 A flexible line loaded by fluid inertia drag 78
4.5 Geometry of a catenary line form 79
4.6 Buoyed beach seine sweep line 83
4.7 Simple vertical frame for mechanical simulation studies 85
4.8 Horizontal board for mechanical simulation studies ---- 87
5 Model tests of fishing gear
5.1 Similarity of geometric figures ....................... 89

5.2 Similarity of linear dimensions, areas, and volumes ____ 90
5.3 Geometric similarity of fish and mesh sizes ............ 91
5.4 Kinematic similarity of purse seine leadlines falling in
water ............................................. 92
5.5 MRB 55 class trawler used for model studies of fishing
gear .............................................. 96
5.6 System for instrumented studies of fishing gear models . 97
5.7 Trawl model tow tank .............................. 98
5.8 Flume tank at Boulogne-sur-Mer, France ............. 99
5.9 Flume tank at Hull, England ........................ 101
5.10 Wind tunnel adapted to model testing of fishing gear . . 102
5.11 Setting a model purse seine ......................... 103
5.12 Model tank fitted with device for setting model purse
seine ............................................. 103
5.13 Model tests of stick-held dip nets for saury ........... 104
5.14 Vertical towing tank in Kaliningrad .................. 105
5.15 Equilibrium of a line subjected to hydrodynamic and
gravity forces ...................................... 113
5.16 Dependence of the generalized Froude number on the
angle of incidence of a line ......................... 114
7 Designing trawls
7.1 Determining permissible trawl drag from available
towing force ...................................... 155
7.2 Equilibrium between trawl drag R and available towing
t
force Ft as functions of towing speed V .............. 157

7.3 Identification of pertinent trawl dimensions ........... 158
7.4 Trawl mouth opening coefficient as a function of towing
speed ............................................. 159
7.5 Relative fishing efficiency for whiting in the North Sea as
a function of trawling speed ........................ 161
7.6 Equilibrium between trawl resistance and available
towing force as a function of trawling speed .......... 166
7.7 Trawl resistance coefficient as a function of trawl taper . 170
7.8 Hydrodynamic float ................................ 172
7.9 Trawl kite ........................................ 173
7. 10 Dimensional scaling of otter boards .................. 176
7.1 1 Catenary model for estimating warp scope ............ 178
7.12 Trawl resistance parameter as a function of trawl
construction ....................................... 181
Xll CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS
7.13 Schematic for estimating door spread and wing spread . 182
7.14 Graphical solution of equation (7.48) for trawl door
spread 182
7.15 Schematic for estimating headline height 183
8 Designing purse seines

8.1 Catch-size frequencies for mackerel purse seining by 300
horsepower vessels 186
8.2 Idealized purse seine geometry 187
8.3 Speed reduction on a curved course as a function of
radius of curvature 189
8.4 Schematic diagram of a purse seine with principal parts
identified 190
8.5 Effect of hanging ratio on netting weight for a given
working area 191
8.6 Fish escaping through the gap and under the leadline
while the net is being shot 192
8.7 Fish escaping through the gap while the purse line is
being hauled 192
8.8 Geometry of seining strategy 193
8.9 Seine-length coefficient as a function of seine-setting to
fish-school velocity ratio 195
8.10 Graduating mesh size and hanging ratio with depth to
reduce seine weight 201
8.11 Influence of gavels on the gap between the wings of
purse seines 203
9 Designing gill nets
9.1 Forces on a gill net dragged on the river bed by the

current 213
9.2 Forces on a set gill net in a current 214
9.3 Forces on a fleet of drift nets 216
9.4 Distortion of a drift net by hydrodynamic resistance ... 216
9.5 Warp sag between suspension points 217
LIST OF TABLES
page
1 The theory of fishing gear and fishing systems
1 . 1 Labour productivity of fishermen 2

1.2 Effect of gear on fish behaviour and principal mechanics
for fish capture 12
1 .3 Classification of fishing gear 12
2 Netting geometry and the nature of internal forces

2.1 Coefficients for estimating thickness and resultant linear
density of netting twines 23
2.2 Knot-yarn length factor as a function of twine thickness
and mesh size for single-knot netting 28
2.3 Secondary hanging ratio as a function of the primary
hanging ratio 29
2.4 Netting utilization coefficient as a function of the
primary hanging ratio 30
2.5 Netting load transfer coefficient as a function of the
primary hanging ratio 33
2.6 Double-strand, wet-knot strength coefficients, K s, for
various netting materials 37
3 External forces acting on fishing gear
3.1 Specific weight and buoyancy or sinking coefficient of

some fishing gear materials 49
3.2 Netting solidity parameter K n = 2EkD t/mi in terms of
twine thickness and mesh size for single-knot netting ... 56
3.3 The drag coefficients for straight ropes 64
3.4 The drag coefficients (based on chord length Lc ) for
ropes with chord normal to the flow as a function of sag
ratio 65
3.5 Drag coefficients for certain
body shapes 66
3.6 Ground effect coefficients for some fishing gear
components in water on fine sand and on sand and
gravel 70
xiv CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS
3.7 Rolling coefficient of bobbins as a function of the angle

between the bobbin axis and the direction of the tow . . 71

flexible lines
4.1 The main geometric ratios of the catenary and parabola 81
5 Model tests of fishing gear
5.1 Bulk buoyed specific weight of various fishing gear

materials in sea water 112
6 General principles of designing commercial fishing gear
6.1 Operational characteristics of the more important fishing

methods 136
7 Designing trawls
7.1 Typical dimensions of Thailand bottom trawls 158
7.2 Relative dimensions of bottom trawls 158
7.3 Data for calculating the weighted mean mesh length of a
semipelagic trawl 164
7.4 Characteristics of lifting devices 173
7.5 Weights of footrope components 174
7.6 Warp diameter according to winch pull 177
8 Designing purse seines

8.1 Characteristics of fish schools 194
8.2 Recommended (USSR) ratios of twine thickness to mesh
length (Dt/mi) for nylon netting in purse seines 201
LIST OF NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
Part A. Theory Part B. Design

Example Numbers Page Example Numbers Page
2.1 27 6.1 140

2.2 30 6.2 141
2.3 31 6.3 142
2.4 34 6.4 144
2.5 37 6.5 145
2.6 40 6.6 146
2.7 41 6.7 147
2.8 45
7.1 154
3.1 50 7.2 156
3.2 50 7.3 156
3.3 51 7.4 163
3.4 61 7.5 164
3.5 63 7.6 170
3.6 65 7.7 171
3.7 67 7.8 172
3.8 68 7.9 176
3.9 72 7.10 177
3.10 73 7.11 179
3.11 74 7.12 180
7.13 184
4.1 82 7.14 184
4.2 82
4.3 83 8.1 189
4.4 84 8.2 194
4.5 86 8.3 195
8.4 196
5.1 91 8.5 198
5.2 93 8.6 199
5.3 108 8.7 199
5.4 111 8.8 200
XVi CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS
Part A. Theory Part B. Design

Example Numbers Page Example Numbers Page
5.5 114 8.9 202

5.6 115 8.10 205
5.7 118 8.11 206
5.8 119 8.12 207
5.9 121
5.10 122 9.1 210
5.11 125 9.2 211
5.12 128 9.3 212
9.4 214
9.5 216
9.6 218
LIST OF APPENDICES
1. Properties of Kapron (PA) laid netting yarns (twines), based on OST

(standard) 15-83-74.
2. Mesh strength and weight of standard Kapron (PA) netting panels,
based on OST (standard) 15-84-74.
3. Properties of Kapron (PA) light, laid netting, based on OST (standard)
15-80-74.
4. Properties of Kapron (PA) heavy, laid, untreated twine and netting,
based on OST (standard) 15-77-74 and 15-78-74 and of heavy, braided
twines, based on OST (standard) 15-79-74.
5. Properties of laid mounting ropes:
A. Kapron (PA), based on COST (standard) 10293-67
B. Combination (manila/galvanized wire), based on COST (stan-
dard) 11914-66
6. Properties of steel wire cables (working ropes).
7. Mass density of water, p, (kgf-sec 2/m 4 ) as a function of temperature and
salinity.
8. Kinematic viscosity of water, v, (x 10~
6 = m 2/sec) as a function of
temperature and salinity.
NOMENCLATURE
(Subscripts defined in parentheses)
a = price per unit mass of fish catch, gear/fish disturbance distance

A = area (d = trawl door, f =
fictitious, m = mouth, n = netting,
s = netting yarn section, S= surface area, t = twine projection,
v = vessel)
b = cost of a fishing operation, bight depth or sag (of curved lines), deriv-
ed coefficient
B = buoyant force,generalized characteristic variable or criterion of
similarity (p =
prototype, m
= model, n = new design)
c = level of confidence, concentration (f = fish mass)
C = catch (E = per unit effort, m
= experiment gear, = mass, s = per set,
G
S = standard gear, T = per time), hydrodynamic force coefficient
(n = normal, t = tangential, x = drag, y = sheer (lift or spreading))
D = thickness or diameter (1 = line, t = twine, w = warp)
e = extension or absolute strain error
E = efficiency, ratio coefficient of similar factors (C = catch, c = cost,
e = economic, f = filtration, F = force or load, k =Ucnot area,
m = mass, n = number, r = rolling friction, s = netting solidity,
t = towing force, T = time, u = utilization, V = velocity, W = weight,
y = yarn length in knot, 7 = buoyancy), hanging ratio of netting onto

lines (1 = primary, 2 = secondary)
f = dependent function, load safety factor
F = force (B = buoyant, d = door, g = ground reaction, k = kinetic,
p = propeller thrust, t = tensile or tractive, x = in X-direction (drag),
y = in Y-direction (sheer or lift), z = in Z-direction (vertical)), load per
unit linear dimension (1 = primary = horizontal or athwartwise in net-
ting, 2
= secondary = vertical or fore-and-aft in netting, b = buoyant
force per unit length of lines, f= flotation, n = netting, q = fluid
inertia force per unit length of lines, s = sinking force per unit length
of lines, w = line weight in air, x = per unit width)
Fr a= pV 2/(yL) = generalized Froude number
g = acceleration of gravity = 9,80665 m/sec
2
G = girth or circumference
H = height or depth (h = hung, m = model, n = new design, o = extended
netting, p = prototype, w = working)
K as empirical coefficient (a = anchor holding, A = trawl mouth area,
XViii CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS
B = ballast, DR = diameter from Rtex, DT = diameter from Ttex,

f = fish traction, F = force, g = ground effect, G = girth,
h = hydrodynamic force, k = knot area, L = length, m = mesh selec-
tivity, n = netting solidity, Q = buoyancy, R = trawl resistance,
s = strength, t = tex, T = trawl mouth, v = vibration, y = yarn length
in knot)
In= logarithm to base e
L = length (c
= chord, 1 = line, m = mouth perimeter, n= net,
o = extended netting, s= warp scope, t = netting yarn (twine)),
characteristic linear dimension (m = model, n = new design,
p= prototype)
m = mesh = hung height, = extended length, o = extended open-
size (h 1
ing, s= mesh side length or square measure, w = hung width)

M = number of meshes (N = normal to twines (deep), T = twine-wise
(long), 1
= leading edge, 2 = trailing edge)
N = number (s = singles yarns, n = nets), normal force or direction vector,
number of meshes or cuts normal to course of twines (usually in
depth)
Ne = F/(pV 2 L 2 ) = Newton's number
P = power, characteristic parameter
q = pV = hydrodynamic stagnation pressure
2
=
Q buoyed weight (d = trawl door (otter board), f= floats (-ve),
F = footrope, = line, n = netting, r = rigging, s = sinkers ( + ve))
1
r = radius (n = set net, s = fish school)

R = resistance (b = rolling bobbin, d = door or otter board, g = ground
friction, h = hydrodynamic, n = net and appendages, t = total trawl,
v = vessel, w = wind, x = drag, y = sheer (lift or spread)), taper ratio
(c
= cutting rate)
Re = LVp/fjL = LV/j> = Reynolds number (t = twine, m = model, n = new
design, p = prototype)
s = specific or mass stress, tensile force per unit linear density (r = at
rupture or tenacity), standard deviation (x = standard error of mean)
S = tensile strength (k = knot, m = mesh, t = twine, w = wet), scaling
factor (A = area, C = hydrodynamic force coefficient, D = diameter
(twine, rope), E = netting hanging ratio, f = safety factor, F = force,
H = height or depth, L = linear dimension, m = mesh size, n = net,
P as power, R = hydrodynamic resistance, t = twine, T = time,
V = velocity, w = warp, y = fluid specific weight, p = fluid mass
density)
Sr = VT/L = Strouhal number
t = twine (netting yarn), temperature, Students 't'
tex = linear density or mass per unit length of fibre or singles yarn - g/km,
(R-tex = resultant tex of fabricated yarns, twines and cord
- g/km)
T = tension (r = =
breaking strength), time (f fishing, s = sinking), number
of meshes or cuts in twinewise direction
v s volume
CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS XIX
V = velocity (c
= current, f = fish school, h = hauling, n = net, s = seiner
while shooting, w = wind)
w = wall thickness
W = fishing power, gravity force, load, weight (w = in water, f = fish in air,
A = per unit fictitious netting area)
x = distance from origin
a = angle of incidence, of fluid flow onto a submerged body (b = bobbin
axis, w = wing tip)
= vertical angles
y = p.g = specific weight (b = buoyed bulk, w = water)
s = strain or fractional linear dimensional change
X = mesh half-angle, between mesh bar and mesh axis
/A
= fluid viscosity
v = IJL/P = kinematic viscosity
p = mass density (1 = linear density)
a = stress or force per unit area (r = at rupture)
INTRODUCTION
Fishing technology, as a scientific discipline, was founded and developed in

the 20th century, mostly by Russian [Baranov, 1969] and Japanese
a generalization of practical experience accumulated
scientists. It represents
by many generations of fishermen all over the world. The theories worked
out by Professor F I Baranov (USSR) and by Professor MTauti (Japan),
as well as subsequent investigations by other workers, contributed to a
better understanding of the fishing and related processes and of the inter-
action between fish, fishing gear and the fishing vessel. Procedures have
been worked out for objectively comparing fishing methods and gears to
help select the most suitable ones and to permit a preliminary evaluation of
the technical and economic feasibility of technological improvements and
innovations.
The only knowledge that many good fishermen have is their experience
and what they have learned from their fathers. They often distrust the
results of theoretical investigations, particularly because they do not know
how to take advantage of them. However, with the dynamic changes which
have occurred in recent years in the world fisheries, improving the selection
of fishing grounds, gear and methods, and involving sophisticated
equipment such as monitoring instruments, large and powerful fishing gear
and automatic machines, fishermen of a new type are needed who are able
to blend practical experience with theoretical knowledge.
Part A of this manual, Theory', briefly describes technological calcula-
tion procedures and testing methods for fishing gear. Part B, 'Design',
describes the application of these methods to the most common types of
fishing gear.
Theoretical analysis can be applied to seek solutions to many engineering
and technological problems which arise in the activities of a fisherman,
fishing technologists, fishery managers, etc. Some of those most frequently
encountered are:
1. Selecting fishing gear and type of vessel according to fishery resource

data for the given area;
2. Determining optimal technical parameters for the fishing gear, taking
into account the characteristics of the area, type of catch and available
vessels;
XX11 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS
3. Designing fishing gear and calculating the quality and quantity of the
materials required for its construction and rigging;
4. Prescribing the best pattern of operation (towing speed, fishing position,
rigging details, etc) under various conditions;

5. Demonstrating possibilities for improvements and implementing them in
existing fishing gear used in a given fishing area;

6. Modifying traditional fishing gear for operation under different
conditions.
This whole list alludes to many factors involved in gear design and calcu-
lation. Among these are:
1. Fish (species, type and size of concentration, behaviour, migration

speed, biometric characteristics of individual fish, etc)',
2. Fishing grounds (fishery resources, food availability, distance from the
port, depths, currents, temperature, salinities, availability of bait, etc)]

3. Technological level of fishermen, availability and types of fishing
(skills
vessels, appropriateness of fishing gear, availability of materials, etc);
4. Economic conditions (general demand and specific market preferences,
distance to markets, availability of capital, etc).
To make this manual useful to as many readers as possible, higher

mathematics has not been used and attention has been paid primarily to
simpler and more common problems. This manual attempts to provide
fishing technologists, fishery teachers and educated fishermen with a
knowledge of general calculation principles, design procedures, and fishing
gear test methods, which should enable them to deal with and solve
problems in design, research and fishing operations. Many practical
examples are included to aid understanding and to illustrate implementation
of the theoretical principles in commercial and research practice.
Much time and effort has been devoted to describing in the most popular
way the rather complex design and testing procedures for fishing gear.
Nevertheless, the reader will require a previous basic knowledge of the
construction, manufacture and operation of the different types of fishing
gear. For this purpose, in addition to his personal experience, the reader is
advised to familiarize himself with other FAO Fishing Manuals, Catalogues
of Fishing Gear Designs and various technical publications.
The author wishes to express his thanks to his colleagues in the
Kaliningrad University of Fisheries and to the specialists of the FAO
Fishery Industries Division, particularly Dr J Scharfe and Mr R Ruppin,
who have helped him in the preparation of this Manual, and to Mr Ben- M
Yami and Mr C N&telec of the FAO Fishery Industries Division for their
critical reading of the manuscript and for many constructive comments and
technical editing.
Both the author and the Fishery Technology Service of the FAO Fisheries
Department will be grateful for any criticism, comments, additions, etc,
from readers of this manual.
A. THEORY
CHAPTER 1
THE THEORY OF FISHING GEAR AND FISHING SYSTEMS
1.1 Development of fishing gear and fishing systems
Fishing gear appeared in primitive society as lances, arrows, spears, har-

poons and hooks made of stones, shells, bones and teeth of animals. To
trap fish passively in shallow water, earth and stone barriers, wicker and
cane fences and labyrinths were constructed, and hollow logs, earthernware
pots and baskets were used. More active fishing was pursued with spears,
bows, blow-pipes, rafts, tongs and rakes, along with hooks and lines.
The emergence of nets made of fibrous materials was an important step
in the development of fishing. In the myths of many nations the art of
making nets was attributed to gods and heroes, who taught the mortal men.
Subsequently, came the development of many types of gill nets, and all sorts
of barrier nets, and other fishing gear made of netting, such as dip nets, bag
nets, lift nets, seines, dredges and trawls.
Modern commercial techniques developed concurrently with
fishing
seamanship and navigation. At first, hand operated boats and gear were
used in local waters. Then, sailing boats enabled fishermen to fish far away
from home and to use bigger fishing gear. Steam engine propulsion enabled
the use of large trawls, purse seines and fleets of drift nets. The use of
mechanical power for propulsion was followed by mechanization of labour-
consuming operations in the handling of fishing gear, such as for hauling
trawlsand pursing seines.
The modern commercial fishery is characterized by the steady growth of
active fishing methods, especially trawling and purse seining. Trawls of
different types can exploit fish concentrations from the sea surface to the
ocean floor, even to depths as great as 2 000 metres. Purse seines are effec-
tive for catching dense aggregations of fish in the upper 100- to 200-metre
layer of the sea. Under many different conditions, any of these and of many
other types of fishing gear may be used, but there is no universal fishing gear
suitable for all fishing conditions.
The main features of recent development of fishing gear and fishing
methods are improvement of gear shape and, more particularly, larger gear
sizes and increased speeds of towing and gear handling. As a result, larger
volumes of water can be swept more quickly by the gear, with increased
potential for capturing fish. This has largely been made possible by the in-
troduction of synthetic materials into commercial fishing gear. On the other
hand, increasing the size of fishing gear and operating in deeper and more
distant waters has required stronger, faster and larger fishing vessels, more
mechanical and electrical power per fisherman aboard a fishing vessel and
increased operational range of fish-finding equipment.
These technical developments plus improved communication and weather
forecasting services allow relatively more time to be devoted to fishing by
reducing the time required to travel between fishing areas, to find the fish
and to handle the gear. Development of instruments to locate and follow
schools and aggregations of fish and to monitor and control the gear during
the fishing operation have improved the accuracy of aimed fishing and have
set the stage for its automation. Undoubtedly, fishing technology can con-
tribute considerably to the development of fisheries in developing countries,
especiallyby refining existing gear and methods and by introducing new
ones. size of the gap to be bridged is indicated in Table LI where the
The
productivity per fisherman using different fishing methods is indicated
approximately.
TABLE 1.1 LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY OF FISHERMEN
Annual catch per

fisherman
(tonnes) Gear Types
1 Traps, pole and hooked lines and nets from rowing boats
10 Inshore longlines, entangling nets and trawls from small vessels
100 High seas trawls from large vessels
400 Purse-seines from super-seiners
Fishing gear should be regarded as a pan of a system which also includes

the gear-handling machinery, the fishing vessel, fish-finding and monitoring
equipment, the target fish and the environment. The efficiency of a fishing
operation depends on the degree to which this fishing system is understood
and controlled, its suitability to prevailing conditions, the mutual com-
patibility of its technical elements and, in particular, on the extent to which

the gear parameters have been selected to exploit the characteristics of fish
behaviour.
The roles played by the elements of a modern fishing system may be
better understood by referring to the generalized information model
(Lukashov, 1972) shown in Figure LI. All boxes except the fish represent
elements of the technical means for fish capture. A
typical fish-locating
device is the echo-sounder. Atypical fish behaviour modifier is a light
source. The respective control agents for the fish behaviour modifiers and
for the fishing gear include the ship's crew and the deck machinery. The
equipment monitors include such devices as the net sounder and warp
tension meters.
In the fishing process, information on the availability of fish flows
through the fish-locating device(s) to the control centre. From there, com-
mands flow through the control agents to activate the equipment which
modifies fish behaviour and/or captures the fish. The operation of all equip-
ment is sensed by the respective monitors and reported to the control centre.
A comparison between the monitoring data and the information from fish-
locating device(s) is the basis for correcting the actions of the fishing system.
In complex, modern fishing systems, computers are used to process the
information.
Figure 1.1 represents a generalized information model. Any specific
fishing system can be described by part of this generalized model. For
example, a trapnet fishery has a simple system (Fig 1.2). If a lighting system
to strengthen the leading action of the wing and instruments to verify the
presence of fish in the trapnet have been introduced, the system is more
complex (Fig 1.3). Possible means for improving any specific fishing system
may be revealed by comparing its information model with the generalized
fishing model.
Fig 1. 1 Generalized information model of a fishing system.
Fig 1.2 Information model Fig 1.3 Information model of a trap net
of a trap net system. system where there are devices to modify fish
behaviour and monitor the fishing gear.
1.2 Theoretical representation of fishing
From a theoretical point of view, the process of fishing can be regarded as

purposeful control over the fishing system. One element of this system is the
fish. The influence of fishing gear on fish is the input to this element and
the fish reaction is the output. In this context, fishing methods can be
classified according to (1) types of control over fish behaviour and (2)
mechanics of capture. With this approach it is possible to describe and
examine a problem of optimal command of fishing operations using
automated fishing systems.
Fishing consists of two main operations: (1) influence or control of fish
behaviour to attract or to guide the fish to the desired place, and (2) fish
capture where the fish are contained and removed from the water.
For effective control of fish behaviour one needs to know and be able to
produce such stimuli as to cause them to react in the desired manner. In
general, fish behaviour is the realization of inborn and acquired behavioural
traits which determine the reaction of the fish to its environment. The
essence of fishing therefore consists in the use of these traits to cause the
fish to react in a manner which is expedient to the fishermen.
The various stimuli in the zone of action of fishing gear cause orientative
and defensive fish reactions such as change in swimming direction, side
rushes, up and down motions and attempts to go through a mesh. The fish
reaction becomes more complex when auxiliary stimuli (optical, electrical,
acoustic, hydrodynamic, chemical, etc), aimed at intensification of fish
capture, are applied.
Fish capture is realized by only five principal mechanisms, namely, by
tangling (enmeshing), by trapping, by filtering, by hooking and spearing
and by pumping. Thus, gill nets are a typical enmeshing gear (Fig 1.4).
Fig 1. 4 Set gill net.

Pound nets are the most powerful trapping devices (Fig 1.5). Filtering
devices include beach seines (Fig 1.6), purse seines (Fig 7.7), trawl nets
(Fig 1.8) and lift nets (Fig 1.9). Handlines (Fig 1.10), trolling lines
(Fig 1.11), longlines (Fig 1.12), harpoons and spears represent the hook
category. Fish pumps (Fig 1.13) are a recently developed method which
creates strong water currents which the fish cannot resist and which suck
them into a specially designed collecting system.
Fig 1.5 Trap or pound net.
Fig 1.6 Beach seine.

Fig 1.7 Purse seine.
Fig L8 Mid-water trawl.

Handling
Fig 1. 12 Longlines (surface and set).

, o _
Fig 1.13 Fish pump.
1.3 Classifications of fishing gear
Because modern fishing gear assumes many forms, clear classification is

required before the problems of their theory, calculation and design can be
tackled.
There are several different classification systems for fishing gear which
identify the principal differences and unique technical features of the
various types of gear. The best known is the International Standard
Statistical Classification accepted by FAO. In it,the classes are character-
ized by the various principles of fish capture, and each class is subdivided
into gear types characterized by the structure of the particular fishing gear
and the method of its operation. The following are the 12 principal classes
of fishing gear:
01 Surrounding nets, in which the fish are surrounded not only from the
side but also from below, allowing them to be caught over very deep
10 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS
waters. The principal types are purse seines with purse line to close the
bottom of the net and operated from one or two boats, and ring nets
and lampara nets without purse lines.
02 Seine nets, in which an area of water is surrounded by the net and by
lines, set from beaches and shore installations or from craft, including
rafts and platforms. The nets may or may not have symmetrical wings
and/or one or more bags. These gears are usually operated in coastal or
shallow waters where the bottom and/or water surface act as barriers.
The principal types are beach seines and boat seines (Danish seines,
Scottish seines, pair seines).
03 Trawl nets, which are operated by dragging or towing the flexible net
through the water by fishing craft. In particular, otter trawls may be
operated from the side or the stern of the fishing craft. This class is
broadly divided into bottom trawls which fish on or near the sea bed
(beam trawls, one-boat otter trawls, two-boat pair trawls) and into mid-
water trawls which fish clear of the sea bed (one-boat otter trawls and
two-boat pair trawls).
04 Dredges, which are rigid structures, dragged over the sea-bed to separate
molluscs, Crustacea, fish, etc. from the water, mud, sand, etc. The
principal types are boat dredges and hand dredges.
05 Lift nets, which are raised or hauled upward from a submerged horizon-
tal position to catch the fish lying above the net by straining the water.
This class includes small, hand-operated lift nets, hoop nets, blanket
nets and large, ^mechanically and pneumatically operated nets, some
with levers, gallows, etc. This class is divided, according to the operating
method, into portable lift nets, boat-installed lift nets and shore-
operated lift nets.
06 Falling gear, with which the fish are covered, then gathered when the net
is lifted and the water strained. This gear is usually operated only in
shallow waters. The principal types are hand cast nets, mechanized cast
nets, short cast nets, gallows cast nets, drive cast nets, cover pots or
covering baskets and lantern nets.
07 Gill nets and entangling nets, in which the fish are gilled, entangled or
enmeshed in the netting which may be hanging as a single (gill net),
double or triple (trammel) sheet. The nets may be used singly or attached
end-to-end in fleets, and different netting types and mesh sizes may be
intermixed. The principal types are set nets (anchored or staked at the
sea-bed), drift nets (drifting freely or attached to the craft and floating
at or near the surface) and encircling drive-in nets (with which the fish
are first surrounded then driven from the centre by noise and other
means).
08 Traps, which are set passively. The fish are guided into collecting units
from which escape is discouraged by labyrinths and retarding devices
such as constrictions and funnels. Principal types are stationary un-
covered pound nets (large anchored or staked netting structures known
in Japan as set nets), covered pots and fyke nets (either set or drifting
THE THEORY OF FISHING GEAR AND FISHING SYSTEMS 1 1
and used singly or in a system of several units with wings and leaders),
stow nets (staked or anchored, with or without boats, only in rivers and
strong ocean currents, with the mouth usually held open by a frame),
barriers, fences, weirs and corrals usually made of indigenous materials,
and aerial traps in the form of boxes, rafts, boats and veranda nets used
to catch jumping or flying fish.
09 Hooks and lines, to which fish are enticed by edible or artificial baits or
lures tobecome caught by a hook or spike and held by the line. The fish
may also simply snag on a hook passing near by. The hooks may be
secured to the line singly or in large numbers. The principal types are
handlines and pole lines, jiglines, set longlines, drifting longlines and
trolling lines.
10 Grappling and wounding gear, which are used to immobilize and retain
the fish by wounding, killing and grappling. The principal types are
harpoons, spears, clamps, tongs, rakes, bow-and-arrow and any other
wounding and killing implement.
1 1Harvesting machines, which are relatively new and are used to transfer
the fish mechanically from the water. Principal types are pumps used to
remove fish from their natural waters and mechanized dredges, involv-
ing hydraulic jets and/or a conveyor belt or other lifting device.
12 All other fish-capture gear, including hand and landing nets, drive-in
nets, hand gathering with or without simple hand implements and/or
diving equipment, stupefying materials (eg, toxic chemicals) and
explosives, trained animals and electrically induced narcosis.
These various classes of fishing gear are described more fully by von Brandt
[1984] and by FAO [1975, 1978].
Fishing gear can also be classified according to the means used for in-
fluencing fish behaviour as well as by the mechanics of fish capture already
identified in Section 1.2 (Lukashov; 1972).
Influencing fish behaviour usually consists in enticing the fish to swim in
the desired direction by acting on its senses of sight, smell, taste, touch and
hearing. Stimuli may act in one of three ways: to attract, to repel or to
deceive so that the fish do not avoid the fishing gear which captures them.
The capture of fish involves everything that is required to remove the fish
from its natural environment. There are many devices used for this purpose,
but we know of only five different basic mechanisms.
The gear classification in Table 1.2 describes the fishing methods in a
matrix of the ways used to influence fish behaviour and the mechanical
principles of fish-capture.
One, two or even all three types of behaviour control can take place
simultaneously. By combining any number of control methods with any of
the capture mechanisms we may define all theoretically possible variants of
fishing gear. In Table 1.3, fishing gear is classified first according to the
number of fish behaviour modifiers used and then according to the
mechanisms of capture. The combinations of fish-behaviour controls are
identifiedby digits and the capture mechanisms by letters, using the codes
given in Table 7.2, to form a 15 x 5 matrix. The + sign denotes that a
fishing method using these operational principles has already been intro-
duced into commerical fisheries. There exist only 18 of the 75 possible
combinations of the 3 main classes of behaviour control and 5 mechanical
principles of capture. This fishing gear classification shows the possible
existence of fishing gear which has not yet been put into practice.
TABLE 1 .2 EFFECT OF GEAR ON FISH BEHAVIOUR AND PRINCIPAL MECHANICS FOR FISH CAPTURE
Behaviour control Code Capture mechanics Code
TABLE 1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF FISHING GEAR
1.4 Efficiency and selectivity of fishing gear-Fishery regulations
1.4.1 EFFICIENCY
As fish and fishing gear approach each other, the gear influences the fish,
provoking a response reaction. This is, fish in the zone of action of the given
fishing gear (eg, in the space swept by a drag net or filtered by a seine) may
be attracted, repelled or deceived, permitting further operations to capture
THE THEORY OF FISHING GEAR AND FISHING SYSTEMS 13
them. In general, of the total number of the fish of the given population
in the zone of action, No, a certain number can swim out of the way, and
an additional number may escape because the fishing gear is unable to retain
certain species and sizes. Hence, not all of the fish, No, but only N of them
are caught. The ratio E n of the number of fish N actually caught to the
number of fish N that occurred in the zone of action of the given fishing
gear,
E n = N/N (1.1)
iscalled the absolute fishing efficiency. E n can range from 0, when not even
a single fish from the total number NO is caught, to 1, when all the fish from
the total number N are caught by the fishing gear, fe, when N = N .
For example, as shown in Fig 1.14, 10 fish occurred in the zone of gear
action at the beginning of the fishing operation. If 3 of those were caught
and 7 escaped, then the absolute fishing efficiency is:
= 3/10 = 0-3
If all the fish had been caught,
E n = N/N = 10/10=1
The catch per unit of time spent by a fishing gear and vessel on the fishing
grounds
C T = N/T
is governed by three factors affecting fishing efficiency
C T = CE-W-ET (1.2)
In this:
C E = N/v
isthe catch per unit volume, given the actual catch, N, and the volume of
water, v, fished by the gear during one cycle of operation. It may be inter-
preted as the catch per unit effort.
W = v/T f
isthe time-rate at which the water volume is filtered by the gear during the
fishing operation, ie, the volume fished, v, per unit of time spent actually
fishing, Tf. It may be interpreted as the fishing power of the fishing unit
(vessel and gear).
ET = T f/T
is the ratio of the actual fishing time, Tf, to the total duration of the fishing
operation. For example, it is the ratio of the actual trawling time to the
whole period from the commencement of shooting to the end of hauling.
It is the fraction of the operating time which is actually spent fishing, and
hence may be interpreted as the time-efficiency of the operation.

The greater the amount of fish caught per unit fished water volume, CE,
and the higher the fraction of time spent actually spent fishing, E T the ,
greater is the catch per unit time, Or.
Fig 1.14 Absolute fishing efficiency.
Because these other factors affect the catch per unit time, the absolute
fishing efficiency, Enonly to some extent characterizes the effectiveness of
,
the fishing gear. Also, it is very difficult to determine the value of E n

directly. The actual catch, N, may be determined by counting or weighing,
but not so the total amount of fish which initially occurred in the zone of
action of the fishing gear.
Instead, for practical purposes, it is possible to quantify the efficiency of
a new or experimental gear, or gear that is to be evaluated for any other
reason, by comparing catches obtained by the given gear (or combination
of fishermen, vessel and gear), Co, with catches obtained by a standard
fishing gear or unit, Cs used in common practice. The catches should be
taken in the same area, under the same fishing conditions, and more or less
at the same time. Then,
(1.3)
defines the relative catching or fishing efficiency.

1.4.2 SELECTIVITY
The property of a fishing gear to catch fish of a certain size and species from
a given mixed population is called selectivity. This property depends mainly
on the principle of the fishing method used, but it also depends on design
parameters of the fishing gear such as mesh size, loads on twines, material
and thickness of twines, hanging ratios and towing speed. Second to the
methods of capture, mesh size has the greatest influence on selectivity
(Treschev, 1974). For example, as shown in Fig 7.75, a gill net catches fish
of a particular size, L, best of all, while fish bigger than L 2 or smaller than
LI are not caught at all.
i
L, L L2
Size of fish, L (cm}
Fig 1.15 Size distribution of fish caught in a gill net.
In general, larger fish are favoured by a larger mesh opening, m and for ,
any particular gear there is a size of fish such that 50% of that size are
caught and 50% escape. The length of this 50 percentile fish is LSOÔ. The
selection factor
S.F. = (1.4)
is used as the index of the selective properties of a fishing gear. It is

important that the mesh opening, m
is measured with the netting in the
,
same condition as while fishing. A

knowledge of selectivity helps to design,
construct and operate fishing gear correctly.
As a further example, Fig LI 6 shows the typical selection curves for a
trawl. Curve 1, for codend mesh opening mi, shows that fish shorter than
25 cm are not retained, fish between 25 and 47 cm long are held to a greater
or lesser extent while 50% of the fish 36 cm long are retained, and fish over
47 cm are all held in the codend of the trawl. Curve 2 depicts the selectivity
of the same trawl after the mesh opening has been increased from mi to mi.
In this case no fish under 30 cm, some fish from 30 to 55 cm and all fish
over 55 cm are retained, while the size of fish 50% retained is now up to
40 cm. As we see, the transition from a small mesh size to a large one
involves the change of the composition and, consequently, the quantity of

the catch.
UJ
o
** to MS to *t so fg so
LENGTH OF FISH, L (cm)
Fig L 16 Select ivities of trawl codends of different mesh opening.
1.5 Technical features of fishing gear and fishing systems
Fishing gear has unique technical and design parameters, making it a special
type of equipment from the engineering point of view [Fridman, 1973].
The substantial difference between fishing gear and other engineering
structures arises from the unique operating conditions in the marine en-
vironment, from the special purpose of the gear to catch fish and from the
self-determined behaviour of the fish which are living objects of the catch.
Most fishing gears are flexible structures, predominantly tensile members,
which must assume relatively large dimensions while fishing, and which
must easily change their shape and position in space. For this reason, their
main structural material is textile netting, which is flexible, permeable and
anisotropic (ie, physical properties such as strength and elasticity may differ
in different directions).By contrast, most engineering structures are rigid
and have a relatively long service life so that the traditional stress and
strength analyses applied in their design have little application to fishing
gear. Instead, it is necessary to estimate the shape and spatial position of
fishing gear as controlled by the equilibrium of external static and dynamic
forces during the fishing operation. Estimation of these forces is complex
because they in turn are affected by the shape and position of the netting
which in general is not known in advance and which can change easily.
The motion of fishing gear in operation may be steady or unsteady. In
the first case, the speed and direction of the velocity are constant and the
external and internal forces do not vary. Typical problems of this kind
include calculation of set gear in a constant current or an active gear moving
at constant speed. The shape of such gear and the magnitude of the forces
on and in the gear are calculated by special procedures with the help of
model tests. In unsteady motion, the speed and direction of the gear and
the associated forces are time dependent. Examples of this include calcu-
lations for aimed trawling on a fish concentration, the motion of a purse
seine, the action of Danish seines and the shooting and hauling of most
gears in rough weather. Calculations and trials required to determine the
shapes and spatial positions of the gear, the size of the rigging, and forces
required to change the motions are more complex than for steady motion.
Methods analyzing and designing unsteady gears are still being developed.
The main objectives of engineering theory for commercial fishing gear
and fishing systems (including men, vessel, deck equipment and instrument-
ation as well as fishing gear) are as follows:
1. Selection of the type and main components of the fishing gear for
catching the given fish.
2. Selection of materials.
3. Determination of the external, especially hydrodynamic, forces acting
on the fishing gear.
4. Determination of the shape and position of the fishing gear under the
action of these external forces.
5. Determination of the internal forces and strength of the gear and of its
components.
6. Analysis and optimization of the relation of the fishing gear to other
elements in the fishing system.
These objectives are achieved by analyzing the existing information in the

fieldsof fishing gear technology and structures, and also by using special
engineering methods in the design theory for fishing gear and systems.
Parallel with the theoretical approach, experimental techniques are used
such as mechanical analogy, model testing and full-scale technical and
operational tests of fishing gear and systems. Comparative fishing is the
final test which provides a technical and economic evaluation of the newly
designed gear.
1.6 Economic evaluation of improvements through comparative fishing
Two trends are obvious in the evolution of commercial fisheries. On one

hand, fishing gear and systems are continuously being improved, but on the
other hand, with increasing overall fishing effort, fish stocks are being
depleted. The effect of the first trend, aimed at raising the productivity of
fishermen, would be higher than it is now if it were not affected by decreas-
ing raw resources for the fisheries. Therefore, economic evaluation of
technical improvements in fishing gear systems must be based on com-
parison of the new with the standard fishing techniques only under contem-
porary commercial conditions of fishing [Crewe, 1964].
Let T be the life expectancy of the fishing system. During this period the
construction and operational costs are b and the system catches fish of mass
C and value A. Then the ratio of the receipts A, when the fish were sold,
to the total costs b for the operation of the fishing system can be a measure
EC of the cost efficiency of this system, ie,
E c = A/b. (1.5)
The value A of the catch can be expressed as
A = a-CT 'T (1.6)
where a is the price per unit mass of the catch and CT is the catch mass
obtained per unit time. Then,
E c = a-C T -T/b (1.7)
The index of the economic efficiency of the new system, E e is the ratio ,
of the cost efficiency of the new system to that of a standard or established

system. Designating the characteristics of a new fishing system by subscript
*n' and standard one by subscript V,
E c = Ecn/Ecs = (a n/a s ) (C Tn/C Ts ) OVT S) (b s /b n) (1.8)
Here an/a s characterizes the value of the catch, Cm/Cis the relative
catchability of the system, T n/T s the duration of the operation and b s /b n the
operating cost. If the economic efficiency is greater than unity, the new
system is more effective than the standard one, and E e shows the relative
economical efficiency under corresponding fishing conditions.
CHAPTER 2
NETTING GEOMETRY AND THE NATURE OF INTERNAL FORCES
2.1 The properties of nets
Most fishing gear moving through water or set in current is, in principle,
a flexible, spatial system of netting, ropes and related attachments subject
to the action of various forces. Such fishing gear is made primarily of textile
netting which differs from other structural materials by having a unique
combination of such properties as flexibility, discontinuity, anisotropy
(properties differ in different directions) and usually uneven surface
structure.
The
netting specifications (fe, for mesh length, twine construction, fibre
type, etc) are selected according to fishing conditions and the fish to be
caught. The overall strength of the netting in the system is selected to be
sufficient foraverage loads, with safety factors usually well below building
standards, but sometimes more conservative. Netting has virtually no
resistance to axial compression, bending or twisting, so it cannot maintain
a rigid shape. For calculating what shape and position a fishing gear will
assume in operation, the netting is considered as a flexible membrane under
spatially continuous loads. The netting membrane transmits its loads to the
rope frame of the gear, considered for the purpose of calculations as
flexible, tensile members.
2.2 The shape and area of netting
The ability of netting to change its shape and area can be used in the design,
construction and operation of fishing nets to increase their fishing efficiency
and reduce netting costs.
The actual shape of mesh is determined by the process of hanging it onto
the rope frame. Figure 2.1, sketches (1), (2) and (3), shows three variations
in hanging the same netting panel ABCD
onto the lines. The different
shapes of the netting panel are achieved by varying the primary hanging
ratio Ei and the secondary hanging ratio 2* The primary hanging is defined
as
E! = L/LO (2.1)
where L is the hung length of the netting or the mounted length of the main
mounting rope and L is the length of the same netting when fully extended
(Figure 2. /, (4)). As shown in the drawings in Figure 2.7, L (that is,
AiBi, AiBz, As 83) changes while Lo (AC) remains constant. Consequent-

ly, the figure shows four different values of the primary hanging ratio:
Ei = 1/3 in (1), Ei = 0.85 in (2), Ei = 0,707 in (3) and Ei = l,0 in (4).
Similarly, we can describe the secondary hanging ratio 2 as the ratio
between the hung height or depth of the netting panel or the mounted length
of the side hanging line (H) to the fully extended height of the netting (Ho),
E 2 = H/Ho (2.2)
The height H(AiDi, A 2 D2, AsDa) of the netting panel is pre-determined

geometrically by the primary hanging ratio already selected. Conversely, if
the secondary hanging ratio had been selected first, then the primary
hanging ratio would be fixed as a consequence. Thus, Figure 2.1 shows the
corresponding secondary hanging ratios to be 2 = 0,934 in (1), 2 = 0,527
in (2), E 2 = 0,707 in (3) and E 2 = 0,0 in (4).
The selected hanging ratios which determine the particular shape of the
netting panel also determine the shape of the individual meshes which in this
case are open to similar proportions as the panel in hung length and in
height (Fig 2.2). That is, in Fig 2.7, where there are the same number of
(4) (3)
Fix 2.1 Hanging ratios in hung netting.

NETTING GEOMETRY AND THE NATURE OF INTERNAL FORCES 21
Fig 2.2 Mesh proportions.
meshes in the depth as in the length of the panel,

mesh width/mesh height = m w/nih = A n Bn/BnC n = L/H
This, in turn, establishes the mesh half-angle X (Fig 2.2). The relationship
between the hanging ratios Ei and EI and the mesh angle X can be expressed
as shown in Figs 2.1 and 2.2 by
L AnB n -A mO- A m O = Hlw
.
n ~
EI = r~ = A ^ = sin X = A " =
.
(2.3)
Lo AnCn
_ = = cos X =
(2.4)
Ho AnCn m s mi
m
where s is the length of the mesh side (the distance between the centres of
the adjacent knots), m
w is the hung mesh width, m
h is the hung mesh height
and mi is the extended mesh length. The relation between the two hanging
ratios is
Ei
2
+ E 2 2 = sin 2 X + cos 2 X = 1 (2.5)
It should be remembered that these equations are strictly true only for flat
netting whose twines are straight and rectilinear.
IfM is the number of meshes along the length of a panel of netting, N
is the number of meshes along its height, m

s is the length of the mesh side
(between adjacent knot centres), and mi is the extended mesh length

(between the centres of opposite knots in the same mesh), the extended
length of this panel will be
Lo 2 m, M = mi M (2.6)
and extended height will be
Ho = 2 m N = mi N
s (2.7)
Of course, both these dimensions cannot be realized simultaneously because

the netting cannot be fully extended in length and in height at the same time.
If the hanging ratio along the main line is Ei and the hanging ratio along
the side line is 2, the real working dimensions of this netting panel from
(2.1) and (2.2) will be
L=2 m M s Ei = mi M Ei (2.8)
H = 2 m N E 2 = mi N E 2
s (2.9)
The product of Lo by Ho is called the fictitious area Af of a rectangular

net
A f =Lo-Ho, (2.10)
whereas the product L by H is the actual working area An of this net
An = L-H. (2.11)
By comparing An with Af we can obtain the netting utilization coefficient

E u which defines how well the net materials provide coverage in the
construction of fishing gear,
Eu = A n/Af = L H/Lo Ho = Ei E 2 (2.12)
using (2.3) and

(2.4). The netting utilization coefficient the E u depends on
horizontal hanging ratio EI (Fig 2.6 and Table 2.4). Here it is seen that
maximum coverage by a given piece of netting is achieved when EI is 0,707
(accordingly 2 equals 0,707 also) and the mesh is square for E u = 0,5. This
hanging ratio should be used for material economy unless there are
technical reasons for using another hanging ratio, such as in trawls where
the netting must be stronger in the fore-and-aft direction than circum-
ferentially or in purse seines where slack netting caused by such a low
hanging ratio would make the seine difficult to haul through a power block
or seine hauler.
A useful expression which can be derived from the equation (2.12) is
Af = An/Eu = An/Ei E2 (2.13)
2.3 Estimation of netting yarn (twine) thickness, length and projected

area
The twine thickness (diameter) in millimetres can be estimated approxi-

mately from
N
where s is the number of single yarns in the netting yarn or twine, tex is
the linear density of the single yarn in grams per kilometre (g/km) and KDT
is an empirical coefficient. s N
tex is called the total tex (T-tex) of the twine.
Fishing gear specifications [FAO, 1975, 1978] usually give the resultant
tex (R-tex) of the netting twines rather than the tex of the singles yarns. The
R-tex is the linear density of the final netting yarn or twine in grams per
kilometre, taking into account the tex of the singles yarn and the construc-
tion (number of singles yarns, degree of twist and twist contraction, etc) of
the netting yarn or twine. As an approximation,
R-tex =K t N s tex (2.15)
where K t is an
empirical depending on the fabrication
coefficient
contraction of the twine. Substituting from (2.15) for the total tex in (2.14)
R-tex
= KDR (2.16)
1000 -K t
where KDR = KoT/jKt is empirical and R-ktex = R-tex/1000 is the resultant

kilotex (kg/km = g/m) often used for heavier twines. Typical values of these
coefficients for various types of twine are given in Table 2.1. The tex and
ktex units used here for linear density are specified in international
standards (ISO) and in many national standards.
TABLE 2.1. COEFFICIENTS FOR ESTIMATING THICKNESS AND RESULTANT LINEAR DENSITY
OF NETTING TWINES
KDR KDT K,
The total length in metres of yarn (twine) in a netting panel, including

that used in the knots, may be estimated from
t y (2.17) .
where Af, defined by (2.10) and (2.13) is in square metres and mi is in

millimetres, or from
(2.18)
for a rectangular strip of netting Lo metres extended length by M N meshes

deep, where
- _ Length of twine in a mesh
y
~
Extended mesh length
is a correction factor for the extra length of yarn tied in the knots (see Fig
2.3), usually in the range 2,2 to 3,0, depending on the ratio D t/mi and the
type of knot. For the most usual conditions, D /mi * 0,012 and E y * 2,4 t
may be recommended, but for small-mesh codends and bunts where twine
is relatively thick vis--vis mesh size, higher values for E y should be used.
E y = 2 for knotless netting and can be as high as 4.5 for knotted netting at
D /mi = 0,08.
t
A more accurate mathematical model, in which the knot-yarn length

coefficient Ky depends only on the type of knot and its tightness, but not
on twine thickness or mesh size, is
mi \ mi/ (2.19)
=2 H+K y
J
Lo MN
where
. Added length of yarn to form each knot
y
Twine thickness
and mi and D t are in millimetres. Note in Fig 2.3 that the additional length
of twine required to form each knot comes from two netting yarns.
Typically K y is 16 to 17 for single-knot netting, varying somewhat with the
tightness of the knots.
The length in metres of twine in rectangular, rhomboidal, trapezoidal or
triangular netting panels, whose size is designated by numbers of meshes,
may be estimated from
L = Ey mi (Mi + M 2 ) N 0,5 x
t 10~
3
(2 .20)
= (mi K y D,) (Mi + M 2 ) N
-I- 10"
3
where the extended mesh length, mi, in millimetres is known, or from
L t E y m, (Mi T M 2 ) N KT 3 (2 .21)
- (2 m, + Ky D ) (Mi + Mi) t N 10'
3
where the length of the mesh side, m

known. The twine
s in millimetres is
thickness D t is also in millimetres. Ey and K y are as in

and (2.19), MI (2.18)
and Mi are the numbers of meshes wide along the top and bottom edges
respectively and N is the number of meshes in the height (depth or length)
of the panel. Thus, 2N is the number of rows of knots or number of netting
Fig 2.3 Netting geometry for twine length, twine area, solidity ratio and nitration coefficient.
yarns in the panel depth. For a rectangular or rhomboidal panel Mi = Mz

and for a triangular panel either MI = or 2
= 0. M
A
The projected, blocked or solid area t of the twine in a netting panel
(see Fig 2.3) can be estimated from
where
At = 2 E k (D /mi) A f = K n
t A f (2.22)
Solid (blocked) area of knotted netting

F _
Solid area of corresponding knotless netting
If the twine thickness and mesh size are expressed in the same units (eg mm),
the projected area of the twine is in the same units as the fictitious area of
the netting panel (eg
2
m
). Usually Ek
* 1,1 for single-weavers-knot and
square-knot netting and EK * 1,15 for double-knot netting, although values
up to Ek * 1,6 are required for larger t/mi ( = 0,06). The increase in
D
blocked netting area caused by the knots, as represented by Ek , is less than
the increase in yarn length and netting weight required to form the knots,
as represented by E y , because, as shown in Fig 2.3, netting yarns overlap
in the knots and all twines in these overlaps show as only one area in the
projection of the netting on its own plane. Ek, like E y is dependent on the ,
ratio Dt/mi.
A
more accurate mathematical model, in which the knot-area coefficient,
Kk, depends only on the type of knot and its tightness, but not on twine
thickness or mesh size, is
A t
= 2 A f
î .
(i
+ kk 5A = Kn -
A f (2.23)
mi \ mi/
where
K _ Additional projected area per knot

2
(twine thickness)
_ Area per knot

- (2 x twine width x knot length)
2
(twine thickness)
Typically Kk is 10,1 for square-knot, 9,7 for single-knot and 14,8 for
double-weavers-knot netting.
For convenience, values, for
D =
-- / DA /DA
--
Kn = 2
t
1 + Kk )
1
mi \ mi/ \mi/
which appears in (2.22) and (2.23), are given in Table 3.2 for various mesh
sizes and twine thicknesses at Kk = 9,7, which is typical of single-knot and
square-knot netting.
The projected area in square metres of the twine in rectangular,
rhomboidal, trapezoidal, or triangular netting panels, whose size is
designated by numbers of meshes, may be estimated from
A t
= Ek D t mi (Mi + M 2) N 10~
6
(2.24)
=D t (mi + K k D t ) (Mi + Mi) N 1(T
6
where the twine thickness, D,, and the extended mesh length, mi, in mm are
known, or from
A t
= 2 Ek D t m, (Mi + M 2) N 1(T
6
(2 .25)
= D t (2 m, + Kk D t ) (Mi + M 2) N 1(T
6
where the twine thickness, D t and the length of the mesh side m, in mm
,
are known. Ek and K k are as discussed in connection with (2.22) and (2.23)
respectively, and M
and N are as used in (2.21). To find the total projected
area of netting twines in a complete net, assembled for fishing, the net
should be divided only into rectangular, rhomboidal, trapezoidal or
triangular panels. Then the projected twine area in each panel (A ) can be t
estimated for (2.22), (2.23), (2.24), or (2.25) and these summed over all the
panels in the whole net.
2.4 Estimation of netting weight
This information is required for ordering netting for the construction of
fishing nets for determining the forces of gravity on the gear under
and
operating conditions. It is necessary first to have complete drawings of the
proposed net, including netting dimensions and detailed material specifica-
tions. The procedure has been simplified to determining the fictitious area
of the netting Af, then looking up in a table the weight in grams per square
metre of fictitious area WA, of that particular style of netting. Such a table
for Kapron (PA) netting is given in Appendices 3 and 4. Then the weight
of the netting panel in grams (W n ) is given by
W n = W A -A f (2.26)
specific weights and for twine and mesh

For other materials with different
sizesnot included in this table, the weight of netting can be estimated
approximately from
W n (g) =L t
-
R-tex -10-
3
(2.27)
= [(E y R-tex)/mi] A f
= Ey -
[(K t -N s -tex)/m,] A f
using (2.17) and (2.15), or
W n (kg) = E y Lo MN R-tex 10"

6
for a rectangular strip of netting Lo metres long by meshes deep, where MN

mi is the nominal extended mesh length (mm) between centres of opposite
knots, N
s is the number of singles yarns per netting yarn, R-tex is the linear
density (g/km) of the netting twine, tex is the linear density of the singles
yarn and E y and K t have been discussed in connection with formulas (2.18)
and (2.15) respectively. More accurate values for E y may be found from
(2.28)
where K y has been discussed in connection with (2.19). For convenience,

Table 2.2 and Figure 2.4 give values for E y as a function (2.28) of twine
thickness, D
t , and mesh size, mi and s , for m Ky = 16, typical for single-knot
netting, as proposed by N6d61ec (1977).
Example 2.1
Estimate the weight (mass) of the netting required to construct the

rectangular wing of a purse seine (Figure 2.5). The hung (rope) length of
the wing is L = 550 m, the hung depth is H
= 80 m, the primary hanging
ratio Ei - 0.75. The netting is made of 29,4 tex x 4 x 3 polyamide twine.
The mesh length mi is 60 mm.
TABLE 2.2. KNOT- YARN LENGTH FACTOR E y AS A FUNCTION OF TWINE THICKNESS AND MESH
SIZE FOR SINGLE-KNOT NETTING (K y = 16)
Twine Thickness Of (mm)
Fig 2.4 Knot-yarn length factor as a function of twine thickness and mesh size for single-knot
netting.
Fig 2.5 Plan of a purse-seine wing.
Solution
With these data we enter the netting weight table given in Appendix 3 and
find that WA = 16,6 g/m 2
for this style of netting.
The fictitious area Af can be calculated from formula (2.13) but first the
secondary hanging coefficient 2 must be calculated from formula (2.5), ie
In this case:
E 2 = Jl-0,75 2 = 0,661
The value of 2 may be also obtained from the Table of Hanging Ratios
(Table or from the graph given in Figure 2.6. Then, using formulas
2. 3)
(2.11) and (2.13), the fictitious netting area is

A f
= An/Ei E 2 = L H/Ei E2
(550X80) =8
(O f 75)(0,661)
Alternatively, the netting utilization coefficient (E u = Ei-E2) may be

obtained from Table 2. 4 or from Figure 2. 6 whence (2.13) gives
Then the estimated weight of the netting in the seine wing, according to
formula (2.26) is
W N = (16,6)(88 710) = 1 472 600 g * 1475 kg
TABLE 2.3. SECONDARY HANGING RATIO (E 2 ) AS A FUNCTION OF THE PRIMARY HANGING

RATIO (Ei).
Primary Hanging Ratio
Fig 2.6 Dependence between hanging ratios and netting utilization coefficient.
TABLE 2.4. NETTING UTILIZATION COEFFICIENT (E u = Ei E2 = A n/A f ) AS A FUNCTION OF THE

PRIMARY HANGING RATIO (Ei).
Ei 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,06 0,07 0,08 0,09
Example 2.2
Estimate the weight of netting required to construct a trapezoidal panel for
the wing of a pelagic trawl (Fig 2. 7). The hung dimensions of the panel are
Li = 18 m, Li = 12 m, H
* 10 m. The transverse (primary) hanging ratio
Ei = 0.6. The netting is made of polyethylene (PE) twine 100 tex x6x 3.
The mesh length, mi, is 200 mm.
Fig 2. 7 Netting panel for a trawl wing.
Solution
The actual area of the panel of trapezoidal form is
A n =[(L,+L 2 )/2] -H
= (18 + 12) 2
(10)=150m
The unknown longitudinal (secondary) hanging coefficient E 2 from

formula (2.5), Table 2.3 or Fig 2.6 will be
E2 = Jl - (0,6)
2
= 0,8.
From (2.13) the fictitious panel area is
150
Because the material used is polyethylene which is much lighter than

polyamide, we cannot use Appendix 3 for netting weight per square metre.
Instead, we must estimate the required twine length from formula (2.17),
using E y = 2,4, as
From formula (2.15), the R-tex of the twine is estimated to be
(1,12)(100)(6)(3) = R2016tex = 2016 g/km = 2,0 g/m

and from (2.27) the weight of the netting is
Wn = (3750)(2,0) - 7500 g = 7,5 kg
Example 2.3
Estimate the extended dimensions of the netting panels required for a
rectangular crib for a trapnet whose layout is shown in Figure 2.8. The crib
dimensions are AB = 5 m; BD = 4 m; BiEi = 4 m; B 2 E 2 = 4 m. The hanging

ratio is Ei =0.71. Thus (see Table 2. 3) E 2 is also approximately 0.71.
Fig 2.8 Netting plan for a trap net.
Solution
The extended length of the bottom section (along the edge AB) is
L O = AB/EI = 5/o.7i
= 7.1 m
The extended width of the bottom section (along the edge BD) is
Ho = BD/E 2 = 4/0.71
= 5.7m
The extended length of the walls along the edge AiBi is the same as for the
bottom, ie 7.1 m. The dimensions along the edges BiEi and B 2 E 2 are the
same as along the edge BD, ie the extended length is 5.7 m.
2.5 Correlation between netting loads and hanging ratios
If a load applied to a panel of netting, the force in the twines depends

is
on the hanging ratios. As shown in Figure 2.9, a vertical load is applied

uniformly to the twines along the edge of length L. The vertical force or
load per unit length of hung netting is then
Fi = M Ry/L (2.29)
where Ry is the vertical component of the tension in both twines T at knot

B of each mesh and M
is the number of meshes along L. From the force
vectors in Figure 2.9, it is seen that, in addition to the vertical components

R y , horizontal components Rx of the tension in the twine occur in each
mesh. Consequently, in netting loaded by one system of vertical forces not
only vertical but also horizontal forces arise. The magnitude of these
horizontal forces per unit of depth H of hung netting is
F2 = N-Rx/H (2.30)
where N is the number of meshes in the depth of the net H and Rx is the
horizontal component of the tension in both twines T and knot C of each

mesh. The interdependence EF between FI and 2 is
(2.31)
For convenience, values for EF, the netting load transfer coefficient, are
given in Table 2. 5 as a function of the primary hanging ratio EI.
Fig 2.9 Vector forces in the netting plane.
TABLE 2.5. NETTING LOAD TRANSFER COEFFICIENT (Ep ) AS A FUNCTION OF THE PRIMARY
HANGING RATIO (Ei).
0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,06 0,07 0,08 0,09

Example 2.4
During hauling of a rope-mounted liftnet, the tension of the netting caused
by the forces of water resistance imposes a load of Fi = 7 kgf/m on the
perimeter rope (Fig 2.10). What are the horizontal contracting loads Fz
for three hanging ratios of the netting on the rope Ei = 0.3, 0.5, 0.87
respectively?
HAULING
ROPE
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
CONTRACTING
FORCES
VERTICAL FORCES
NETTING
Fig 2. JO Horizontal contraction caused by vertical loads.
Solution
The value 2 can be found from formula (2.31), however, the hanging ratio
2 must be calculated first from formula (2.5), viz,
or read from Table 2. 3 or Fig. 2.6.

Therefore, with EI * 0,3
E2 -Jl- (W = 0,954
with Ei = 0,5
E 2 = Jl-(0,5) 2 = 0,866
and with Ei = 0,87
E2 = - (0,87)
2
= 0,493
Jl
Now turning to formula (2.31):
VE 2y
From these values for the hanging ratios:
for Ei = 0,3
for Ei = 0,5
for Ei = 0.87
Alternatively, using the load transfer coefficients EF from Table 2.5,
for Ei = 0,3: F 2 = 7(0,099) = 0,69 kgf/m

for E, = 0,5: F 2 = 7(0,333) = 2,3 kgf/m
and for EI = 0,87: F 2 = 7(3,114) = 21,8 kgf/m
The same principle also applies to certain types of dragnets, trawls,

Danish seines and, even to some beach-seines. The only difference is that
the netting is in a horizontal rather than vertical position as in the liftnets.
Comparing the results of the calculation for the different hanging ratios,
one can see that with increasing Ei the forces F2 contracting the trawl net
and closing its mouth also increase. Consequently, high hanging ratios Ei
are not recommended for hanging lift nets and drag nets onto the main
lines.
2.6 The strength of netting
When dealing with problems involving the strength of twine and netting we
should always be aware of the variations in strength which depend on
whether the twine is knotted or straight and whether it is wet or dry. The
pertinent information can be obtained from various sources such as the
Appendices attached hereto and Klust [1973].
Standard methods for testing the tensile strength of straight, air-
conditioned twines have been well established, both nationally and inter-
nationally, to minimize variations in test results originating in variations in

the test method. Also, test data on the tensile strength of dry-straight twines
are more generally available than are data on twines under fishing
conditions. Therefore, the conditioned-straight strength, S t is usually taken
,
as the basis for comparison and is used to interpret strengths under wet
and/or knotted conditions as more often experienced by working fishing
gear. The strength comparison may conveniently be made using non-
dimensional, empirical strength coefficients, K s defined by
,
Sk = K s St (2.32)
Sm = K s St
or Sw = K s S t
where Sk, S ra S w are respectively the knot-strength, mesh-strength or

,
wet-strength (straight, knotted or meshed). These strength coefficients can

then be used to estimate the strength of netting and twines in fishing gear
from the conditioned-straight strength data usually provided by the
manufacturer.
As described by Klust (1973), knot strength can be tested by securing both
ends of each twine in the respective clamp of the testing machine. Under
these conditions, the wet-knot strength coefficients, K s for various
,
materials are given in Table 2.6. Cotton characteristically has better knot-
strength efficiency than do most synthetic fibres and is typically 20%
stronger wet than dry, whereas synthetics are often weaker wet than dry,
eg the polyamides are usually about 15% weaker. However, the tenacity,
or strength per unit linear density, of the conditioned-straight synthetic
twines is often greater than that of cotton, and cotton is very subject to rot
in fishing gear and, during use, soon loses its advantage in wet-knot strength
coefficient. Considering that the load in these knot-strength tests is carried
by two strands of twine, the strength coefficients in Table 2.6 indicate that
only 40 to 60% of the dry-straight strength of the synthetic twines is
available in the netting. It should also be noted that mesh strengths are
generally lower than these knot strengths because: (1) only one knot is
broken in the knot-strength test, whereas a mesh breaks at the weakest of
its four knots; (2) the twine in two of the knots in a mesh-strength test can
slip under load and this occurs at lower loads than twine break; and (3) the
knot in a knot-strength test is mounted in the tester in such a way that the
test load tightens the knot and makes it stronger, whereas in a mesh-
strength test the knots are distorted by the test load and made weaker. For
these reasons, knot-strength data should be used very cautiously when
selecting twine sizes for netting to meet a load requirement in a given gear.
Mesh-strength data are much more reliable.
The strength of netting is characterized by the tensile force required to
break one mesh, S m the mesh strength. The breaking load of one mesh is
,
considerably less than the combined straight strength of the two twines that
form it. That is, the mesh-strength coefficient, Ks , is considerably less than
2, and for most netting materials is usually 1.1 to 1.2. For thick twines, the
mesh-strength coefficient, K s, is less than for fine twines.
TABLE 2.6. DOUBLE-STRAND, WET-KNOT STRENGTH COEFFICIENTS, K., FOR VARIOUS

NETTING MATERIALS.
Netting material K,
Cotton, twisted, R600tex 1,59

Polyamide (PA), monofilament
lighter than 250tex 1,17
heavier than 250tex 1 ,06
Polyamide (PA), continuous multifilament
lighter than RIOOOtex 1,18
between RIOOOtex and R4000tex 1,05
heavier than R4ktex 0,95
Polyamide (PA), staple (spun) 1,08
Polyester (PES) 0,88
Polyethylene (PE), folded monofilament 1,42
Polypropylene (PP) folded monofilament
lighter than RSOOtex 1,26
heavier than R500tex 1,04
split film 1,24
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVAL), staple 0,76
2.7 Breaking stress, specific stress and tenacity of twine

The values of breaking loads of twine made of different materials are
tabulated in various references such as in Appendices 1 to 4 and in FAO
(1975, 1978) and Klust (1973). The effective tensile breaking stress, OT of the
twine is the ratio of the tensile strength (breaking load) S t to the bulk or
overall cross-sectional area of the twine, s That is, A .
ar (kgf/mm
2
)
= S (kgf)/A (mm 2 )
t s (2.33)
where by analogy with a circular wire

2
A,(mm
2
)
* (7T/4) D t
given D t is the thickness (diameter) of a twine in and TT = 3,14. Many mm

netting twines do not have a circular cross-section, so this last formula
should be used with extreme caution.
Example 2.5
Estimate the breaking stress ar for wet, twisted and knotted (overhand)
polyamide twine of 29,4 tex x 5 x 3 and of 93,5 tex x 6 x 3 construction.
Solution
First, estimate the linear density of both twines using formula (2.15):
l,12x29,4x!5~R494tex
l,12x93,5x!8~R1885tex.
From Appendix 1 the breaking load for laid, 29tex polyamide, wet,
knotted R494tex twine by linear interpolation is S t = 10,4 kgf. Similarly,
by linear extrapolation, S = 39,0 kgf for R1885tex, 2- fold twine made of
t
93,5tex tarns.
From formula (2.16) the thicknesses of the two twines estimated from
their respective R-tex is:
D * t 1,25 JM84 = 0,87 mm

D * t 1,25- ^1^885 = 1,72 mm
and from these the effective, bulk cross-section areas are
As (?r/4)(0,87)
2
= 0,59 mm 2
A * s Or/4)(l,72)
2
= 2,39 mm 2
Then the breaking stresses given by formula (2.33) are
ar = 10,4/0,59
= 17,6 kgf/mm
2
OT = 39,0/2,39
= 16,3 kgf/mm
2
Thus, the effective breaking stresses, ar , for twines of different

thicknesses made of similar material and of similar construction are close
to one another. The breaking stress better represents the characteristic
strength quality of the twine than does the breaking strength of the whole
twine because, regardless of twine thickness, the breaking stress will be
greater for stronger materials. For continuous filament materials of a given
fibre quality, breaking stress is less for harder laid twines because both the
angle of the load-bearing filaments to the direction of twine tension and the
twine thickness for the same amount of fibre are greater. For staple-fibre
yarns, the breaking stress increases with twist until inter-fibre friction is suf-
ficient to keep the fibres from slipping against one another, then the break-
ing stress decreases as the twist is increased further.
The concept of stress as force per unit area is used primarily for solid
structural materials and for model studies of fishing gear, but in the textile
technology of fibrous materials such as the twine, netting and cordage used
in fishing gear, it is of limited value. This is because netting twines are
generally not strictly circular in cross-section, and because the areas are
generally not constant, varying significantly with changes in moisture,
temperature, stress, etc. Twine thickness is usually measured by some sort
of caliper which exerts a diametric force on the twine at the time of
measurement and compresses it to a greater or less degree depending on the
type of material, hardness of twist, etc, and which gives a measured
thickness invariably less than the hydrodynamic thickness which exists

during gear trials. Also, the cross-section area of the fibres themselves,
which actually carry the tensile load, is difficult to measure and is
significantly smaller than the bulk area of the twine as a whole. For
example, at a polyamide fibre density of 1,14 g/ml and R494tex, the cross-
section area of the fibres in the 29,4tex x 5 x 3 twine considered in Example
2.5 is only about 0,42
2
mm
as compared with the estimated bulk section
area of 0,59
2
mm
leading to a breaking stress in the fibres themselves of
2
,
about 24,8 kgf/mm Under these circumstances, it is much more usual and
.
useful to relate the total tensile load to the easily and more accurately
measured linear density of the twine rather than to a pseudo cross-section
area.
Expressing stress as total tensile load (T, gf ) per unit resultant linear
density (R-tex),
s = T/R-tex (2.34)
where s(gf/tex = kgf/ktex) by this definition is the specific or mass stress in

the twine or cordage.
When the total tensile load, T, is increased to the point of twine rupture,
ie, to the tensile strength or breaking load, S, the specific stress is called
tenacity (s r , gf/tex),
sr = S(gf )/R-tex = S(kgf )/R-ktex (2.35)
The tenacity of fabricated Kapron (polyamide) netting yarns of various

sizes is given in Appendices 1 through 4. These tenacities are always less
than the tenacity of the filaments or yarns from which the twines are made,
partly because the twine is shorter, and hence heavier per unit length, than
the yarns in it as a result of twist contraction (twine R-tex is greater than
the total tex of the yarns), partly because the filaments which can carry only
tensile loads are at an angle to the twine axis and can contribute only a
component of their tension to the load on the twine, and partly because it
is almost impossible to construct the twine so that all filaments become
loaded exactly to their breaking point at the same instant (the serious graph
effect). One filament or fibre breaks first, transferring its load to other fibres
and causing a sudden overload and rupture before all filaments in the twine
can become fully loaded.
Tenacity is the usual measure of strength quality in the textile industry,
permitting a direct comparison of strength of different materials of various
sizes on an equal weight basis. For example, in Appendix 1, the tenacities
reveal that the finer yarns are producing weaker (poorer quality) twines,
even taking into account their lighter weight. As a specific comparison, the
93,5 tex x 5 x 3 twine is ten times as heavy as the 15,6 tex x 3 x 3 twine but
the straight twine is substantially more than ten times as strong both wet
and dry. This may be due partly to the different twine constructions. In
Appendices 2 and 3, tenacities show that the mesh strength quality of the
twines over this size range is much more uniform than the straight strength
quality. Mesh strength is measured with the load carried on two twines so
that mesh strength must be related to the linear density of two twines to get
mesh tenacity.
Srm = S m (gf)/2 x R-tex = s m (kgf )/2 x R-ktex (2.36)
In this way, mesh tenacities are more comparable with

straight twine and
knot tenacities, although mesh tenacities are usually lower than knot
tenacities with the same twine because the mesh breaks at the weakest of
the four knots in the mesh. Again, mesh tenacities show that the strength
quality of various twine sizes made of the same material is similar, and the
strength efficiency of the mesh is seen to be about 45%.
The resultant tex of the twine is, by definition, the mass (g) of twine
in one kilometre length. At the surface of this earth, the mass (g)
is numerically equal to the weight (gf). Therefore the tenacity
(gf/tex
= gf/(g/km)) is the length of the twine in kilometres whose weight
is equal to the strength of the same twine. This is called the breaking length
of the twine. Heavier twines are stronger but, if they have the same quality,
then the weight per unit length is greater in the same proportion as is the
strength so that the breaking length is the same. Thus, breaking length, like
tenacity, compares strengths on an equal weight basis and is consequently
a measure of strength quality.
Twines and netting are traded on the basis of weight, therefore it is more
useful for strengths to be compared on the basis of weight (fe, by tenacity
or breaking length) rather than on the basis of cross-sectional area (fe, by
breaking stress).
Example 2.6
In Example 2.5, a comparison of the strength quality, on an 'equal area'
basis, of two styles of polyamide twine of different size was made by
calculating the effective breaking stress in the twine by a somewhat devious
procedure. Now compare the strength quality of these same two styles of
polyamide twine on an 'equal weight' basis by calculating the tenacity or
specific stress at rupture.
Solution
The wet knot strengths (kgf ) and the linear densities (R-tex) of polyamide
twines made of 29 tex and 93,5 tex singles yarns are given in Appendix 1,
and according to formula (2.35), wet knot tenacities (gf/tex) may be
calculated using
S r (gf/tex) - S(kgf ) x 10 3/R-tex(g/km)

The wet knot tenacities thus calculated for these twines are listed in the
table.
Wet knot tenacities Wet knot strength

$
(gf/tex) Dry straight strength
Single yarn tex = 29 93,5 29 93,5
The wet knot tenacities indicate that the strength quality of the two styles
of twine is similar, with that of the 29 yarn-tex twine being somewhat better
than that of the 93,5 yarn-tex twines, as concluded in Example 2.5. They
further indicate that, within each style of twine, the finer twines make
somewhat more effective use of the strength of the constituent yarns than
do the coarser twines. The order of magnitude of the wet knot tenacities,
at about half of the dry straight tenacities given in Appendix 1, indicates
that these wet knot strengths were obtained with only one end (single
strand) of each piece of twine in the knot secured in its respective clamp in
the strength tester rather than with both ends (double strand) secured as
described by Klust (1973). Values for the single-strand, wet-knot strength
coefficient, K s calculated from Appendix 1 by formula (2.32), are given in
,
this table for comparison with double-strand coefficients in Table 2. 6.
Generally, the single-strand coefficients are less than half the corresponding
double-strand coefficients and give a more realistic picture of performance
in fishing gear because they take into account distortions and twine slip
which do not occur during the double-strand test but which do occur during
fishing. In addition to being more revealing, these tenacity data must be
considered more accurate than bulk breaking stress data because linear
density can be measured more accurately than the pseudo cross-section area
can be estimated.
Example 2.7
No. 30,medium-laid cotton seine twine (made of 10's hank yarn) has a
straight,dry breaking strength of 26,5 kgf and a linear density of R2210tex
(g/km). No. 30, medium-laid, continuous filament, nylon seine twine
(American) has a straight, dry breaking strength of 118 kgf and a linear
density of R2430tex. Compare the strength quality of these two materials.
Solution
3
From (2.35) the dry, straight tenacity of the cotton twine is 26,5 x 10 /
2210 = 3
12 gf/tex and that of the nylon twine is 1 18 x 10 /2430 = 49 gf/tex,
indicating that, on an equal weight basis, dry, straight nylon twine is about
four times as strong as cotton twine, whereas a direct comparison of
strengths, ignoring the fact that the nylon twine of the same trade number
isheavier, would credit it misleadingly with 4.5 times as much strength.
However, twines in fishing gear are virtually never dry and straight in use.
Therefore, Table 2.6 should be used to estimate the wet, knot tenacities of
these twines. Because the strength coefficients in this table were derived
from double-strand strength tests, they should be divided by two to yield
tenacities which are comparable with single-strand, straight twine tenacities,
as is done for mesh tenacities. Then, from (2.32) applied to tenacities, for
the cotton twine
Wet knot tenacity = 1,59/2 (12)

= 9,5 gf/tex
and for the nylon twine
Wet knot tenacity = 1,05/2 (49)

= 26 gf/tex
indicating that, in use, nylon is only about 2,75 times stronger than cotton
on an equal weight basis, rather than the 4 to 4,5 times stronger which
appeared at first glance with the dry, straight twines. Because the bulk
density of these twines varies considerably between different manufac-
turers, the apparent cross-section area for twines of the same weight from
different sources can differ significantly and breaking stress (force per unit
area) cannot be used with confidence to compare strength quality of the two
twines.
2.8 Calculation for tailoring nets (taper cuts)
Netting panels of oblique or trapezoidal shape, such as are required for

trawls, must be cut according to pre-calculated taper rates from the
rectangular sheets of netting as they come from the factory. It is obviously
simpler to cut rectangular panels (OB in Fig 2.77), but when the panel must
be tapered to fit the net properly, then the edge of the netting must be cut
obliquely according to an appropriate taper ratio
R = M T/MN (2.37)
where M
T is the number of meshes in the taper cut in the twine-wise or
T-direction parallel to the selvedge and to the general course of the twines
M
and N is the number of meshes in the N-direction normal to the selvedge
and to the general course of the twines in the netting.
Three types of cut used to shape netting and shown in Fig. 2.12 are:
1 . N-cut through both twines at the side of a knot, advancing the taper cut
in the netting one mesh in the direction normal to the general course of
the twine. If the knot at an N-cut becomes undone, the mesh is opened,
so such a knot should be stabilized in a seam or mend. This is sometimes
- T-direction *.
T *
M T >M N ,
R>l
Fig 2. 11 Calculation of the taper cutting rate.
General Course of Twines
N-cut or
"point" cut
-cut or
Bar" cut
Fig 2. 12 Types of cut used to form t taper.

called a 'point' cut. The end of a strip of netting may be squared by

making all N-cuts.
2. T-cut through both twines at the top or bottom of a knot, advancing the
taper cut in the netting one mesh in the twinewise direction, ie the
direction parallel to the general course of the twine. The knot at a T-cut
can be undone and the cut twine removed to leave a clean mesh. This
is sometimes called a 'mesh' cut. A
strip of netting may be cut into two
narrower by making all T-cuts.
strips
3. B-cut through one twine at a knot, advancing the taper cut in the netting
half a mesh across the strip in the direction normal to the general course
of the twine plus half a mesh either way along the strip in the twinewise
direction. The knot at a B-cut can be undone to form a fly-mesh or 'dog-
ear'. The B-cut is sometimes called a 'bar* cut. All B-cuts in the same
direction form an oblique taper whose width contains the same number
of meshes as the depth, ie the taper ratio R = 1.
The cutting rate Re is a regular, repeated cycle of B-cuts and N-cuts or

B-cuts and T-cuts made in the netting in the correct proportion to produce
the required taper ratio.
p _ Number of B-cuts Rc _ Number of B-cuts

.
'
Number of N-cuts Number of T-cuts
This calculation for tailoring nets finds and designates the correct cutting
rate.
If, in the taper, the number of meshes
in the T-direction, M
T , is less than
the number of meshes in the N-direction, M
N , ie if the taper ratio, R, is less
than unity, the taper cut consists of B-cuts and N-cuts, and the cutting rate
may be found as shown in Fig 2.1l(a) from
MT)/(MN - MT
RCN = (2 ) (2.38)
Thus, the desired taper ratio (R = M T/M N obtained by using the cutting
) is
rate or cycle such that M T meshes { = 2 x M T mesh bars or B-cuts) are cut
diagonally along the line of mesh bars in the B-direction, as from A to C
in Fig. 2. 11 and (M N -MT meshes ('points') are cut normal to the
(a), )
selvedge (N-cuts) as from C to B. The B-cuts and N-cuts should be mixed

uniformly along the whole line A
to B, consistently maintaining the correct
ratio RCN of B-cuts to N-cuts so that the cut edge is smoothly stepped. To
keep the steps small and the taper cut even, the number of B-cuts and N-cuts
in each cycle of the cutting rate RCN should be reduced to the smallest
possible integers of the correct proportion for the desired taper ratio. The
width and depth of the taper may be expressed in any units (meshes, metres,
etc) provided the same units are used for both.
If the taper cut must be such that the number of meshes in the twine-wise
direction (MT ) is greater than the number of meshes (M N ) normal to the
selvedge and general course of the twines, the taper ratio R MT/MN is
greater than unity and, as shown in Fig 2.11 (b), the taper cut consists of
B-cuts and T-cuts, and cutting rate must be defined by
RCT = (2 M N)/(MT - M N ) (2.39)
Then the cutting rate or cycle is such that MN meshes ( = 2 x MN mesh bars
or B-cuts) are cut along the line of mesh bars, as from C to B in Fig 2.11(b)
and the (My- MN) T-cuts must follow the rows of knots parallel to the
selvedge and the general course of the twines along the strip of netting
rather than across it. As before, this ratio of B-cuts and T-cuts should be
mixed uniformly along the whole line A
to B by reducing the number of
each type of cut in each cycle of the cutting rate to the smallest possible
integers of the correct proportion R C T for the desired taper ratio.
Example 2.8
Cut the netting panel shown in Figure 2. 13 along the line AB.
ID
Fig 2. 13 Taper cut across a strip of netting.
Solution
From Figure it is seen that the depth of the tapered netting wedge is
2. 13
AC = MN = 5 and the length of netting in the taper is BC = Mr =
40 - 30 = 10. Consequently, from (2.37) line AB has the taper ratio
R = MT/MN = 10/5
= 2.
MT is greater than MN, R
is greater than unity, so that the required cycle
for the cutting rate is given by (2.39)
RCT - (2 x 5)/(10
- 5) 10/5
= 2/1 = 2B1T
Thus, in each cycle of the cut, two bars (ie, one mesh) must be cut along
the line of the mesh bars and one mesh cut along the row of knots from
left to right in the T-direction. The last designation, showing the number
of each type of cut in each cycle of the cutting rate, avoids confusion as to
which number refers to which type of cut.
The cycle of the cutting rate, Re, may be expressed as a vector with
components of any value, eg 3B5N, 7B1 IT, depending on the required taper
ratio. If these integers are large, the stepped edge may be smoothed by
dividing both components of the cutting rate into the same number of parts.
For example
RCN = 3B5N = 1B2N + 1B2N + 1B1N
where 3 = B-cuts and 5 = 2 + 2+1 N-cuts maintains the same pro-
1 + 1 + 1
portion of cuts in the cutting rate and the cycle 3BSN is divided into three
successive subcycles, two at 1B2N and one at 1B1N. When cutting the taper,
cycle 1B2N is made then cycle 1B2N is repeated and then comes 1B1N.
These three cycles are repeated in this order until the cut is complete.
Similarly,
R cT = 7B11T = 3(1B1T + 1B2T) + 1B2T
When the netting is cut along the length of the netting strip, M N = 0,
R > 1, formula (2.39) applies, the cycle of cutting rate contains only T-cuts
and is
R cT = O/MT = AT
or 'all twinewise cuts'. When the netting is cut in depth straight across the
strip MT = < MN , R< 1, formula (2.38) applies, the cycle of the cutting
rate contains only N-cuts and
or 'all normal' (to the twines) cuts. A straight row of bar cuts in a
continuous direction forms an oblique taper whose width contains the same
number of meshes as the depth, ie the taper ratio R = 1, and (2.38) and
(2.39) give
R c = 2 MN/O = 2 Mr/0 = AB
or 'all bar' cuts.
If the taper contains a mixture of 'B' B-cuts and 'N' N-cuts, formula
(2.37) and Fig 2. 11 fa) show that the taper ratio, RN < 1, can be calculated
from the cutting rate, RC N = B/N, by
RCN f~ A m
(2 ' 40)
If the taper ratio contains a mixture of 'B' B-cuts and 'T' T-cuts, formula
(2.37)and Fig 2.11fb) show that the taper ratio, RT > 1, can be calculated
from the cutting rate, RCT = B/T, by
T + B/2 2
From (2.40) and (2.41):
for an AB-cut, N=T and R N = RT R * 1;

for an AN-cut, B = and RN = R = 0;
for an AT-cut, B = and RT * R is indeterminate.
The functional dependence of the cutting rate on the taper ratio is given
in Fig 2. 14. Calculate the taper ratio, R = MT/MN, move vertically from
that value on theabscissa to the curve, then horizontally to the appropriate
cutting rate scale. If the line falls between two simple cutting rates, then use
a mixture of those two in a compound cycle. In addition to this method for
calculating the cutting rate, tables are available giving the cutting rate for
various taper ratios [FAO, 1975, 1978; N6d61ec et al, 1979; Voinikainis-
Mirskii, 1971].
It is obvious that, after hanging the netting to the frame lines, the linear
proportions of the tapered netting panels may become different, depending

on the particular hanging ratios. Further, while the net is fishing, the shape
of the panels will be defined also by the nature and magnitude of the forces
applied to them.
Tipr Ratio R MT / MN
Fig 2.14 Cutting rate as a function of taper ratio.

CHAPTER 3
EXTERNAL FORCES ACTING ON FISHING GEAR
3.1 The nature of forces acting on fishing gear
The shape, position and steady-state dimensions of fishing gear depend on

the magnitude and direction of the external forces acting on it. These forces
(see Fig 3.1) include gravity forces, hydrostatic forces, hydrodynamic
forces from the pressure of the water moving in relation to the gear, ground
reaction and friction forces against the sea bed, forces generated by fish,
loads due to the action of the rigging, forces of towing and additional forces
generated by the gear-handling deck machinery. When the fishing gear is
subjected to unsteady motion, such as is produced by the fishing vessel roll-
ing, pitching and changing speed, forces from gear inertia and momentum
also play a part.
For each fishing gear and operation there is a specific pattern for the
action of external forces. To simplify the calculations we must first establish
which of the forces are significant and which can be neglected.
HYDROSTATIC LIFT (B)
LINE TENSION
\ J J j j j
eS
fOK'
C
yN*iM' ^*^~s^\ I .':.-.-; ;'.;' *-B = Q
fiO
Hl
1 I I 1 1 1 I I 1 I
FORCE OF GRAVITY (W)
GROUND REACT/ON
Fig 3.1 Classes of external forces acting on fishing gear.
3.1.1 GRAVITY AND HYDROSTATIC FORCES

Gravity and hydrostatic forces may be distributed along the surface of the
EXTERNAL FORCES ACTING ON FISHING GEAR 49
net and the length of ropes or concentrated at points where there are floats,
sinkers, bobbins, etc. The gravity force W
is directed downward, while the
hydrostatic lift or buoyant force B is directed upward (Fig 3.1). Usually the
forces Wand B are not equal and their difference
= W-B (3.1)
isthe buoyed weight or weight in water of the submerged body. If is Q

positive, the
body sinks, if negative it floats.
The gravity forces W
and hydrostatic lift forces B for homogeneous
bodies may be expressed as
W = 7-v, (3.2)
B = 7wv, (3.3)
where v is the volume of the body,

3
m 3
; 7 is the specific weight or weight
per unit volume of the body, kgf/m 7* is the specific weight or weight per
;
unit volume of water. For fresh water 7* = 1000 kgf/m and this value may
3
be used generally for practical purposes. For sea water, a closer average is
7W = 1025 kgf/m
3
.
Values for 7 and 7* are given in Table 3.1.
TABLE 3.1. SPECIFIC WEIGHT AND BUOYANCY OR SINKING COEFFICIENT OF SOME FISHING GEAR
MATERIALS
Formula (3.1) is also true for heterogeneous bodies which have an inner
hollow volume, for example various floats and buoys. For the calculation
of the gravity force Waccording to (3.2) only the volume of the shell itself
is taken into account, but for the calculation of the hydrostatic life B
according to (3.3) the total volume of the body must be taken into account.
It is not advisable to use the formula (3.2) for calculating the weight of net-
ting materials in water because it is difficult to determine their actual

volume.
If the weight of the body in air is known, its buoyed weight in water, Q,
can be calculated from
Q = E 7 -W (3.4)
where W is the weight of the homogeneous body in air, kgf, and
E7 = (7-7w)/7 (3.5)
= l-7w/7
isthe coefficient of buoyance or sinking force, ie the lift force or sinking
force in water per kilogram mass of the given material.
For floating materials 7 is less than 7* and for sinking materials y is larger
than 7w. Hence, 7 is negative for floats and positive for sinkers (see Table
3.1).
Example 3.1
Determine the overall buoyancy of a 1500 float corkline of a purse seine if
the weight in air of one plastic-foam float is 0,2 kgf.
Solution
The total weight of the floats in air is
W = 0,2x1500 = 300 kgf.

The specific buoyancy 7 for plastic foam is determined either from
formula (3.5) or from Table 3.1. For the purpose of the present exercise,
let 7 be -6. Now, using formula (3.4), the overall buoyancy Q for the
corkline is
Q=-6x300=- 1800 kgf, negative or buoyant.
Example 3.2.
The leadline of a set net should be ballasted to produce a sinking force of

10 kgf. What is the required number of sinkers made of burned clay if the
weight in air of one sinker is 0,5 kgf.
Solution
The weight of a sinker in water can be found according to the sinking coeffi-
cient Ey for burned clay. From Table 3.1
Ey= 4-0,55.
Consequently, from formula (3.4), the buoyed weight of one sinker in

water is
0,55 x 0,5 = 0,28 kgf positive or downward,

,
and the required number of sinkers is
10/0,28
= 36 sinkers.
Example 3.3
Determine the buoyed weight of a 3,0 x 1, 5 x 0,08m, rectangular trawl

door which weighs 1100 kg in air.
Solution
To calculate the weightQ of the trawl door in water using formula (3.1),
first determine the hydrostatic lift B. The volume V of the trawl door is:
V = 3x 1,5x0.08 = 0,36m
3
3
and the specific weight of water is 1000 kgf/m , hence:
8 = 1000x0,36 = 360 kgf,
and the buoyed weight of the trawl door in water from (3.1) is
Q = W-B=1100-360 = 740 kgf.
The weight in air of various objects, such as sinkers, trawlboards and nets
can be measured by a spring balance or traction dynamometer held by hand
or suspended from a davit or from a ship's derrick.
The weight of a body in water Q can also be found experimentally using
simple methods shown in Figure 3.2 and Figure 3.3. The net buoyancy of
floating bodies in water can be determined by adding sinkers until the body
just fully submerges as at Figure 3.2(a). The buoyed weight of the sinkers
-
Q. (determined as described above) with sign reversed (Q = Q$) is then the
sought value of Q. For a denser body resting on the seabed as shown in
Figure 3.3(a), floats of known buoyancy are added until they just lift the
body from the bottom. The known negative Qf of the floats is then
numerically equal to the buoyed weight of the body (Q * -Qf). In either
case, laborious accurate adjustment of the sinkers or floats can be simplified
by suspending the body with its sinkers and/or floats in water from a spring
scale or other balance to measure the extra lifting force F as shown in Figure
3.2(b) or 3.3(b and c). Then the buoyancy of low-density bodies is
Q 5 F - Q. as shown in Figure 3.2(b) and the buoyed weight of higher den-
sitybodies is =F+Q f as shown in Figure 3.3(b) and
| Q |
(c). If no floats
are used in the latter case, Qf * and = F. Q
no rn
Q = IQfl Q |F| :Q , 0* IFI f IQfl
(a) tb) (C)
Fig 3.2 Determining the buoyancy of floating bodies.
e
-0, o
$ > IQI t Q IF) - Q,
(a) (b)
Fig 3.3 Determining the buoyed weight of lubmerged bodies.

3. 1 .2 HYDRODYNAMIC FORCES ACTING ON FISHING NETS

3.1.2.1 Hydrodynamic pressure from water flow
A hydrodynamic force on the gear arises from the movement of fishing gear
through water or from the movement of water with respect to gear. It
originates in the pressure required to divert the water around the solid
components of the gear. Its magnitude and direction determine to a con-
siderable degree the loads imposed on the gear components and hence also
the shape of the fishing gear and its position in space, greatly affecting the
fishing efficiency.
These hydrodynamic forces need to be understood in both qualitative and
quantitative terms for the design of new and improved fishing nets as well
as for studies of the performance of the existing gears. To obtain numerical
values or the general, hydrodynamic, water-pressure forces acting on
fishing nets and subsequently to resolve these forces into their directional
vector components, sections of netting of various shapes, materials,
hanging ratios and mesh and twine sizes are subjected to water flow at
different known speeds in flume tanks and wind tunnels or other
experimental installations. Having determined in each case the magnitude
of the water resistance R on each section of netting, coefficients of these
hydrodynamic forces can be calculated.
3.1 .2.2 Hydrodynamic coefficient
This non-dimensional coefficient supplies the necessary quantitative infor-

mation on the influence of the physical properties (twine size, mesh size,
material, hanging ratio, etc) of the netting tested on the magnitude of the
hydrodynamic forces acting on the netting. It gives this information in the
very compact form of a single numerical value which may be used to
calculate the response of different shapes and sizes of netting components
to different external conditions. The only restriction is that the physical con-
ditions of design interest must be similar to those prevailing when the
hydrodynamic coefficient was measured.
The hydrodynamic coefficient C is defined by the formula:
C-R/q-A, (3.6)
where R = measured water force or resistance (kgf )

q = pV /2
2
= hydrodynamic stagnation pressure (kgf/m 2 )

p = mass density of water (see Appendix 5)
f 4
* 100 kgf-sec /m (105 for sea water)
V* velocity of gear relative to the water or water relative to gear
(m/scc)
At circumscribed, profile or 'frontal* area of the netting yarns
2
* length x diameter (m )
At may be estimated from formulas (2.22) through (2.25).
If the coefficient C is already known, it need not be measured but it can

be used to estimate the hydrodynamic force on a section of netting using
the formula:
R = C-q-A t (3.7)
where the symbols are the same as for Formula (3.6).

The correct only when the orientation of the netting panel to the
result is
direction of the motion (angle of incidence) is the same as it was in the test
when the hydrodynamic coefficient C was measured. Therefore, in practice,
hydrodynamic coefficients are measured over a wide range of angles of
incidence to the fluid flow (see Fig 3.4) and the results are produced in the
form of a graph on which the coefficient C is plotted against the angle of
incidence a (see Fig 3.6).
Fig 3.4 Netting panel at various angles of incidence to the direction of motion.
3.1 .2.3 Coefficients of drag and sheer (normal to velocity) forces
When a plane panel of netting is positioned perpendicular (normal) to the

flow (Fig 3.5a) it is subjected primarily to inertia water pressure. If it is
oriented parallel to the flow (Fig 3.5b) it is subjected along its surface to
a shear force called hydrodynamic friction. If it is oriented at an angle a
(Fig 3.5c) to the flow, it is subjected to both. The total force R may con-
veniently be expressed as the resultant of two components, viz, the drag Rx
parallel to the flow and the lift or sheering force Ry perpendicular to the
flow. The force Ry influences the shape and position of
fishing nets. For
example, the fishing spread and height of drag nets such as Danish seines
and trawls increase or decrease with changes of Ry. Ry changes in turn with
the flow velocity V and the angle of incidence a.
Inertia Pressure Surface Friction Both Types
Fit 3.5 Types of hydrodynamic force depending on netting orientation.

c,
1:2
Netting
0,022, Ei* OA
0.<
0.2
20* BO 9 W SO 9
Angle of incidence
Sff
9
7ff
m
*O*
Fig 3. 6 Hydrodynamic drag and sheer force coefficients for plane netting as a function of
angle of incidence.
Cx and Cy are coefficients of the hydrodynamic forces of drag and sheer,

respectively, and they are determined empirically in tank tests, etc (see
3.1.2.2). They are calculated from the measured R values, as follows:
Cx = Rx/q At and Cy = Ry/q A t (3.8)
As explained in panel depend on

3.1.2.2, Cx and Cy for a plane netting
the angle a as is shown in Figure 3.6. However, it has been established
experimentally that the values of Cx and Cy depend also to some extent on
the solidity ratio of the netting E 8 and on the physical conditions under
which the netting meets the water flow as defined by the Reynolds number
(Re) as discussed in Section 3.1.2.5.
3.1.2.4 The solidity ratio and filtration coefficient for netting
The solidity ratio E. is that fraction of the hung netting area

which is
covered or blocked by the netting twine. As indicated in Fig 2.3, it is
E 1 .- At _ At _ A t -At
An mwM m n N Ei Ez Af Eu Af
(3.9)
= = + Kk
2j^ |^.(l .5j)=f*
where At is the twine area (see formulas 2.22 to 2.25) and An is the actual
working area of the net (see formula 2.11). Thus, the smaller the mesh
and/or the thicker the twine, or the less thrifty the hanging ratio (formulas
2.1, 2.2 and 2.12), the bigger is E. and the greater is the weight and
hydrodynamic drag per unit area of netting. For convenience in calculating
the solidity ratio, Table 3. 2 lists values for the dimensionless netting solidity
parameter
mi nil mi
as a function of twine thickness size for Kk = 9,7 (which is typical
and mesh
for single-knot netting), and Figure 3. gives values for this same parameter
7
for single-knot and square-knot netting (Kk = 9,7 10,1 respectively) and
for double-knot netting (Kk = 14,8) as functions of the ratio of twine
thickness to mesh size. According to (3.9), the solidity ratio is found by
dividing this parameter by the netting utilization coefficient, E u
= Ei 2
discussed in connection with formula (2.12) and given in Table 2.3.
TABLE 3.2. NETTING SOLIDITY PARAMETER K n = 2EkD /mi IN TERMS OF TWINE THICKNESS AND
t
MESH SIZE FOR SINGLE-KNOT NETTING (Kk = 9,7).
Mesh size (mm) Twine thickness, D, (mm)
Related to solidity ratio is the filtration coefficient, E f , which is that frac-

tion of thehung netting area which is open to the passage of water. As the
blocked area plus the open area is the total area of the netting panel
Ef =l-E, (3.10)
A higher filtration coefficient implies that the water can flow more readily
through the netting. Thus, it is a useful concept when studying flow patterns
20
0.02 004 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 014

Of
Ratio of Twine Thickness to Mesh Side Length
m,
0.01 0.02 003 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
0*
Ratio of Twine Thickness to Extended Mesh Length
~^-
Fig 3. 7 Netting solidity parameter, K n * 2Ek D /mi t as a function of the ratio of twine
thickness to mesh size.
in nets, whereas the solidity ratio is a more useful concept when studying
the hydrodynamic drag and resulting shape of nets.
3.1.2.5 Reynolds number

The Reynolds number (Re) is a non-dimensional value which identifies in
a simple form the conditions of the fluid flow about a body in motion. It
is the ratio of fluid inertia forces to viscous forces and is usually defined as
where: L isa characteristic linear dimension (m) of the body as selected or

agreed for the given series of experiments. For example, for
blocks and plates it is usually a dimension normal to the flow, for
the diameter, for hydrofoils the
spheres and cylinders it is it is
chord, etc
V is the relative velocity (m/sec) between the fluid and the body.
v is the kinetic viscosity of the fluid medium in
2
m
/sec, (see
Appendix 8).
Reynolds number based on twine thickness (diameter) is
Re D = D V/i/ (3.11)
where V is the velocity of the fluid flow, m/sec; D

is the twine thickness in
the subject net, m; v is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid medium,

2
/sec. m
It is essential that the twine thickness be converted to metres.
The pattern of the dependence of the hydrodynamic drag of netting on
the Reynolds number is shown in Fig 3.8 for a = 90. It may be noted that
the influence of Reynolds number is significant only at values less than 500.
Reynolds number is a most important factor in many hydrodynamic
calculations, especially when dealing with the motion of boats and ships in
water. For netting and twine under usual water-flow conditions, however,
Reynolds number is greater than 500. Then, its influence on the hydro-
dynamic coefficients is insignificant (Fig 3.8) and for practical purposes in
many cases can be neglected.
Reynolds number,
Fig 3. 8 Hydrodynamic drag of netting at various solidity ratios as a function of Reynolds

number.
The curves for Cx and Cy as functions of a (Fig 3.6) are for the case
when RCD = 6000 and E f = 0.046. For these conditions the influence of E,
and RCD on Cx and Cy is considerably less than the influence of a so that
these curvesmay be used for estimates of resistance not only of nets for
which they were obtained but also for other nets with somewhat different
E and ReD .
3.1.2.6 A simple, approximate method for estimating hydrodynamic

resistance
In the absence of information on the value of the hydrodynamic coeffic-

ients, the drag R in kgf of a plane panel of netting may by estimated from
the simplified formula
R = Kh-A n -V 2 (3.12)
where: An the actual working area of the netting panel,

is ; m4
2
V is the flow
2
velocity, m/sec; Kb is an empirical dimensioned coefficient, kgf-sec /m In .
this case, the effects of hanging ratios and Reynolds number have been
neglected.
For a plane netting panel perpendicular to the flow (a = 90) at a fairly
open hanging ratio (E * 0.7), empirically, Kh * 360 D /mi, thus t
RH> = 360 (Dt/mi) An V 2 (3.13)
For a plane netting panel set parallel to the flow (a = 0) the solidity or
ratio of twine thickness to mesh size has little effect and, empirically,
Kh= 1,8 whence
2
Ro=l,8-An -V (3.14)
For a plane netting panel set at angle a to the flow, first estimate RM and
Ro for the same netting panel from (3.13) and (3.14) and then interpolate
between them using
R = Ro + (R9o - Ro)/90. (3.15)
This is a very approximate estimation of drag, for example it says that

the curve for C x in Figure 3.6 is linear, and says nothing about the very
important normal or sheering component of the hydrodynamic force on the
netting.
3.1.2.7 Drag of fishing nets of complex shape

It issometimes very useful to be able to estimate the drag of a fishing net.
This is particularly important for the correct choice of the netting and the
towing or mooring elements of the gear (ropes, chains, shackles, anchors,

etc) and for the correct determination of power required to handle the gear
(for winches, power-blocks, etc) and to propel vessels towing the gear
(trawler horsepower).
Different fishing nets often have shapes which are more complex than a
plane netting panel and the hydrodynamic characteristics of their compo-
nent netting sections may not all be the same. An approximate determina-
tion of the hydrodynamic resistance of fishing nets may be carried out on
the assumption that the resistance of a combined net of an arbitrary shape
is equal to the sum of the drags of its netting components of simpler shape,
whatever their size or form may be. The number, shape and methods of
joining parts making up the given three-dimensional net is not taken into
account. Thus, it can be seen that the drag of the netting in the fishing gear
R is determined approximately as the sum of the drags of its n parts.
2]Ri, (3.16)
where i is the identification number of each netting part. The resistance of

each individual netting part can be estimated from (3.7). For this, one must
either know the drag coefficients C and calculate the twine area At for each
part, or revert to the simplified method (3.1.2.6).
When a fishing net meets a water flow it often becomes inflated by the
current (Fig 3.9). In order to estimate the drag force on curved netting, the
panel may be tentatively divided into several flat sections oriented at
corresponding average angles to the flow. Having estimated the resistance
of each section of the net, one may sum the results. The most common
geometric components of fishing nets are circular cones and cylinders. Their
drag will be the same as that of their flat developed surfaces oriented at the
same angle to the flow as the original cones and cylinders (Fig 3.10).
Fig 3. 9 Slack netting inflated by water flow.
Fig 3. 10 Netting cone and cylinder developed for estimating hydrodynamic resistance.
Example 3.4
Determine the drag of the leader of a stationary trapnet set perpendicular
to the current (Fig 3. 11). The working (hung) length of the net is L = 200 m,
the working depth is H
= 12 m, the hanging ratios EI and 2 are both 0,707
(ie,the working shape of the mesh is square) and the relative velocity of the
current is V = 0.8m/sec. The twine is SOtexx 12 polypropylene and the
extended mesh length mi is 60 mm.
Fig 3.11 The wing of a set net.
Solution
The drag R will be found using formula (3.7). The resistance coefficient
Cx determined from Fig 3.6 where, with a = 90, Cx * 1.4. The water
is
4
density p * 100 kgf-sec /m
2
A
The twine area t can be estimated from
.
formula (2.22) but to use it one must know the fictitious area Af of the net
and the twine thickness D t .
Considering that the actual net area is
An = L H = 200 x 12 = 2400 m 2
using formula (2.13):
Af = An/Eu = 2400/0,707 x 0,707 = 4800 m 2
The twine thickness is estimated from formula (2.14):
:S -" !*- umm

Then, according to formulas (2.22) and (2.23)
and
At - (2)(1,2)(1,2)(4800)/(60) 230 m2
Alternatively, At can be found by formula (3.9) which transposes to
At = E g An without having to calculate Af, but the netting solidity ratio

,
E s must be found first. The twine thickness D t = 1,2 mm

is found as before,
whence D t/mi = 1 ,2/60 = 0,02. Then, from Figure 3. 7 or from the equation
following formula (3.9) or interpolating in Table 3.2, the netting solidity
parameter K n = 0,048. Also, from formula (2.12) or from Table 2.4, the
netting utilization coefficient E u = (0,707) (0,707) = 0,5. Substituting these
last two quantities into formula (3.9) E s = 0,048/0,5 = 0,096, whence
formula (3.9) also gives
At =E $ An = (0,096) (2400) = 230 m 2
By definition, the hydrodynamic stagnation pressure is
2 2
q = pV /2 = = 2
100 x 0,8 /2 32 kgf/m
Using formula (3.7)
Rx = Cx q At = 1,4 X 32 x 230 = 10304 kgf.
Now for comparison find the approximate resistance of the same net by
formula (3. 13)
ROD = 360 (Dt/mi) A n V 2 = 360 X (1,2/60) X 2400 X 0.8 2 = 1 1059 kgf
This result differs from the previous result given by the more exact
expressions (3.7) and (3.9) by
(1 1059 - 10304)/10304 = 0,07 = 7%
Obviously the estimated netting drags are approximate. Actually, they

may be either more or less. For example, the current velocity V may vary
over the net (Fig 3.12), or nets may be inflated by the current and the drag
thus reduced. On the other hand, dirty nets will produce more drag than
clean ones. Drag may also increase as a result of local eddy velocities
generated by the sea waves.
Fig 3. 12 Velocity profile over a fixed bed.

Example 3.5
Estimate the drag of the net which consists of a cone and cylinder
(Fig 3.13) moving in the water. The dimensions are as follows:
The diameter of the large base of the cone is Di = 6 m.
The diameter of the small base of the cone is Dz = 3 m.
The length of the cone (between bases) is L c = 5 m.
The twine in the cone is 93,5 tex x 3 x 3 polyethylene.
The twine diameter in the cone from (2.14) is D tc = 1,5 mm.
The extended mesh length is mj = 40 mm, hung to Ei = 0,4.
The profile area of the twine in the cone from (2.23) is tc = 20,6 2 A m
The diameter of the cylinder is Da = Dz = 3 m.
The length of the cylinder is L = 10 m.
The twine in the cylinder is 93,5 tex x 6 x 3 polyethylene.
The diameter of the twine from (2.14) is D to = 2,1 mm.
The extended mesh length is mi = 40 mm
hung to Ei = 0,4.
The profile area of the twine in the cylinder from (2.23) is to = 40,7 A m2
The velocity of relative motion is V = 1,5 m/sec.
Fig 3. 13 Dimensions of a stylized net.
Solution
According to the formula (3.16) the drag of the net R is equal to the sum
of the drags of the cone R c and cylinder R .
The force R c is the same as that for the plane developed surface of the
cone at the same angle of incidence a. To determine the angle a between
the netting and the flow direction,
tan a= (Di
- D2)/(2 L c) (6
- 3)/(2 x 5) 0,3
whence from trigonometric tables, etc, a= 16.7. According to Fig 3.6,

Cx * 0,55 and
2 - 2
q = p V /2 -
2
(100)(1, 5) /2 1 12,5 kgf/m
whence formula (3.7) gives
Rc - 0,55 x 1 12,5 x 20,6 - 1275 kgf .

For the cylinder (a = 0),Cx = 0,47, hence from (3.7)

Ro = 0,47 x 112,5 x 40,7 = 2150 kgf,
and the drag of the net is
R x = Re + Ro = 1275 + 2150 = 3425 kgf.
In this net, D /m
t s (0,075 is greater than for Fig 3.6 and the
and 0,105)
primary hanging ratio so that these drag coefficients are probably a
is less
little high, giving an overestimate of drag.
The assumption throughout this section, that the resistance of a complex

net is the sum of the resistances of its independent components, is an over-
simplification, even though convenient. More accurate, empirical methods
for estimating the drags of trawls are available (Reid, 1977; Foster et al>
1977; MacLennan, 1981).
3.1.3 HYDRODYNAMIC DRAG FORCE ON FISHING LINES AND ROPES

The drag force on a straight line (twine, rope, etc) can be estimated by a
formula similar to (3.7), namely
R x = Cx-L-D-q (3.17)
where C x = drag coefficient, L = length, D = diameter and
q = pV /2 = hydrodynamic
2
stagnation pressure.
The drag coefficient C x depends mostly on the angle between the rope and
flow direction. It on the type of rope, its material, the degree
also depends
of wear and on number. The dependence of C x on angle a
the Reynolds
according to measurements with a 16-mm diameter steel wire rope is shown
as an example in Table 3.3. Because the pattern of dependence of C x on a
is similar also for other types of rope, the data of Table 3.3 can be used to
determine their drag as a first approximation.
TABLE 3.3. THE DRAG COEFFICIENTS FOR STRAIGHT ROPES
0,12 50 0,70
10 0,20 60 0,90
20 0,32 70 1,12
30 0,41 80 1,25
40 0,56 90 1,30
If ropes are not tightly stretched the drag coefficient C x depends on their
shape, ie, on the ratio of the sag b to the length of the chord L c (Fig 3.14).
These data can be found in Table 3.4.
The drag coefficient Cx of ropes also depends on the Reynolds number.
For most practical conditions, however, it can be neglected in calculating

the drag of fishing ropes and lines.
In addition to the drag force described here, there is a sheer force, acting
normal to the flow, on ropes at an angle to the flow.
Lc
Fig 3. 14 Definition of rope sag.
TABLE 3.4. THE DRAG COEFFICIENTS (BASED ON CHORD

LENGTH L c ) FOR ROPES WITH CHORD NORMAL TO THE FLOW
AS A FUNCTION OF SAG RATIO
Example 3.6
Determine the drag of a trawl warp 500 m long if the depth of the trawl
H= 150m, the warp diameter D=15mm and the trawling speed
4
V = 4 knots (2,06 m/scc) in sea water (p = 105 kgf-sec
2
/m ).
Solution
To simplify the problem, consider that the warp is straight at an angle to

the flow. First find
a = H/L = 150/500 = 0,3

sin
o
whence, from trigonometric tables a = 17,5 .By interpolating in Table 3. 3,
=
C x 0,29. The hydrodynamic stagnation pressure is
q- pV
2
/2
= 2
(105)(2,06) /2 = 223 kgf/m 2
Hence, the drag of the warp by (3.17) is;
Rx - 0,29 x 500 x 0,015 x 223 * 485 kgf.

3.1.4 HYDRODYNAMIC FORCES ON FISHING GEAR AUXILIARIES

Fishing gear auxiliaries include the various detachable components such
as floats, bobbins, sinkers, trawl doors, shackles, swivels, detachable
footropes and headlines (but not frame lines). Here we shall discuss a
method for estimating hydrodynamic drag which can be applied to trawl
doors, kites, floats of different shapes, bobbins, danleno, and some other
elements of cylindrical, spherical, ellipsoidal, semi-spherical, conical and
plane shapes.
We must remember that the total drag of most fishing gear components
includes not only hydrodynamic drag but also other forces such as friction,
ground reaction and effect of catch which we shall discuss later.
The hydrodynamic drag, even though not necessarily of significant
magnitude in small rigging components, may be decisive in functional effi-
ciency, eg, for trawl doors and floats.
As before the basic hydrodynamic resistance formula is
R = C-q-A (3.18)
where the hydrodynamic stagnation pressure q = pV /2 and A is the selected

2
reference area for the resistance of each rigging component.

The drag coefficients C x for some typical body shapes are given in
Table. 3.5.
TABLE 3.5. DRAG COEFFICIENTS FOR CERTAIN BODY

SHAPES
Body shape Flow direction, V Reference area, A
For the hydrodynamic drag and lift (sheer) forces Rx and Ry on flat or
profiled fishing gear components the basic hydrodynamic equation (3.18)
becomes
Rx C, A q and Ry * C y A q (3.19)
where Cx
and Cy are the drag and lift (or sheer) coefficients which depend
on the shape of the bodies, their orientation in the flow and on Reynolds
number. The values of C x and C y for trawl doors of different types are
plotted in Fig 3.15 against the angle of incidence a. It is evident that the
angle of incidence considerably influences both C x and C y For further in- .
formation, see the FAO trawl door manual (FAO, 1974).
1.2
^
/^
1
^ ^
$ 4f
O 12 76 209*29
Angle of incidence, a Angle of incidence,

(a) Trawl Door (b)
Types of
/ .
Oval, single slot
2 .
Oval, triple slot
3. Rectangular V-door
4 .
Round, spherical camber
5 .
Rectangular, cambered
Fig 3. IS Drag (a) and sheer (b) force coefficients for various types of trawl door as a
function of angle of incidence (a).
The effect of the Reynolds number is much less pronounced because its
2 5
value for most fishing gear components is between 10 and 10 (see Fig
3.16), though in some cases it may be significant and will be discussed later.
Reynolds number,
/. Spheres
2. Plates
3 . Smooth cylinders
Fig 3.16 Reynolds number effect on drag coefficients.
Example 3.7
Determine the drag of the trawl headline with spherical floats given, the
rope diameter D r = 15 nun, distance between its ends (chord) Lc = 16 m, sag
b = 4 m, float diameter D = 200 mm,

f number of floats = 40, towing speed
V= 1,54 m/sec (3 knots).
Solution
The drag of the rope R r is obtained by formula (3.17). Given

b/L c = 4/16 = 0,25, from Table 3.4 C x = 0,73 and q * (100)(1,54) /
2
2
2= 119kgf/m Consequently,
.
R = 0,73 x
r 16 x 0,015 x 1 19 = 20,8 kgf.
The drag of one float Rf is obtained from formula (3.18) given C x = 0,5 in
Table 3.5. The geometric area per float used for this coefficient is
A = Or/4) D 2 = (7r/4)(0,2) 2 = 0,0314 m 2

Thus, the drag of each float is
R f = 0,5 x 1 19 x 0,0314 = 1,87 kgf
The total drag R x is the sum of the drags of the rope and the floats, viz,
R x = R + 40(R ) = 20,8 + 40(1 ,87) = 95 kgf.

r f
Example 3.8
Determine the drag of a 0,75 x 1,5 m flat rectangular trawl door for angles
of incidence a from 10 to 50. The towing speed V= 1,28 m/sec (2,5
knots).
Solution
The drag of the trawl board is determined using the formula (3.19). The
drag coefficients are found from Fig 3.17 as,
a 10 20 30 40 50
Cx 0,16 0,35 0,57 0,72 0,90
= 2 4
Scawater density p 105 kgf-sec
so that the hydrodynamic stagna-
/m
q = pV /2 = (105)(1 ,28) /2 = 86 kgf/m The area of the trawl
2 2 2
tion pressure .
door is
A = 0,75x1,5 = 1,13m
2
.
Then we obtain:
1) Rxio = 0,16 x 1,13 x 86 = 15,5 kgf

2) RXM - 0,35 x 1,13 x 86 = 34,0 kgf
3) RXJO - 0,57 x 1,13 x 86 = 55,1 kgf
4) RX40 = 0,72 x 1,13 x 86 = 70,0 kgf
5) Rx30 = 0,90 x 1,13 x 86 = 87,1 kgf
A similar procedure may be used to estimate from Cy the sheer or spreading

force developed by the door at various angles of incidence.
OX
l.O
0.8
0.6
0.4-
0.2
i
10 20 30 40 50
Angle of incidence ( a)
Fig 3. 17 Sheer and drag coefficients for flat, rectangular trawl doors.
3.1.5 GROUND EFFECT

Fishing gear is affected not only by hydrodynamic forces but also by forces
arising from physical contact of the gear with the bed of the sea, lake or
river. These forces can be divided roughly into two types, (a) friction, as
when we rub our hands together and (b) ploughing or digging of the gear
or of a pan of it into the soft, water-soaked ground, as when ploughing a
field. In this section we shall deal with the influence of the joint effect of
both these forces (total ground effect) on fishing gear other than trawl doors
which will be treated separately.
3.1.5.1 Friction
There are two main types of friction, (a) static and sliding friction, when
the surface of one body rests or moves in contact with the surface of the
other, and (b) rolling friction, when one body such as a wheel or a sphere
rollsover the surface of the other body while turning on its own axis. The
effect of friction forces on nets, ropes and auxiliary gear components com-
ing in contact with the ground arises not only during the motion of fishing
gear over the ground but also on moored gear under the influence of
current. In the first case, ground friction causes additional drag. In the
second case, ground friction determines the position and shape of the gear.
In the case of moving gear, usually sliding friction is involved.
3.1.5.2 Calculating the ground effect

A practical formula may be used to find the total ground effect Rg using
empirical coefficients that characterize both the friction and the ploughing
forces:
Rg = Kf -W w (3.20)
where (kgf)Rf the drag due to the ground effect, K g is the empirical
is
coefficient of the ground effect and W

w is the weight of the body in water.
Values of Kf
given in Table 3.6 have been measured in water under
average conditions over two types of ground. Unfortunately, no data are
available yet for soft grounds (eg, mud or ooze).
TABLE 3.6. GROUND EFFECT COEFFICIENTS FOR SOME FISHING GEAR COMPONENTS IN WATER ON
FINE SAND AND ON SAND AND GRAVEL
Ground effect coefficient Kt

Material fine sand sand and gravel
3. 1 .5.3 Rolling friction
Rolling reduces friction and this should be taken into account for trawl
bobbins which not only slide along the sea bed but also roll (see Fig 3.18).
This reduction in ground friction can be described by a rolling coefficient
Er = Rb/Rf where Rb is the resistance of the bobbin including rolling effect
and Rf is the ground resistance when the bobbin is towed axially over the
sea bed. The reduction in friction caused by rolling varies with the angle of
incidence a b of the bobbin axis to the direction of motion, and values for
Er are given in Table 3.7. The actual bobbin resistance is then
Rb-Er'Rg (3.21)
At b 90 the bobbin rolls most easily and its resistance is minimum.

Similarly, when a b = the bobbin does not roll and the ground resistance
is as estimated according to Table 3.6 and formula (3.20).
TOWING
DIRECTION
WIRE ROPE OR CHAIN
Fig 3. 18 Trawl bobbin geometry.
TABLE 3.7. ROLLING COEFFICIENTS OF BOBBINS AS A FUNCTION OF THE ANGLE BETWEEN THE
BOBBIN AXIS AND THE DIRECTION OF THE TOW
3.1.5.4 Stationary gear

In stationary gear, sinkers, ballast (eg, bags filled with sand or stone) and
anchors function as long as the total ground-effect resistance Rg is greater
than the external force F applied from current, waves and wind to the given
component of the fishing gear, either directly or through nets, ropes, etc.
For example, a sinker may be subjected to a certain direct action of the
hydrodynamic pressure force Fi from the current and simultaneously force
F2 transmitted along the ground line from the net which is also subjected
to pressure generated by water flow. If
the sinker remains in its place and if
F = Fi + F 2 > Rf
it begins to move along the ground.
When a ballast is used, such as while setting stationary seines, the force
F from the mooring line is not applied horizontally but acts at a certain
vertical angle (Fig 3.19) so that the vertical component of the line tension
reduces the effectiveness of the weight of the ballast. The magnitude of this
angle depends on the water depth and on the length of the rope guy. The
drag or holding force R( required of the ballast is then given approximately
by
= (Kf -W w)/[l + Kg -(H/L)] (3.22)
where H is the depth and L is the horizontal distance from the gear to the
ballast.
The normal force N shown in Fig 3. 19 is the reaction of the sea bed which
isequal to the weight W
w of the ballast in water less the upward component
of line tension. From (3.22) it is seen that the holding force of the ballast
depends not only on its weight but also on the ratio of to L. Thus, if H
H = 0, the holding friction force is maximum, and if L = 0, there is no
horizontal force from the gear and no friction holding force is required of
the ballast.
The holding power of an anchor Rg depends on its weight, design, type,
nature of the sea bed and orientation of the anchor line. It can be estimated
approximately by
Rt = K a -W w (3.23)
where K is an empirical coefficient which depends on the type of anchor

and the nature of the sea bed. It has values between 5 and 7 on sandy
bottom and between 12 and IS on clay bottom.
Fig 3. 19 Force vectors on set gear ballast.
Example 3.9
Determine the weight in water of a sand-bag ballast required to hold the
chamber of a set net in place, if the horizontal force tending to move the
ballast 100 kgf. The length of the guy
is is 10 m, the depth is 4 m and the
sea bed is sandy.
Solution
To prevent motion, the holding power of the ballast Rf cannot be less than
the force tending to move it. Consequently, the minimum R g = 100 kgf. The
friction coefficient Kf given in Table 3.6 is 0,76. The horizontal distance L
from a corner of the chamber to the ballast is calculated as
Now, rearranging equation (3.22) to find the weight in water, Ww , of the

sand bag,
100
0,76
Of course, this is a theoretical minimum value which, for practical pur-
poses, may have to be multiplied by a safety factor of 2 to 3 according to
the predicted fluctuations of the horizontal force tending to move the
ballast.
Example 3.10
Determine the weight of the anchor required to hold the leader of a set net
anchor line is T = 200 kgf. The coefficient of
in place if the tension in the
the anchor holding power is K a = 5, the depth is 6 m and the length of the
guy is 60 m.
Solution
The holding power of the anchor R, should be not less than the horizontal
component of the tension in the anchor line R x /, ,
Rg = R x = T cos
where |8 is the angle of the guy from horizontal. But sin = 6/60 = 0,1
whence cos /3 = Jl -0,1 2 = 0,995 1. Thus, if the line is long com-
pared with the depth, the line tension is very nearly equal to the resistance
and
Rg m T = 200 kgf.
Rearranging formula (3.23) the minimum weight in water of the anchor is
Ww = Rc/Ka - 200/5 = 40 kgf.
3.1.6 FORCES GENERATED BY FISH

Fish may generate forces that influence the performance of fishing gear. For
example, a single fish hooked on a longline exerts a force on the hook,
snood and mainline and if the force is strong enough, any of these elements
may break, as anybody who has hooked a fish well knows.
In the case of gill nets, purse seines and other fishing gear the sum of the
forces jointly exerted by many individual fish in one direction may influence
the gear performance.
The continuous tractive force of a fish can be approximately estimated
by the equation
(3.24)
where W
f is the weight of the fish in air, kgf; L is its length, m; and Kf is
an empirical coefficient. The values of Kf obtained for various fish in special

tests are between 0,5 and 1,0.
The force developed by fish from kinetic energy during jerks can be
expressed by
Fk = W f -V 2/g-e (32 5)
where V is the maximum swimming speed of the fish, m/sec, g is the
2
acceleration due to gravity, m/sec and e is the maximum elastic strain or
,
gear extension caused by the fish, m. The derivation of (3.25) assumes the
amount of gear distortion caused by the fish at any instant is directly
proportional to the force exerted by the fish.
This formula shows that the dynamic force depends on the elasticity of
the gear which, in turn, depends to some extent on the method of setting
the gear as well as on its design. For example, longer snoods on a longline
permit greater elastic extension and can better withstand jerks from hooked
fish.
Example 3.11
Find the dynamic force generated by tuna weighing 20 kgf if the snoods of
the longline permit the displacement of the hooked fish for 2 m, 4 and m
6 m. The maximum swimming speed of this fish is assumed to be 6 m/sec.
Solution
Using (3.25) we find the tractive force for the distances mentioned.
L Fi 20 x 6 2/9,8 x 2 - 36,7 kgf,
2. F2 - 20 x 6 2/9,8 x 4 - 18,4 kgf,
3. F3 - 20 x 6 2/9,8 x 6 - 12,2 kgf.
The force generated by fish is sometimes even greater than 1,5 times its
weight, often leading to tearing of the flesh by the hook. Hence, in the first
case of the above example the elasticity of the gear, eg, the snood length,
is insufficient.
Thetotal sinking force produced by a fish catch can exceed its weight in
water by several times. For example, for North Atlantic herring (period of
gill net drift up to 12 hr) the weight of live fish in water is 1% to 2% of its
weight in air. At the same time the vertical force generated by the fish
trapped in the net when they begin to sink is as great as 1% of their weight
in air for some biological reason. This factor is responsible for sinking of
driftnet fleets sometimes observed.
There are known cases where the capsizing of purse seiners can be
attributed to the sinking force generated by the catch. Swimming fish have
also been known to generate a horizontal force on the purse seine which
submerged the floatline and allowed some fish to escape; and trawls have
been burst, particularly in the batings and lengthening piece, when towed
inadvertently through large, dense shoals of fish at high speed.
CHAPTER 4
METHODS FOR CALCULATING FISHING GEAR AS A SYSTEM OF

FLEXIBLE LINES
4.1 Simplified presentation to permit calculation
The design of fishing gear, which is a complicated three dimensional system,

isoften based on the consideration of two-dimensional drawings and force
diagrams. These drawings represent projections or cross-sections of fishing
gear as systems of flexible lines frozen at a given point in time or
experiencing pseudo-steady-state conditions. The calculation of their shape,
position in space and loading enables subsequent improvement of existing
gear through improved geometry, matching of strength to loads and, ulti-
mately, improved fishing efficiency.
For example, many fishing nets such as entangling and surrounding nets
consist of very long and comparatively shallow panels. Their shape and the
forces acting on them can be determined by considering the three drawings
in Fig 4.1. The first (a) illustrates the net in working position in the current.
The resistance of the whole net to the current (R) is an external force which
isultimately carried by the floatline and leadline and, if they are of equal
length, distributed equally between them as at (a). With the load distribu-
tion on one of the mainlines as at (b) thus determined, the shape, tension
and support reaction or loads at the points of attachment can be calculated.
The internal forces generated by netting resistance are shown in the vertical
section of the net at (c) which can be treated as a flexible line loaded in the
same way as the netting. In this case the external forces per metre length
of netting exert a horizontal reaction in the mainlines r/2 plus vertical forces
per unit length of support line which overcome by the buoyancy of the
floats Ff and the weights of the sinkers F,. The vertical angle of the netting
at the support lines in this cross-section depends on the relative values of
these horizontal reaction and vertical support forces. More complicated
nets which are secured at intermediate points over their length are designed
as a system of several flexible parts. Analysis of the mainlines and warps
of trawls, purseline of a purse seine and many other problems can be
reduced to the calculation of a flexible line.
4.2 Estimating the shape and tension of flexible lines

The shape and tension of flexible lines depend on the distribution of the
METHODS FOR CALCULATING FISHING GEAR 77
external load on the line. Some typical loads found in fishing gear are shown
in Figs 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4.
HYORODYNAMIC ,
FORCES !
(a) PERSPECTIVE (b) PLAN (C) VERTICAL SECTION
Fig 4.1 Shape and force diagram of net.
Figures 4.2 and 4.3 show a flexible line OA subjected to uniformly

distributed, vertical forces of gravity and of buoyancy. F, is the net sinking
force and Fb the net buoyant force per unit length of line. The angle
between the line and these forces changes along the line.
o x
Fig 4.2 A flexible line suspended under the force of its own gravitation.
Buoyant force
X
Fig 4.3 A suspended flexible line influenced by its own buoyancy.
Figure 4.4 shows the line OA loaded along its length by the hydro-
dynamic force F q per unit line length acting normal to the line at every point
regardless of the current direction. The magnitude of F Q however, does ,
vary along the line in a manner dependent on the direction of the current.
In all these cases the geometric form of the flexible line is a catenary,
from the same family of curves as is produced by a length of chain suspend-
ed by its two ends.
r
q
Hydrodvnamic force
Fig 4.4 A flexible line loaded by fluid inertia drag.

The main geometric features of a piece of flexible line in catenary plan

form as shown in Fig 4.5 are the line length LI, sag or depth of bight b,
chord length L c and the angle of incidence a w of the end of the line to the
direction of the gravitational loading Fs or F b or to the direction of the reac-
tive force Ty The tension in the line
. is minimum at the bottom of the sag,
To, and the transverse or horizontal component of the tension at any place
in the line equals this minimum tension, fe, T x = To. For a symmetrical
curve, the relations between line length (m), sag (m), minimum tension
(kgf ), external load per unit lirie length (kgf/m), terminal angle and chord
or terminal spread (m) is
2 b To
Li = i
(4.1)
F s
cot aw = F s Li/2 To (4.2)
Lc = [(2 T )/F ] ln(cot aw + esc aw ) (4.3)
Given the minimum tension in the line, the tension at any other point is
T = To + F s y (4.4)
where F is the sinking or buoyant force per unit length of line (kgf/m) and
y isthe sag of the line from that point. For the ends of the line at points
A and B, y = b.
For the catenary formed by the hydrodynamic inertia force exerted by a
TX TO
Fig 4.5 Geometry of a catenary line form.

current as shown in Fig 4.4, the force (kgf ) per metre of line, acting normal
to the line, is
Fq = C n -D-q-sin 2 a (4.5)
where for wire rope Cn * 1.4 and D is the diameter in metres. The tension
T in the line caused by this loading is the same all along the line and the
relations between shape and forces are
T (4.7)
Lc = [(2 T)/(C n D)] q ln(cot aw + esc aw ) (4.8)
for the hydrodynamically loaded line.

For calculating the shape of nets in water flow it is sometimes more
expedient to use the parabola, which is the curve occurring when external
forces are uniformly distributed along the chord rather than along the AB
curve of the line AOB as in the case of catenary. An example of a parabola
is the cable of a suspension bridge. The equation for this parabola is:
2
y = F x -x /2-T (4.9)
where y the sag or ordinate and x is the abscissa for each point on the
is
Fx is the loading
curve, per unit width of the net (kgf/m) and To = T x is
minimum tension in the line as for the gravity-loaded line.
Applying formula (4.9) to the terminal ends of the symmetrical parabolic

line form, the minimum tension in the line is
To = Fx
2
Lc /8
'
b= R Lc/8 b (4.10)
where the chord length Lc = 2 x and the total resistance carried by the line
is R = Fx Lc .
Considering that the external loading on the line exerts no athwartwise

(X-direction) loading,
Tx = To = constant (4.11)
and the tension at any point in the line can be found from
T=T /sin a (4.12)
where a is the angle between the line axis or tangent and the direction of
the external loading (Y-direction).
At each end of the symmetrical line the tension vectors are
TX = T (4.13)
Ty -R/2-F,-LJ2 (4.14)
To estimate the length of the curve, for example to establish the required
depth of netting to fish in a current with the float line a given distance above
the sea bed and to assure that neither the corkline sinks nor the leadline
rises,
LI * Lc + 8
2
b /3 Lc (4.16)
for b/Lc less than 0,35. For deeper bights, (4.16) overestimates line length
by more than 5%, and the more complicated, but rigorous formula
(4.16a)
where P = 4 b/L c
should be used if greater accuracy is required.
Table 4.1 will simplify the calculations. Given the value for one of the
following parameters, the terminal angle of incidence a, chord to line length
ratio (Lc/Li), sag to line length ratio (b/Li), chord to sag ratio (L c /b) or
cot a, this table will provide values for the remaining parameters.
It will be noted that for the same ratio of spread to line length the
terminal angles of the catenary and parabola differ significantly. If this

angle is critical, as when extrapolating towing lines (eg for door spread
estimates), the curve appropriate to the load distribution must be selected
to avoid biases in the resulting calculation.
TABLE 4. 1 THE MAIN GEOMETRIC RATIOS OF THE CATENARY AND PARABOLA

Example 4.1
Rope AOB (Fig 4. 5) towed in water produces the drag R = 110 kgf. The
length of the rope Li = 60 m and its ends A and B are L c = 48 m apart.
Determine the minimum tension To in the rope at its centre and the tension
T at the points of attachment A and B.
Solution
Use the parabolic formula (4.10) for the solution of this problem. The sag
b may be determined from Table 4.1 entered at
L c /Li = 48/60 = 0,8
to find that b/Li = 0,27 whence
b = 0,27 Li = 0,27 x 60 = 16,2 m.
Now calculate tension in the rope at its centre using formula (4. 10), giving
To = R Lc/8 b= 1 10 x 48/8 x 16,2 = 40,7 kgf.
Using formula (4.15) the tension in the rope at its ends, A and B, is
To + R = |
2 2 2
=
T=\ J4 J4(40,7) + (110)
2
68,4 kgf.
Example 4.2
The tension T in the hauling line of a set gill net measured at its highest
point at the vessel is 800 kgf and the weight of the line in water is
F, = 0,8 kgf/m. The fishing depth is 120 m. Estimate the minimum length
of line such that the hauling line does not impose a lifting force on the net
while moored. (Hint: the line is horizontal at the point of attachment to the
net and it does not lie on the sea bed.)
Solution
Because the line is loaded transversely only by the forces of its own weight
and buoyancy, it is considered as the flexible line OA or OB (Fig 4.5) of
length Li/2. The first gill net is at the point O and the vessel is at the point B.
Because only half of the length of the full curve is required, formula (4. 1)
becomes
t
2 b To
,
Because the line is horizontal at its point of attachment to the net, the
tension atits lower end is given by formula (4.4) as
where y = b is the sag of the line, in this case the fishing depth. Hence,
T = 800- 0,8 x 12Q 704 kgf

and the length of the line is
~= 120
u 2x120x704
.
415 m
0,8
Example 4.3
Beach seine sweeps are fitted with floats so that they do not touch the sea
bed when the seine is set and hauled. The tension in each sweep is about
30 kgf during shooting and may reach 500 kgf while hauling, the weight in
water of the rope is 0.2 kgf/m, the maximum allowable sag is 4 m. Find the
buoyancy required and distribution of the floats along the sweep.
Solution
The sag of the sweeps is greater at lower tensions so the critical period to
avoid snagging the sea bed is while the seine is being set. As shown in
Fig 4.6, the distance between two adjacent floats is L c so that, assuming the
sag is small enough to permit the parabolic approximation (F x * F s ),
formula (4.10) during shooting gives
8 To b 18x30x4
That is, under 30 kgf line tension, the floats may be up to 70 apart. At m
lower tensions, sag increases and the rope may touch the sea bed. Assuming
the sag is small enough that fore-shortening of the sweep is negligible
(L c * Li), the weight of each section of rope in water between adjacent
floats is
Q, * F $ L c = 0.2 x 70 = 14 kgf.
With a 50% safety margin the buoyancy of each float should be
Qf=1.5xQi=1.5xl4 = 2
A greater number of smaller floats may be used to improve handling
characteristics provided the same total buoyancy is supplied.
Fig 4.6 Buoyed beach seine sweepline.

Example 4.4
The leader of a trapnet hung 10 m
deep is placed in 7 m
depth of water
reaching from the sea bed to the surface. Find the buoyancy of the floatline
Q f and the ballasting of the lead line Q
so that the former will not sink and
2
the latter will not rise. The force of the current pressure is 0,6 kgf/m
projected area of the leader.
Solution
Consider a cross-section of this net (Fig 4.1(c)) and for the present purpose
treat a metre length of leader as a vertical piece of flexible line such that the
buoyancy and the sinking force of the main mounting lines at its ends are
in equilibrium with the force of dynamic water pressure on the netting
tending to pull these mainlines together. According to formula (4.11)
Ff = Fs = Tjc = To. Thus, assuming a parabolic profile, formula (4.10) can
be used. First find the sag b (Fig. 4.5). The chord length L c is equal to the
water depth and the 'line' length Li is the hung depth of the net. Conse-
quently, Lc/Li = 7/10 = 0, 7 and from Table 4.1, for the parabola,
b/Li
= 0,33 and b = 0,33(10) 3,3 m.
Nowusing formula (4.10) the minimum buoyancy and ballast per metre
length of leader is
2 2
. .
1 f/m
1,1 kgf/m
In addition to the above methods of calculation for flexible lines, there is

a practical graphical method which may be applied with no greater difficulty
than this to problems similar to those already discussed, and even to more
complex problems.
4.3 Experimental determination of the shape and tension of flexible

lines by mechanical simulation
This method is especially useful in more complicated cases, eg when the

external loading is not uniform, when point forces act, when the points for
securing the line are at different heights and when there is more than one
line.
One of the simplest devices for this purpose is a cross-shaped frame such
as is shown in Fig 4.7. In this case a heavy flexible line (chain) is secured
at points A and B which are at different heights. Its weight simulates the
action of the vertical external forces distributed uniformly along its length
so that if the cross is placed vertically, the line under the action of its own
weight assumes the required catenary shape. Thus, the heavy flexible line
isa mechanical model of a full-scale rope, mounting line or netting section
under working conditions. In order to determine the tension at the point of
support B, the end of the chain is supported at the horizontal frame member
OE by weights suspended over pulleys such that one pulls vertically and the
other horizontally. With the weights adjusted to hold the end of the line at
the required position B, their values, B h and W W
Bv represent the horizontal
and vertical components of the tension in the line at that point. can use We
the same technique at the point A
and get the tension components there.
The magnitudes of these tensions and the angles of the ends of the line (a)
to the loading vector (vertical) are given by
TjWh + W v and
2 2
tan a= W /W
h v (4. 17)
where T is the tension in the direction of the tangent to the curve at the
respective point of support, W W
and h and v are, respectively, the horizontal
and vertical components of this tension. Of course, these results apply only
to the mechanical model.
"Ah
Ad
li -
Adjustable Weights
i
Fig 4.7 Simple vertical frame for mechanical simulation studies.

The basic condition for translating the experimental results to full-scale

conditions is that, in the model examined, all linear dimensions such as line
length Li and the coordinates at each of its points X
and Y are scaled down
from the prototype by the same linear scaling factor S L That is .
S L = L p/L m = Xp/X m = Y p/Y m , (4. 18)
If this condition is fulfilled, then all forces (resistances, tensions and

reactions) R p and T p acting on the full-scale twine, rope, etc, will also relate
to their model equivalents R m and T m by the same force scaling factor S F
which for flexible twines is both different from and independent of SL. Thus
S F = Rp/Rm = Tp/T m = W /Wm * SL,
p (4.19)
Note that for loads per unit linear dimension the scaling factor is S F/S L The .
scaling factors SL and SF may be arbitrarily selected as convenient.
Example 4.5
A 70 m length (Lip of wire rope is secured at points A and B (Fig 4. 7). The
)
height of point A over point B is Y A

= 25 m. The horizontal distance
between points A and B is XB = 43 m. The weight per metre of line in water
is F s = 0,5 kgf/m. Using mechanical simulation techniques determine the
location C of the lowest point of the line and the tensions at the points of
support A and B.
Solution
Choosing a length scaling factor SL = 100, the length of chain for the
model, given by (4. 18), is L m = L P/S L = 70/100 = 0, 7 m. Cut a 0, 7 m
length
of chain and measure its total weight (R m = 12,8 gf). Set the frame and
locate points A and B from the prototype data using this same scaling factor
SL = 100, ie point A 0,25 m
higher than point B with 0,43 m
horizontal in-
terval. Fasten a weight pan by a light, flexible cord to each end of the chain,
and place over single pulleys mounted appropriately near points A and B.
Adjust weights in the pans until the ends of the chain coincide exactly with
points A and B. These weights then equal the tension at point A
(TA M = 9,2gf) and at point B (T Bm = 4,6gf). The coordinates of point
C in the chain model are measured directly (XCm = 0,26m and
YC m = 0,12m).
Because the linear scaling factor was chosen as 100, the coordinates for
the lowest point in the full-scale line would be
Xc P - Xcm S L = 0,26 x 100 - 26 m

Y C p* Yc*S L = 0,12x100= 12m
The total sinking force on the line is
Rp F, Lip 0,5x70- 35 kgf

and the total weight of the chain was 12,8 gf Therefore, the scaling factor
.
for forces from (4.19) is S F = 35/0,0128 = 2734 and the tensions in the ends
of the line would be
TAP - TAM S F = 0,0092 X 2734 = 25,2 kgf
T Bp = T B m S F = 0,0046 X 2734 = 12,6 kgf.
Figure 4.8 shows how problems of the shape and tension in flexible lines
may be solved on a horizontal board. Here external forces are simulated not
by the weight of the model chain or cord but with the help of weights whose
action is transmitted to the model at points A, C, D, E, F, B by auxiliary
cords passing over special low friction pulleys. The model (chain or cord)
placed on the horizontal board under the action of these weights will
acquire a shape approximating that of the similarly loaded full-scale line.
These and similar techniques involving the scaling down of linear
dimensions and forces can be applied in designing and studying the
performance of almost any complex fishing gear.
6
Fig 4.8 Horizontal board for mechanical simulation studies.
CHAPTER 5
MODEL TESTS OF FISHING GEAR
5.1 Introduction
The characteristics of fishing gear are complex so that calculation methods

used for their estimation are based on simplified analyses of the real
processes which occur during fishing. However, in this simplification,
important phenomena may inadvertently be ignored. Also, in many cases
the theory for the calculations has not yet been developed. Therefore, for
more reliable fishing results, experimental methods are often used to select
fish-netcomponents, to develop plans and rigging for the gear and to
quantify the functional relations which govern gear performance in action.
For this purpose, models can be used to reproduce full-scale phenomena
on smaller, manageable equipment. Model experiments have long been a
basic method of investigation in full-scale gear [Fridman, 1973] .
Models can be tested in many fields of science and technology, and are
not only a cheaper and more convenient method to study a phenomenon,
but are often the only possible way, particularly for large gears.
Model-testing techniques can be used for a wide range of problems, such
as to measure the shape and position of the gear in space, to determine
fishing gear resistance and hydrodynamic coefficients of nets, ropes and
rigging, and to answer questions related to the control of fishing gear during
aimed fishing and while the ship is manoeuvring and to answer questions
related to research experiments for the improvement of gear-handling
operations. Model studies are also used to evaluate variations in fishing gear
construction to indicate which are the best for prototype design and for
further study in many different types of installation, eg, in ship test tanks,
flume tanks, aerodynamic wind tunnels, open water spaces, the sea, lakes
and ponds, etc. In some cases, water canals for electric power stations may
also be used for testing fishing gear models.
5.2 Principles of model testing
5.2. 1 GEOMETRIC SIMILARITY

Model based on the principle of similarity between a full-scale
tests are
device and model.
its
First* the model and its prototype must be similar in shape. Figure 5.1
MODEL TESTS OF FISHING GEAR 89
shows geometrically similar triangles ABC and A'B'C' in which corres-

ponding sides have the same length ratio, ie,
AB/A'B' = BC/B'C' = AC/A'C' =S L

where SL is the linear scaling factor.
In similar geometric figures every part in one has a corresponding part in

the other. For example, parts BD
and B'D' correspond, so their length
ratio is the same as for all corresponding parts, /,
BD/B'D'=S L
and the angle between them and the sides AC and A'C' is the same.
Similarly, all other angles formed by corresponding sides are equal in the
two triangles. Thus, geometric similarity of two figures, one being the
model of the other, requires that:
Lp/L m = SL and a p = a m (5.1)
where L
indicates a linear dimension, a an angle, and subscripts p and m
designate the prototype and its model respectively.
D D
Fig. 5.1 Similarity of geometric figures.
It is not 5.2) that the ratio of the areas of geometrical-

difficult to see (Fig
ly similar bodies of the prototype and the model will be
and the ratio of their volumes is
The equations of gWftwJtHc similarity are widely applied in practice. For

example, fish of the sattW species but of various age groups are to a certain
Fig 5.2 Similarity of linear dimensions, areas, and volumes.
extent geometrically similar (Fig 5.3). Also, net meshes of different sizes are
similar provided the hanging coefficients are the same. If it is known that
a gill net with mesh size mi catches fish of length LI best of all and a net
with mesh size mi catches fish of length L2 best of all too, then according
to geometric similarity
Li/Li
Hence, the length L 2 of the most frequent size of fish caught with a net of
mesh size ni2 can be predicted by
LI = LI mi/mi
and the optimal mesh size mi for catching fish of length L 2 can be also
found by
mi mi Li/Li
These considerations can be used if empirical net selectivity data are
available. The numerical value of the ratio Li/mi = K m is specific for each
fish species and is called the mesh selection factor. Thus, the equation for
determining the mesh opening of gillnets is
mo = L/Km (5.2)
where nio is the mesh opening in mm, L is the length of the fish in mm, K m
is the mesh selection factor.
Fig 5.3 Geometric similarity offish and mesh sizes.
Example 5.1
According to fishing experience, nets with 53 mm
mesh opening are optimal
for catching herring 280 mm
long. Find the length of herring which will be
best caught by nets with 47 mm
opening.
Solution
Using the relation

LI
the optimal herring length is
L 2 = 280 x 47/53 * 250 mm.
5.2.2 KINEMATIC SIMILARITY

Consider two corresponding points P p and P m on the leadlines of a purse
seine and its model
respectively (Fig 5. 4) falling through water. During
setting, the leadlines of the model and the full-scale net sink at unequal
speeds, because the distances between the elements are larger in the full-
scale gear than in a model and it takes more time for the gear or for any
portion of it to pass a certain point. So, point P p of the prototype leadline
falls the distance L p i during the time T p and point P m of the model falls
i
the distance L m i during the time T m i. If the wall configuration of both the
seine and its model are similar at corresponding instants, then conditions
Lpi/Lmi
= SL and T p i/T m =
i ST
prevailwhere Li is the depth after a given time Ti.

After subsequent periods, T p2 and T m 2
= S L and Tp2/T m2 = ST
That is, the scaling factors for distance and time are constant. Conse-
quently, the sinkings of similar purse seines, one of which is the model of
the other, are dynamically similar, which means there is a similarity both
of the shape and of motion. Thus, the kinematic similarity between the pro-
totype and its model means that, in addition to geometric similarity there
is also similarity of time intervals. In general both
Lp/L m = S L and Tp/T m = ST

are satisfied. Dividing SL by ST,
SL/ST = (L p/Tp) (Tm/U) = V p/V m = Sv

where V is the velocity, is the criterion for kinematic similarity.
T=O
Fig 5.4 Kinematic similarity of purse-seine leadlines falling in water.
5.2.3 FORCE SIMILARITY

The force similarity between a gear and its model occurs when the various
external forces applied to geometrically similar bodies are proportional and
act in the same direction. In the case where the forces and their equilibrium
are constant, as may happen when the gear and its model are either
stationary or in steady motion, the condition is known as static similarity.
Force similarity satisfies the equations
Lp/Lm S L and Fp/Fm SF

which means that, when the model is tested, all the forces Fm acting on it,
whether they be static (gravity or buoyant) or dynamic (fluid friction or
inertia), must be reduced from the prototype forces Fp by the same scaling
factor. For example, the hydrostatic lift of a plastic foam float and its
model, both totally submerged in water, are
FP = v p (7 P
- 7w)
Fm = V m '
(7 m
- 7*)
where F p and F m are the lifts of the full-scale float and its model, respec-
tively,v is the volume of the floats, y p and 7m are the specific weights (gf/ml)
of the plastic foam, 7* is the specific weight of the water.
The force scaling factor is:
Vm '
(7m
~ 7m)
In the simplest case of this, both floats are made of the same material and
are tested in the same medium. Then y p = ym and 7* is constant, and
(5.5)
Combining this with the geometric similarity of formula (5.1), under these
conditions, SF = SL S for buoyant forces.
Example 5.2
Two ellipsoidal floats of the same material, with respective diameters
Di = 10 and Di = 7 cm, are otherwise geometrically similar. Compare their
buoyancies and drags.
Solution
Consider the larger float as an unsealed model of the smaller one and find
the model scale for their projected areas (which are proportional to drag)
and their volumes (which are proportional to buoyancy). The ratio of the
diameters and of any other corresponding dimensions is their linear scaling
factor
SL Dm/Dp = Di/D 2 = 10/7

= 1 ,4
The ratio of the areas Am and Ap of the two floats is the square of the linear
scaling factor
Am
The ratio of the volumes v m and vp is the cube of the linear scaling factor
Vm m
Hence, the obvious conclusion is that the drag of the larger float will be
twice that of the smaller float and its buoyancy three tunes as much, other
conditions being equal. By using the ratios of similarity, it is possible to
obtain these results without complicated calculations of actual areas and

volumes of the floats.
5.2.4 DYNAMIC SIMILARITY

Where the conditions of force equilibrium change with time, three variables
must be scaled to achieve dynamic similarity:
Lp/L m = S L ; T p/T m = ST F p/F m = S F

; (5.6)
where the symbols are as already defined.

Conditions (5.6) are satisfied when there is a similarity between the
changing motion of the full-scale gear and its model, such as while increas-
ing or reducing towing speed or changing the towing course. When the
characteristics of the motion are constant with time as, for example, while
trawling on a straight course and at constant speed, the conditions specified
by (5.6) are simplified to the special case of steady state conditions defined
by (5.4).
more complex situations, phenomena may arise which require the
In
definition of additional variables such as mass, velocity and acceleration.
A quantitative comparison then requires a constant relationship in each
variable between the model and the prototype. Consequently, several scales
of similarity relating respectively to mass, velocity, acceleration, etc, will
appear.
5.2.5 SIMILARITY CRITERIA
Correctly executed model tests on fishing gear provide both qualitative and
quantitative information on the performance of the full-scale gear.
Test conditions for the model must be as appropriate as possible for the
experimental regime, in keeping with low power requirements, simple
instrumentation, low velocities and easy visual observation of the whole
model. The correct design and construction of the model, the correct
planning and execution of the experiment and the extrapolation of model
test results to full-scale performance must all be conducted in accord with
the principles of similarity.
It has already been shown that if similarity exists between the full-scale
gear and the model, and if similarity scales have been established, then the
following formulae may be used to translate model test results into predic-
tions for the full-scale gear:
Lp = L m S L ; Tp = T m S T Fp = Fm
; SF (5.7)
Finding ail the scaling factors in a complex situation is a complex and

laborious task. First, there must be geometric similarity between model and
full-scale gear and this condition is satisfied if the model is correctly made.
Second, the mechanical characteristics of the motion of the model must be
made similar to those of the full-scale gear. These conditions can be
numerically defined by numbers which are called the criteria of similarity.

These criteria determine the specifications both for the model and for the
experimental installation used to test the model. They establish, for
example, the velocity of the model motion as a function of its dimensions,
physical properties of the materials from which the model is made and
physical properties of the medium in which the test is performed. The
number of criteria to be satisfied for different fishing gears and for various
conditions of model testing depends on the nature of the problem to be
solved. Similarity criteria are defined by dimensionless combinations of
dimensional physical variables of the fishing gear, of its motion and of the
physical characteristics of the fluid medium. Reynolds number mentioned
in Chapter 3 is one of these, and several others will be discussed.
When similarity between the model and the full-scale gear is achieved, the
numerical values of the corresponding criteria of similarity are equal. Thus,
to ensure a similarity we must select physical characteristics of the model
and the conditions under which it is tested so that the numerical value of
any pair of the corresponding similarity criteria B for the model B m and the
prototype Bp are equal, ie,
B ra = B p (5.8)
The rule expressed by formula (5.8) is an ideal which is sought for all
relevant criteria but which often cannot be achieved for practical reasons
in the construction of the model, such as lack of suitable material, or in the
conditions of the tests. Then, either the numerical values of the similarity
criteria for the model may not be equal to those for the full-scale gear or
all the conditions prescribed by the scaling formulae (5.7) cannot be
satisfied simultaneously. Sometimes, both shortcomings occur at once.
When any of these deficiencies exist,some deviations from the rules of
similarity must be allowed, and conditions of approximate similarity must
be accepted. When model tests are conducted under such conditions, the
degree of the approximation must be determined and the so-called scale
effect evaluated. Then, the information about the scale effect is used to
correct the results of the model tests.
5.3 Installations for model tests
Considering the great variety of problems with fishing gear which can be
solved by model tests, the construction of a single facility for all purposes
is not feasible. Several installations specializing in model testing of fishing
gear exist; the best known are in France, England, Japan, USSR, USA,
Poland and the German Democratic Republic.
5.3.1 TOWING PONDS, LAKES OR LAGOONS

On naturally enclosed bodies of water, comprehensive model tests of whole
fishing systems, including the fishing gear, deck machines and fishing vessel,
can be conducted under experimental conditions closely approximating
those encountered in commercial fishing practice. Smaller fishing vessels
and special research boats can be used for such tests by serving as a model
of larger vessels or by simulating a model only in the delivery of the
required, scaled-down power. One such vessel is the MRB 55-class trawler
(Fig. 5.5) owned by KTUFIE* and used for testing model trawls. It is
powered by a 55-hp marine diesel engine and is equipped with hydraulic
winches, a swinging gantry and instruments needed to monitor the perform-
ance of the trawl models. Variables which change during the tests are
monitored by primary transducers whose outputs are transmitted over a
remote-controlled communication cable to the recording equipment on the
boat as indicated in Fig 5.6.
Fig 5.5 MM 55-class trawler used for model studies of fishing gear.
The area where such tests are made should be well marked by anchored
buoys. The depth over the routes where models of bottom and mid-water
trawls are tested should be measured and mapped. Depths of several tens
of metres are desirable, especially for testing models of deepwater trawls.
nCTUFlE Kaliningrad Technical University of the Fishing Industry and Economy (USSR).
Fig 5.6 System for instrumented studies of fishing gear models.
The bottom should be smooth to minimize wear and tear of the models.
Service and gear storage facilities should be available near the testing
ground.
In the USSR and Poland a specially designed catamaran, equipped with
underwater view ports for examining trawl models and individual com-
ponents of the gear and its rigging are also used. Such a catamaran may be
either motorized or towed by another boat.
Large, artificial ponds, such as large swimming pools or tow ponds often
associated with ship laboratories, can also be used in a similar manner for
fishing gear model tests if they are deep enough. They usually have the
advantage of a smooth and level bottom and are usually near associated
land facilities such as shops and warehouses. Such ponds or pools are par-
ticularly suitable for models of larger gears such as purse seines, providing
a compromise between reasonably controlled experimental conditions and
tractable scaling factors.
5.3.2 MODEL TOW TANKS

A laboratory-type installation is a ship-model towing tank which can be
adapted for model tests of fishing gear or specially constructed for this
purpose as, for example, the KTUFIE model testing tank (Fig. 5.7). It is
50 m long, 7 m wide and 4 m
deep. Models are towed along the basin at
speeds up to 3 m/s by a trolley moved on rails by a 35-kW electrical drive.
Measuring instruments, in particular traction dynamometers, are mounted

on the trolley, as are devices designed to maintain the models in the desired
position, and the operators ride on the trolley. The shape and linear dimen-
sions of the model are recorded by surface and underwater photography.
Various instruments measure the mechanical forces acting on the model and
on some of its components and measure flow velocities near and inside the
model. A wave maker can generate controlled waves in the tank.
Guide rails Control console

Dynamometer
\ \ \
IU
rt
Towing carnage Stream - 1 mad struts

, /
^-AÂJULX,
50m -----
Fig 5. 7 Trawl model tow tank.
In a tow tank, as in some other installations, the water volume is con-

tained by the bottom and walls of the tank and by the top surface of the
water. Conditions of similarity require that the influence of these fluid
boundaries should be the same with the models as with the full-scale gear.
For example, a bottom-trawl model should be towed along the tank at a
distance from the bottom proportional to the full-scale towing conditions
and there should be no influence of the tank side walls. A mid-water trawl
model should not be affected by the boundaries at all. The questions of
boundary similarity will be discussed in Section 5.4.3.
Full-scale trawls are towed by warps which are so long that the whole
trawl system cannot be model tested in a tank the way it can be tested in
a towing pond. It is not practical to scale down a complete trawl gear,
including net, doors and warps, so that the model is small enough to put
into a tow tank. In the tank, therefore, separate parts of the gear are tested
independently and the mechanical forces that would be generated by the

absent parts are simulated. Tank tests cannot be used to establish experi-
mentally the shape of the mouth of a trawl at a certain fishing spread
between the otter boards, but they can be used, for example, to find the
shape of the mouth and the drag of the net itself at different spreads
between the danlenos at the wing tips.
The advantages of a tank are: a) the possibility to measure accurately the
variables of model behaviour, b) easy application of instruments to
determine hydrodynamic coefficients of nets, ropes and rigging, and c) good
conditions for qualitative visual observations.
5.3.3 FLUME TANK

A flume tank is a device in the form of a closed huge tube through which
water is circulated while the model is kept stationary.
There are several flume tanks specially designed for fishing gear testing,
notably in France (Fig 5.8), Japan, UK (Fig 5.9) and the USSR. These
flume tanks are expensive, but they have the advantage of permitting con-
tinuous and convenient visual observation of the model. Also, the models
can be modified relatively easily, making flume tanks particularly useful as
an instruction tool for demonstrating the effects of variations in rigging on
the behaviour of a given gear. The effects of gear speed through the water
are studied by controlling the flow of the water, while the effects of gear
speed over the sea bed and boundary layer effects are studied by controlling
the speed of the belt which forms the bottom of the working section of the
tank. Usually, limited working space requires relatively small-scale models,
which sometimes leads to scaling problems in trying to satisfy all similarity
criteria, or restricts studies to only parts of gears, such as trawl nets without
doors.
Working section
Trawl mode/
Bridge
Flow stabilizer
^Reversing canal
Observation platform
Moving bottom
Reduction
r
Motor Impeller
Fig 5.8 Flume tank at Boulogne-sur-Mert France.

The following, provided by the British White Fish Authority, describes

the fishing gear model flume in Hull, England, which is probably the largest
in the world.
The flume tank forms the centre-piece of the training centre. Structurally
it is a large re-inforced concrete tank 31
long by 5m m
wide by 5 deep, m
built at ground divided horizontally into two chambers which are
level. It is
interconnected at each end to enable the water to circulate.
'Demonstration and testing of the model nets takes place in the centre
portion of the tank upper chamber. This area, which is the tank working
section, measures 1 1 m long by 5 m wide by 2.5 m deep. The lower chamber
of the tank forms a return passage through which the water recirculates.
Total water capacity of the tank is 700 m (approximately 155,000 Imp
3
gal or 700 tonnes). Mains water and not sea water is used, and an additive
is used to inhibit corrosion. A filtration system is installed capable of filter-
ing the complete contents of the tank in 24 hours.

The water is circulated around the tank by four impellers driven by an
electro-hydraulic system. The impellers are 1.2 m in diameter and are posi-
tioned in-line across the downstream end of the tank. At their rated max-
imum speed of 200rev/min they deliver a total of 1136 m 3 of water per
minute.
Tor testing model trawls water speed through the tank can be varied
from to 1.0m
per second (0-2 knots) which, at a scale of one-fifith,
represents a maximum full-scale water speed of 4.5 knots. The water speed
can be increased to a maximum of 1 .5 m
per second to permit the full-scale
testing of small components such as floats, kites and transducer housings.
'Water flow around the tank controlled by various suction screens,
is
deflectors, cascade bends, wave and flow straightening screens to

traps
obtain as near as possible uniform water speed through the working section.
'A large moving conveyor belt forms the floor of the working section.
The conveyor simulates the ground friction which a demersal trawl exper-
iences when towed across the sea bed. In addition, the movement of the belt
eliminates the velocity difference whichwould otherwise cause eddies close
to the lower surface. The conveyor is driven by its own electro-hydraulic
system, and can be run at the same speed as the water, or at different speeds
to simulate seabed currents.
The model trawls are not towed through the tank but remain stationary
when under test, the water flowing through and around them. They are
worked from a platform above the tank, the warps being attached to towing
points, adjustable in height and width, upstream of the working section.
'Observation of the models in the tank is made through large windows
in one side of the tank and from a motorised trolley which runs on rails
along the top of the tank. The windows are 1.5 m
high by 1.1 m
wide and
extend for an overall distance of 11 m. The glass is 38mm thick and
especially cast for the purpose.
'Banks of floodlights at the back and on top of the tank are used to assist
photography or when the ambient light level is low, and a glass bottomed
box, which overcomes surface diffraction, is used when observing the trawls
from above.
'Accurate measurements of vertical net dimensions, wing end spread,
door spread, and so on are obtained with special optical instruments outside
the tank, and a series of calibrated lines on the conveyor belt and the back
of the tank enable rough checks to be made for non-scientific work.
'A console in front of the observation windows houses all the controls,
gauges, stop-start buttons and other items of equipment required for the
operation of the tank. Separate warp tension meters are installed, and an
intercom system, with public address and talkback facilities, is also pro-
vided to enable the flume tank superintendent to communicate with person-
nel on the working platform on top of the tank.'
Fig 5.9 Flume tank at Hull, England.
5.3.4 WIND TUNNEL

The wind tunnel with an accessible open working section is a very suitable
models of fishing gear and their rigging (Fig 5. 10).
installation for testing
In the wind tunnel, air instead of water is circulated and made to flow
through and over the fishing gear model. Despite this different fluid
medium, the model assumes shapes similar to the full-scale gear under the
proper conditions, and the values for the coefficients of the fluid forces
acting on the model are the same as for full-scale gear in water or as though
the model had been tested in water. In a wind tunnel, access to the model
and to measuring devices fitted to it and photographic recordings of gear
shapes are easy, even while the test is underway. The forces and moments
acting on the model are measured by multi-component dynamometers. If
the influence of the sea bed must be simulated in the working part of the
tunnel, stationary horizontal panels are placed appropriately. Of course,
buoyant forces in a wind tunnel are completely different from those in
water. Consequently, if these forces significantly affect the behaviour of the
model, they must be substituted by vertical forces applied by other
mechanical means.
Legend: I. Accessible working area

2 Diffuser
3. Fan
4 Flow guides of bends
5. Air return duct
6 Discharge chamber
7. Flow conditioners to straighten flow
8. Nozzle
9. Multi- component force balance
Fig 5.10 Wind tunnel adapted to model testing of fishing gear.
5.3.5 SMALL MODEL TANKS

The effectiveness of fishing gear depends mostly on its shape in action. This
changing shape can be observed with fishing gear models operated in
laboratory or shop tanks. However, for very large gear, very small-scale
models are required for proper handling of the model in the space available,
in spite of accuracy lost by the extreme scaling factors. Such tanks can be
of any size from a few metres to a few tens of metres in diameter. They must
have transparent walls or large observation windows and they may be
equipped with different gadgets and instruments to enable simulation of
gear in action. Figure 5 Jl shows a small model of a purse seine tested in
such a tank. The grid facilitates measurements during the simulated fishing
operation. The purse seine is set from a specially designed device which
simulates the setting operation as done by a seiner at sea (Fig 5. 12).
Fig 5. 77 Setting a model purse seine.
Fig 5, 12 Model tank fitted with device for setting model purse seine.
Figure 5.13 shows models of stick-held dip nets of different designs tested
in a small tank.
Fig 5. 13 Model tests of stick-held dip nets for saury.

5.3.6 VERTICAL TOWING TANK

This is, so far, a unique device, designed and built at the Kaliningrad
Technical University (USSR). It is a vertical, cylindrical tank filled with
water (Fig 5.14) where models are towed upward by the accurately known
force generated by the gravity of falling weights. The towing speed,
measured by an electric timer, depends on the weight, which is equal to the
drag of the model. photography are provided. This installation
Facilities for
is particularly suitable for studying hydrodynamic drag of fishing nets and
ropes of different shapes.
Speed range
O.I -3.0 m/sec
Fig. 5.14 Vertical towing tank in Kaliningrad.

This type of tank has the advantage that drag measurements of net
models and rigging can be performed by very simple techniques. It can also
be used for studies of fish movement, propagation of light in water, etc.
5.4 Similarity considerations in the construction and testing of

fishing gear models
The main steps in model testing of fishing gear are: 1) determine the
structural parameters of the model to be built; 2) measure the model
performance variables in the experimental installation; and 3) extrapolate
the data from the model to full-scale gear. All these steps must give due con-
sideration to similarity conditions (criteria).
The principal component of most fishing gear is netting, with auxiliary
elements such as mounting ropes and fitted hardware (rigging). Construct-
ing models of such gear is most complicated, but the model does not
necessarily have to be an exact, scaled-down replica of the full-scale gear,
repeating all the twines, knots, etc, so long as it represents a unique
geometric surface in the shape of the full-scale gear. Also, it does not need
to have all the rope and hardware details so long as the forces exerted by
these elements along the edges of the net are reproduced at corresponding
points. The tensions in the frame lines (mounting ropes), warps and other
lines, as well as all other mechanical forces acting on the gear, such as the
pull of a trawler, are also modelled.
5.4.1 CONDITIONS OF APPROXIMATE SIMILARITY

The conditions of approximate similarity (Fridman, 1973) can be formu-
lated as follows:
1) The development on a plane of the model and full-scale nets, including

details of the should be geometrically similar. The solidity ratios
lines,
of the netting in the model and in full-scale gear must be equal, ie,
E in = E ip .
2) The boundary conditions of the model andin the flow in the full-scale
gear should correspond according to the established hydrodynamic
similarity criteria.
3) The conditions of relative movement (ie, the shape, speed and
initial
T = 0) of the model and the full-scale gear should also
direction at time
correspond according to established similarity criteria.
4) The scaling factor for forces acting on the model and on the full-scale
gear, including those on the rigging, must be the same for all forces, ie,
Fm/Fp = constant. For this purpose, the Newton number, Ne, (see 5.4.5)
must be the same for both the model and the prototype, ie, Nem = Ne p .
5) With heavy elements of the gear (warps, chains, etc) where

relatively
gravitational forces are a factor, the generalized Froude number, Fr, (see
5.4.6) should be the same for both the model and the prototype, ie,
Fr m Fr p .
6) In the case of accelerated or decelerated motion the Strouhal number,

Sr, (see 5.4.7) should also be equal, ie Sr m = Sr p for kinematic
y ,
similarity.
5.4.2 GEOMETRIC SIMILARITY

In model design, geometric similarity to the full-scale gear is observed with
respect to overall dimensions. However, any combination of mesh size, m,
D
twine thickness, t , and hanging ratio, E, may be used provided the solidity
ratio, E s, for both model and the full-scale gear is the same, /?, E 8m = E sp .
Using (3.9),
E sm = Ekm "
Dtm/Eum
'
Hllm = Ekp '
D p/E U p
t
'
Hllp
= E$ p (5.9)
The solidity ratio, E Sf on which the hydrodynamic forces per unit area of
netting depends can be achieved by different combinations of mi, D Ek
t, ,
and E u This condition considerably simplifies the preparation of net

.
models because it is not necessary to use netting having very small meshes
and very fine twines. The model can even be made of full-scale netting.
Dividing the second expression of (5.9) into the third,
(Dtp/Dtm) (mim/mip) (E U m/E U p) (E kp/E km ) = 1 (5.10)
isthe criterion for geometric similarity of netting.

In many fishing nets, different sections of netting often have different
mesh size, twine size and hanging ratio. Therefore, to simplify calculations,
equivalent, generalized values for D, m, and E which characterize the
fishing net as a whole as if it were all made of the same netting must be
introduced. For this, the mean of each parameter over all k netting panels,
weighted according to the projected twine area (Ai) in each panel, is used.
Where Di, mi, and Ei are the values of the parameters in the ith netting
panel, the weighted mean values are defined by
D= ^-
Z Dj Ai
(5.11)
i-l
Z mi Ai
(5.12)
Z
i-i
Ai
Z
^fe
ZAi
-
ErAi
(5.13)
i-l
where the twine areas, A t

= Aj for each panel are calculated from equations
(2.22) through (2.25).
Example 5.3
Find the weighted mean diameter of the twines in the net consisting of one
conical and one cylindrical section as defined for Example 3.5.
Solution
For the conical section the twine diameter is D tc = 1,5 mm and the twine
area is A tc = 20,6m
2
For the cylindrical section the twine diameter is
.
Dto = 2,1 mmand the twine area is Ato = 40,7 m Thus, the weighted mean
2
.
diameter of twines for the whole net is
ft
Dt = (1.5x20,6) + (2, 1x40,7) ~ 1 '
20,6 + 40,7
These weighted mean parameters can now be used to find the scaling
by (5.10). Thus, for the twine
factors required for the criterion defined
diameter,
SD =Dp/D m (5.14)
for the mesh size
Sm =ffip/fll in (5.15)
and for the hanging ratio
SE =Ep/Em (5.16)
These scaling factors can, in turn, be used to select design parameters for
the model nest, maintaining constant relative netting areas and solidity
ratios for both the model and the prototype. Nevertheless, it is preferable
to have the hanging ratio, E, as nearly the same in the model as in the
prototype because the hanging ratio can, to some extent, influence the shape
of the model in action, independent of solidity ratio. The rigging of the
model (mainlines, warps, etc) is to scale and made of flexible materials that
do not become stiff in the water.
If the testing facility is too small to hold the complete gear model, only
the main pan of the gear is tested, for example, a trawl-net without
sweeplines and warps. Also shortened swceplines and warps with appro-
priate adjustments to the model-holding arrangements can be used.
5.4.3 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

The distance between the fishing gear and the sea bed and/or the water sur-
face may influence the magnitude and direction of the forces acting on it
and its shape in action. For example, a trawl towed near the sea surface may
produce a wave, increasing its hydrodynamic drag. If it is lowered deep
enough, the wave disappears and the drag of the trawl decreases. Near the
sea bed, the hydrodynamic drag increases again, and if the trawl touches
the bottom, additional friction drag against the sea bed occurs. Also,
boundary conditions near the water surface or the sea bed also affect the
shape of the trawl when it is towed there. Therefore, in model testing,
boundary conditions should simulate those occurring in full scale. These
conditions can be achieved by keeping the distance between the model and
the boundary to scale where possible. Hence, boundary conditions in the
testing installation should be considered when selecting the scale of the
model. Also, moving and stationary screens and other devices used to
condition the flow in testing installations can be used to control the bound-
ary conditions. In some cases, where the distance between the full-scale gear
and the boundary in practice is very large, the scale of the distance between
the model and the boundary in the testing installation can be smaller than
the scale of the model itself, provided the model is not influenced by the
boundary conditions. Handling, shooting, hauling, or pursing the model
gear should be conducted identically to full-scale gear with respect to the
boundary conditions. Finally, empirical trials and adjustments to the equip-
ment before the study commences is the most efficient way to adjust these
conditions in the testing facility.
Netting is less affected by boundary conditions than are the solid elements
of the gear because water flows not only around but also through netting,
whereas the latter are impermeable. Thus, for example, the area of a trawl-
door model should not exceed 3% of the cross-section area of the tunnel,
whereas most net models may have a frontal area as great as 35% of the
cross-section of the tunnel, or greater for relatively large mesh and fine
twine (very low net area solidity ratio).
5.4.4 INITIAL CONDITIONS OF MOTION

Initial conditions are a factor only when the variables of fishing gear
behaviour change during trials, ie, when the motion is unsteady. For
example, during a normal groundfish tow, the shape and drag of a trawl,
trawling depth, course and speed, may remain stable, whereas in aimed
mid-water trawling, where manoeuvres must be executed, all these variables
change during the course of the tow. In studying and selecting the correct
manoeuvres for models, it is necessary first to determine the initial condi-
tions for the prototype, that is, the position of any reference point, Xop, of
the full-scale fishing gear and its reference velocity, V0p , at the moment,
is the initial
Top, at the beginning of the manoeuvre. 'Reference velocity'
velocity of a given point on the gear, not necessarily identical with the
position reference centre. The corresponding values of Xo, V , and To for
the prototype and the model should be related by certain constant ratios
equal to the scales of the experiment as prescribed by the modelling rules,
-
Xop/Xo - S L Vop/Vom Sv;
; WTom - ST
1 10 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS
where SL, Sv, and ST are the similarity scaling factor for linear dimensions,
and time respectively.
velocities,
5.4.5 FORCE SIMILARITY

Similarity of the shape of the model and the prototype in action can be
ensured only when all the relevant forces Fi, irrespective of their origin, are
to the same scale, namely:
Here Fi denotes the forces of hydrodynamic drag, netting weight in water,

buoyancy, other board sheer, etc. The scaling factor for forces, SF, is
determined by Newton's law, which states that the ratio of stress to
hydrodynamic pressure, or the Newton number applied to the solid areas
is identical for both the prototype and the model. The Newton
of the net,
number to be held constant is
Ne = F-m/p-V 2 -L 2 -D (5.17)
where F the force acting on the gear,

is is the mesh size, m
is the twine D
thickness, p is the mass density of the fluid medium, V is the relative
velocity, and L is the characteristic reference dimension of a fishing gear
(eg, headline length in trawls). The structural parameter chosen for the
characteristic linear dimension of the gear must be the same for both the
prototype and the model.
Newton's law (5.17) provides the similarity criterion for hydrodynamic
forces acting on the prototype and on the model. The ratio of these forces,
/e, the scaling factor for hydrodynamic drags, must now be used for all the
other forces acting on and in both systems, which must be to the same scale.
This condition should be observed wherever the hydrodynamic drag is the
main force affecting the gear, ie, in every dragged gear and where ocean cur-
rents determine the shape of stationary nets.
From (5.17) this similarity between the prototype and model can be
written as
PP p- Lp
*
Fp " nip
2
_ Dp
~
pm Vm 2 L m 2 D m
Dividing the second expression into the first,
Fp mp pm Vm 2
Lm 2
Da/Fm mm Pf V p 2 Lp 2 Dp = 1
or
2 2
SF-S*/S,'SK -SL -SD =1 (5.18)
where the variables F, m, p, V, L, and D of (5.17) are

substituted by their
respective scaling factors. Thus, the scaling factor for the forces is
(5.19)
MODEL TESTS OF FISHING GEAR 1 1 1
Model motion of trawls and most other types of

studies involving steady
fishing gearcan be conducted according to Newton's law. This is very useful
because similarity scales may be selected according to (5.19) in such a way
as to enable the most convenient work in existing testing facilities.
Example 5.4
Determine what towing force be generated in a linear-scale 5 1 trawl
will :
model tested in water at a 2 flow velocity. The resistance and size of the
: 1
full-scale trawl are F p = 8000 kgf and L p = 200 m, and the netting is the
same in both the prototype and the model.
Solution
From (5.19) the drag of the model is
F m = Fp/S F
= F p S m/Sp SL Sv SD
According to the conditions of the problem:
Sm = 1 , Sp = 1 , SD = 1 , S L = 5 Sv =
, 2.
Thus,
F m = 8000/5 2 -2 2 = 80 kgf.
Therefore, the force needed to tow the trawl is 80 kgf.
5.4.6 WEIGHT SIMILARITY

In all types of fishing gear and conditions of operation, the buoyed weight
of the gear components directly affects the shape and position of the gear,
and indirectly affects the magnitude of all hydrodynamic and frictional
forces acting on the gear. Wherever the effect of weight is relatively import-
ant, we must assure that the Froude number as applied to solid bodies
moving in a fluid is identical for the prototype and the model. The Froude
number to be held constant is
Fr = p-V 2/7b'L (5.20)
where p is the mass density of the fluid medium, V is the relative velocity
of the body through the fluid, L is a characteristic linear dimension of the

body (eg, thickness D t of twine or rope), and 7b is the buoyed weight per
unit enclosed volume of the body in the given fluid medium. This criterion
requires that the ratio of hydrodynamic force to gravity force is the same
in the prototype as in the model.
Fr in (5.20) is the 'Generalized Froude Number*, whereas the expression
V 2 /(g L) used for the Froude number in naval architecture is a special
application to the formation of waves near a free surface of a liquid where
1 12 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS
the mass density, p, and the specific weight, y, of the liquid alone are of
consequence. Then, y/p = g, the acceleration of gravity.
By definition,
Tb = W w/v (5.21)
where Wwthe buoyed weight of the solid body in water or any other fluid
is
medium and v is its enclosed volume, eg, the product of the cross-sectional
area and length of a twine or rope. 7b takes into account the fact that twines
and ropes are not homogeneous masses and that different constructions can
have different bulk specific weights in the same liquid, even if made of the
same fibre (see Table 5.7). Moreover, y* takes into account the specific
weight of the fluid medium. The effect of weight depends to a large extent
on the fluid medium in which the model is tested. Thus, in water the weight
of netting is nearly counterbalanced by fluid buoyancy and it becomes
nearly weightless, while when testing in air as in a wind tunnel the weight
of netting is felt to its full extent because buoyancy is negligible. Therefore,
considering the influence of weight, model testing in water is preferred
because of the smaller scale effect generated by weight. In fact, testing
models in liquids more dense (eg, salt brine) or less dense (eg, kerosene)
than water, enables evaluation of the weight effect on fishing gear when
materials available for the model do not meet the criteria required for
testing in water.
TABLE 5.1 BULK BUOYED SPECIFIC WEIGHT OF VARIOUS FISHING GEAR MATERIALS IN SEA WATER
3
Material 7b(kgf/m )
Polyamidc net and seine twine

gill 45-70
(R300 tex to R5000 tex)
Polyamide heavy trawl twines, laid or braided 65-85
(R5 ktex to R50 ktex)
Polyamide cordage, 25-60 mmcircumference 75-85
(40-220 g/m)
Polyester cordage, 25-60 mm
circumference 230-270
(50-250 g/m)
Steel wire rope 3500-5000
The effect of the weight in water on the behaviour of a single line

suspended from one end in a horizontal fluid flow is shown in Figure 5.75.
Due to the effect of the hydrodynamic forces R and its own weight in water,
W w the line will maintain the angle a with horizontal and the flow velocity.
,
The denser the line or the lower the hydrodynamic force, the larger is a and
vice versa. As shown in Figure 5.15(a), the drag of the line equals the
horizontal component of the line tension at the point of suspension, ie
Rx = Tx. The vertical component of the line tension at the point of suspen-
sion is the weight of the line in water less vertical or lifting component of
the hydrodynamic force on the line, ie Ty w - Ry W .
The equilibrium angle of incidence, a, of the line from horizontal is most

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FAO FISHING MANUALS

CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

Revised, edited and enlarged by

Published by arrangement with the

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

List of tables xiii

List of numerical examples xv

List of appendices xvi

1 The theory of fishing gear and fishing systems 1

1 . 1 Development of fishing gear and fishing systems 1

1 .2 Theoretical representation of fishing 4

1.5 Technical features of fishing gear and fishing systems . . 16

2 Netting geometry and the nature of internal forces 19

2.1 The properties of nets 19

2.4 Estimation of netting weight 27

3 External forces acting on fishing gear 48

3.1 The nature of forces acting on fishing gear 48

3.1.1 Gravity and hydrostatic forces 48

3.1.2.1 Hydrodynamic pressure from water flow 53

3.1.3 Hydrodynamic drag force of fishing lines and ropes 64

3.1.6 Forces generated by fish 74

4 Methods for calculating fishing gear as a system of

4.1 Simplified presentation to permit calculation 76

5 Model tests of fishing gear 88

5.2.1 Geometric similarity 88

5.3 Installations for model tests 95

5.3.1 Towing ponds, lakes or lagoons 95

5.4 Similarity considerations in the construction and testing

5.4.1 Conditions of approximate similarity 106

5.6.1 Calculations for the rope frame of the model 126

6 General principles of designing commercial fishing gear . 133

6.1 The objectives of fishing gear design 133

7 Designing trawls 152

7.1 Formulation of technical requirements 152

8 Designing purse seines 185

8.1 Design objectives and procedure 185

9 Designing gill nets 209

9.1 Dimensions, hanging, mesh size, twine thickness, colour 209

Generalized information model of a fishing system 3

Netting geometry and the nature of internal forces

Hanging ratios in hung netting 20

2. 1 1 Calculation of the taper cutting rate 43

3 External forces acting on fishing gear

3.1 Classes of external forces acting on fishing gear 48

4 Methods for calculating fishing gear as a system of

4.8 Horizontal board for mechanical simulation studies ---- 87

5 Model tests of fishing gear

5.1 Similarity of geometric figures ....................... 89

force Ft as functions of towing speed V .............. 157

8 Designing purse seines

9 Designing gill nets

9.1 Forces on a gill net dragged on the river bed by the

1 . 1 Labour productivity of fishermen 2

2 Netting geometry and the nature of internal forces

3 External forces acting on fishing gear

3.1 Specific weight and buoyancy or sinking coefficient of

3.7 Rolling coefficient of bobbins as a function of the angle

4 Methods for calculating fishing gear as a system of