Netting Materials For Fishing Gear - Klust PDF

FAO Fishing Manuals
Netting materials
for fishing gear
by Gerhard Klust
Published by arrangement with the

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
by FUUftf News Books 14*
1 Lon* Garden Walk
FAO 1973, 1982
First published 1973

Second edition 1982
The copyright in this book is vested in the Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations, for which Fishing News Books Ltd.
acts as publisher. The book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, by
any method or process, without written permission from the copyright
holder. This applies in particular to photocopying of the designs. Appli-
cations for permission to engage in any form of reproduction, translation or
degree of microfilming or fair copying should be addressed to: The Director,
Publications Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy, accompanied by
a detailed explanation of the purpose and extent of the reproduction desired.
British Library CIP data
Klust, Gerhard
Netting materials for fishing gear. 2nd ed.
(FAO fishing manuals)
1. Fishing nets
I. Title. II. Series
639'.22'028 SH344.8.N4
ISBN 85238 118 2
Printed in England by
AdlardA Son Limited,
Bartholomew Press,
Dorking, Suitoy
CONTENTS
page
1. RAW MATERIALS FOR NETTING 1
1.1 Vegetable fibres 1
1.1.1 Rotting 2
1.1.2 Preservation against rotting 3
1.2 Synthetic fibres 6
1 .2.1 Remarks on the manufacture 6

1 .2.2 Chemical classification 10
1.2.3 Trade names 12
1.2.4 Basic fibre types 16
1.2.4.1 Continuous filaments (multifilament yarn) 16

1.2.4.2 Staple fibres 16
1.2.4.3 Monofilaments 17
1.2.4.4 Split fibres 18
1.2.4.5 Use for netting yarns 18
1 .2.5 Main characteristics of synthetic fibres 19
1.2.5.1 Endurance in water 19

1.2.5.2 Resistance to weathering 20
1.2.5.3 Density 24
1.2.5.4 Melting point 24
1.2.6 Identification 25
1.2.6.1 General remarks 25

1.2.6.2 Water test 26
K2.6.3 Visual inspection 2$
1.2.6.4 Burning test 36
M6.5 Solubility test ...... 28
LZ6.6 Melting point test ...,,,^ !
,. 30
VI NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING GEAR
2. NETTING YARNS 31
2.1 Construction of netting yarn 31
2.1.1 Terms and definitions 31
2.1.1.1 Netting yarn 31

2.1.1.2 Yarn 31
2.1.1.3 Single yarn (55) 32
2.1.1.4 Netting twine or folded yarn 32
2.1.1.5 Cabled netting twine or cabled yarn 32
2.1.1.6 Braided netting twine 32
2.1.1.7 Twist 32
2.1.1.8 The direction of twist 32
2.1.1.9 Coefficient of twist or twist factor, a 33
2.1.1.10 Braiding 33
2.1.1.11 Strand 33
2.1 .2 Construction of twisted netting yarn 33
2.1.2.1 Single yarn 33

2.1.2.2 Netting twine 34
2.1.2.3 Cabled netting twine 34
2.1.2.4 Cabled netting twine of higher order 35
2.1.2.5 Amount of twist 40
2.1.3 Construction of braided netting yarns 42
2.1.3.1 Core 42
2.1.3.2 Number of strands 44
2.1.3.3 Structure of the braid 45
2.1.4 Netting yarn from knotless netting 46
2.1.4.1 Japanese twisted netting 47

2.L4.2 Raschel netting 48
2.1.4.3 Braided netting 49
2.1.4.4 Properties pf knotless netting 49
2.2 Designation of netting yarns 52
The tex system 53

Tex system for netting yams 54
Complete designation 54
2JLZ2 Brief designation , 55
2.13 Conventional systems and lex system 56
International titre. . 56
CONTENTS VII
2.2.3.2 Metric number 58

2.2.3.3 English cotton count 58
2.2.3.4 Runnage 58
2.3 Properties of netting yarns 59
2.3. 1 Terms and definitions 60
2.3.1.1 Standard atmosphere 60

2.3.1.2 Tensile test 60
2.3.1.3 Tensile stress or tensile strength 60
2.3.1.4 Tenacity 60
2.3.1.5 Breaking strength or breaking load 61
2.3.1.6 SI units of force 61
2.3.1.7 Knot breaking strength 61
2.3.1.8 Mesh breaking strength 61
2.3.1.9 Load at rupture 61
2.3.1.10 Breaking length 61
2.3.1.11 Nominal gauge length 61
2.3.1.12 Pre-tension 62
2.3.1.13 Time-to-break 62
2.3.1.14 Extensibility 62
2.3.1.15 Elongation (Extension) 62
2.3.1.16 Elongation percent 62
2.3.1.17 Elongation at the half knot breaking strength 62
2.3.1.18 Load-elongation curve 62
2.3.1.19 Tensile hysteresis curve 62
2.3.1.20 Elasticity 62
2.3.1.21 Toughness 63
2.3.1.22 Flexural stiffness 63
2.3.1.23 Abrasion resistance 63
2.3.1.24 Shrinkage 63
2.3.1.25 Knot stability 63
2.3.2 Testing of netting yarns 63
2.3.2.1 Breaking strength 64

2.3.2.2 Elongation 66
2.3.2.3 Knot stability 66
2.3.2.4 Change of length in water 68
2.3.2.5 Diameter 68
2.3.2.6 Flexural stiffness 69
2.3.2.7 Abrasion resistance 71
2.3.3 Breaking strength and knot breaking strength of netting yarn 71
2.3.3.1 Fineness. 71
2.3.3.2 Breaking strength of straight netting yarns 76
Vffl NETTING MATERIALS FOR FXSHINO GEAR
2.3.3.3 Weaver's knot breaking strength 81

2.3.3.4 Other knots 85
2.3.4 Diameter, Rtex, and knot breaking strength 88
2.3.4.1 Diameter and knot breaking strength 90

2.3.4.2 Wet knot breaking strength and Rtex 94
2.3.4.3 Diameter and mass 95
2.3.5 Flexural stiffness 96
2.3.5.1 PA single monofilaments 96

2.3.5.2 PA continuous filament netting yarns 96
2.3.5.3 PA folded monofilament netting yams 97
2.3.5.4 PES and PP continuous filament netting yarns 99
2.3.5.5 PP split fibre and PE folded monofilament netting yarns 99
2.3.5.6 Vegetable fibre netting yarns
2.3.5.7 Stiffening agents
2.3.6 Change in length in water 104
2.3.6.1 Netting yarns made of PES, PE and PP 105

2.3.6.2 PA continuous filament netting yarns 105
2.3.6.3 Vegetable fibre netting yarns 107
2.3.6.4 Change of meshsize in water 107
2.3.7 Extensibility HO
2.3.7.1 Elongation at half knot breaking strength 112
2.3.7.2 Load-elongation curves 112
2.3.7.3 Toughness 122
2.3.7.4 Elasticity 126
2.3.8 Abrasion resistance 134
2.3.8.1 Criticism of testing methods 135

2.3.8.2 Vegetable fibre netting materials 137
23.8.3 Synthetic netting materials 137
2*3.8.4 Influence of treatment and construction 139
2.3.8.5 Roughening of netting materials 139
3. CHOICE OF NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING GEAR 142
&i General remarks 142
34 Specification of netting yarn and netting for purchase 143
,.+*. -,... ,,..,, 144

CONTENTS IX
3.2.1.1 Fibre 144

3.2.1.2 Size 144
3.2. .3 Twisted or braided netting yarn 145
3.2. .4 Degree of twist or of tightness of braid 145
3.2. .5 Direction of final twist 145
3.2. .6 Core 145
3.2. .7 Weight 145
3.2.2 Netting 145
3.2.2.1 Knotted or knotless 146

3.2.2.2 Size of mesh 147
3.2.2.3 Size of netting 147
3.2.2.4 Selvedges 147
3.2.2.5 Direction of stretching 148
3.2.2.6 After-treatment 148
3.2.2.7 Type of gear 148
3.3 Choice of netting material for bottom trawlnets 148
3.3.1 High breaking strength 149

3.3.2 High extensibility and toughness 149
3.3.3 Small diameter 150
3.3.4 High abrasion resistance 150
3.3.5 Polyamide and polyethylene 150
3.3.5.1 Arguments in favour of polyamide 150

3.3.5.2 Arguments in favour of polyethylene 150
3.3.6 Size of netting yarns 151
3.4 Choice of netting material for midwater trawlnets 155
3.4.1 Requirements 155

3.4.2 Kind and size of netting yarns 1 58
3.4.3 Hard twisted PA netting yarns 1 58
3.5 Choice of netting material for purse seine nets 161

3.5.2 Kind and size of netting yarns 161
3.6 Choice of netting material for gillnets 162

3.6.2 Kind and size of netting yarns 163
3.6.2.1 Salman gillnets 166

3.6.2.2 Cod giilnets 1#5
3.6.13 Madcerel gilteets 167
NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING GEAR
3.6.2.4 Gill (drift) nets for herring and sardine 167

3.6.2.5 Very fine giflnets 168
BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES 171

LIST OF FIGURES
page
FIGURE 1 .
Micro-photograph of cotton fibres from a used fishing net 2
FIGURE 2. Resistance to rot of cotton and manila netting yarns 5
FIGURE 3a. Manufacturing process of PA 6.6 salt 8
FIGURE 3b. Manufacturing process of PA 6.6 fibre 9
FIGURE 4. Netting yarns of different types of fibres 17
FIGURE 5. Breaking strength of braided trawl twines after immersion 19
FIGURE 6. Breaking strength of netting yarns after exposure to
sun 22
FIGURE 7. Device for melting point determination 30
FIGURE 8. Construction of twisted netting yarns 35
FIGURE 9. Construction of a complicated netting yarn 36
FIGURE 10. Twist counter (or twist tester) 37
FIGURE 1 1 . Braided netting yarn with core and 8 strands 44
FIGURE 12. 16 strand braid for heavy trawls 45
FIGURE 1 3. Most common constructions of braided netting yarns ... 46
FIGURE 14. Braided netting yarns of different construction 47
FIGURE 15. Examples for constructing bars and joints of knotless 48
netting
FIGURE 16. Braided knotless netting 50
FIGURE 17. Complete designation of netting yarn of cabled netting
twine type 56
FIGURE 1 8. Tensile testing machine (electronic) 65
FIGURE 19. Two forms of weaver's knot and testing arrangement for
mesh breaking strength 66
FIGURE 20. knot stability
Possibility for testing 67
FIGURE 21. Load-elongation curve of slipping weaver's knot 67
FIGURE 22. Apparatus for measuring length of netting yarn , 68
FIGURE 23* Gauge for measuring diameter of netting yarns 69
FIGURE 24. Apparatus far measuring flexural stiffness of netting
yarns 70
FIGURE 25, Apparatus for testing abrasion resistance 72
FIGURE 26. Types of knots 80
xn NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING GEAR
FIGURE 27. Direction in knotted netting 81

FIGURE 28. Relationship between breaking strength dry, straight and
wet, knotted of different kinds of netting yarn 82
FIGURE 29. Netting with selvedge of thicker netting yarn 84
FIGURE 30. Single and double weaver's knots 87
FIGURE 3 la Most common sorts of twisted PA continuous filament
netting yarns 89
FIGURE 31fr Twisted PA staple fibre netting yarns 90
FIGURE 32. Netting samples of cotton and PA continuous filament,
netting yarns of equal wet knot breaking strength 91
FIGURE 33. Netting yarns of equal wet knot breaking strength made
of PA and PE 92
FIGURE 34. Relationship between wet knot breaking strength and
diameters of different netting yarns 93
FIGURE 35. Relationship between wet knot breaking strength and
Rtex of twisted netting yarns made of different fibres . 94
FIGURE 36. Relationship between Rtex and diameter of twisted net-
ting yarns made of different fibres 97
FIGURE 37. Changes in mesh size due to alternate wetting and drying
of finest PA
material in fine gillnets 108
FIGURE 38. Load-elongation curves of twisted netting yarns (wet) of
PA continuous filaments 113
FIGURE 39. Load-elongation curves of heavy twisted netting yarns
(wet) of PA continuous filaments 114
FIGURE 40. Load-elongation curves of netting yarns (wet) made of
PA staple fibre 115
FIGURE 41. Load-elongation curves of twisted netting yarns (wet)
made of PES continuous filaments 116
FIGURE 42. Load-elongation curves of braided netting yarns (wet)
made of PES continuous filaments 116
made of PE folded monofilaments 117
made of PP continuous filaments 118
FIGURE 45. Load-elongation curves of twisted netting yarns made of
PVAA staple fibres 119
FIGURE 46. Load-elongation curves at low loads of netting yarns of
different fineness and different construction 120
FIGURE 47. Load-elongation curves of PA netting yarns in dry and
wet condition 123
FIGURE 48. Load-elongation curves of wet netting yarns made of
different fibres 124
FIGURE 49. Characteristic examples for the toughness of wet netting
yams 1 25
FIGURE 50. Elasticity of netting yarns of different kinds of fibres

I tested in wet condition 127
LIST OF FIGURES XIII
FIGURE 51. Elasticity of braided PE netting yarns of varied make . . 128

FIGURE 52. Load-elongation curves of braided PA and PP continuous
filament netting yarns (wet) with approximately same wet
knot breaking strength and construction 129
FIGURE 53. Elasticity of dry PA and PP continuous filament netting
yarns loaded for 24 hours with 30 percent of their
breaking strength, dry, unknotted 130
FIGURE 54. Knots damaged by abrasion 135
FIGURE 55. Netting yarns of manila and PA continuous filaments
after equal frictions in wet condition 136
FIGURE 56. PA codline of a large bottom trawl 138
FIGURE 57. Section of a river stow net with distorted meshes 139
FIGURE 58. Section of the codend of a large bottom trawl after
damage in propeller 140
FIGURE 59. Designation of size of mesh 146
FIGURE 60. Influence of the level of twist on wet knot breaking
strength of netting yarns made of PA continuous fila-
ments 159
FIGURE 61. Load-elongation curves of PA netting yarns showing the
great influence of the level of twist on the extensibility 160
PREFACE FOR THE SECOND EDITION
Since there have been no significant technical developments in synthetic
materials for fishing nets, for this second edition of the FAO Fishing Manual
Netting materials for fishing gear the basic contents and the layout of the
first edition (1973) did not need to be changed. There are, however, a fair
amount of corrections, modifications and additions in order to up-date the
material with particular regard to ISO Standards and developments in
terminology. The author, therefore, hopes that this second edition will
improve the usefulness of this Manual for fishermen and netmakers in the
selection of the most appropriate kind and size of netting materials for the
various fishing gears.
The author wishes to express his sincere thanks to Mr. P. J. G. Carrothers
(St. Andrews, Canada), Dr. E. Dahm (Hamburg, Germany) and Mr. Russ
(Berlin, Germany) for their advice, as well as to the staff concerned of the
FAO Fisheries Technology Service for the technical editing of this second
edition.
G. Klust
CHAPTER 1
RAW MATERIALS FOR NETTING

According to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO),
netting is defined as "a meshed structure of indefinite shape and size, com-
posed of one yarn or of one or more systems of yarns interlaced or joined .". . .
(54 in bibliographical references.) The raw material of the netting consists of

fibres of which two main groups may be distinguished: natural fibres and
man-made fibres.
Of the natural fibres for fishing nets vegetable fibres are utilized almost
exclusively andparticularly cotton, manila, sisal, hemp, linen and ramie.
Animal fibres, such as silk or hair, are either not suitable or too expensive for
fishing nets. One exceptional example is the Japanese fishery where silk nets
have been used for specific gear. Of the man-made fibres only the category of
the synthetic fibres has particular advantages for fishing nets. Others such as
those made of regenerated cellulose (rayon, cellulose wool) are not superior
to natural fibres and therefore do not need to be considered. For reasons
outlined below synthetic fibres have already taken over almost completely in
progressive fisheries and natural fibres for fishing nets are therefore not
being discussed here in any detail.
1.1 Vegetable fibres
The cottonfibres which grow on the seeds of the cotton plant are very
fine with a length of only 20 to 50 mm
and a diameter of about 0.01 to OXM
mm. This fineness allows the manufacture of a wide range of netting yarns
from the finest of only 0.2 mmdiameter such as is required for very light
gillnets up to practically any size. Consequently also many other types of
fishing gear have been made of cotton netting such as various seines, small
trawls, fyke nets, trap nets, lift nets, cast nets, trammel nets. In the past
cotton was the most important fibre for fishing nets.
The hard fibres sisal and manila or abaca are leaf fibres obtained from the
tissue of the leaves and leaf bases of an agave plant (sisal) or of the fibre
banana plant respectively (manila). They are coarse and therefore are mainly
used for heavy netting as is needed for bottom trawls and for ropes.
Linen, hemp and ramie are bast fibres derived from the bast tissues of the
stems. Twines made of these fibres were the material of special nets, for
instance, linen for salmon gillnets, ramie for drift nets in the Asiatic fisheries
and hemp for river stownets or trawlnets in Europe.
U.I. ROTTING
Vegetable fibres are parts of dead plants and consist mainly of cellulose.
Therefore, when conditions are humid or when they are immersed in water
they are attacked by cellulose digesting micro-organisms, especially bacteria.
This process of decomposition of dead organic material is of vital importance
for maintaining the life cycle because it releases the inorganic nutrients such as
phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium and makes them available for new plant
growth. Thus the continuity of the life of plants and animals is assured.
Unfortunately, the side effect on fishing nets is a source of increased labour
and financial loss and is the main reason for the advance of synthetic fibres.
A micro-photograph of cotton fibres taken from a used fishing net
(Figure 1) shows the damage (corrosion) caused by cellulose-decomposing
FIGURE I. Micro-photograph of cotton fibres taken from

a used fishing net, showing corrosion caused by micro-
organisms. X = undamaged fibres. (For better visibility of
the damage the fibres have been swollen by caustic soda.)
bacteria. There is a direct relation between the number of corroded fibres in a

cotton netting yarn and its loss in breaking strength so that determining by
microscope the percentage of damaged fibres is an effective means for
judging the state of decomposition and the remaining usefulness of cotton
yarn or netting.
RAW MATERIALS FOR NETTING 3
The four factors mainly determining the speed of decay of cellulose

fibres are:
kind of fibre,
water temperature,
rotting power of the water,
duration of immersion in water.
The resistance of the various kinds of vegetable fibre against rotting

differs,and increases in the following order: linen, hemp, ramie, cotton, sisal,
manila and coir. However, with regard to practical use in fishing these
differences hardly count at all, and the resistance to rotting of all (untreated)
vegetable fibres must in general be considered as not adequate.
The activity of the cellulolytic bacteria depends to a great extent on the
water temperature. Consequently during the cold season the decay of vege-
table fibres is considerably slower than during the warm season. In the
tropics nets become useless faster than in temperate climates.
As regards the characteristics of the water, running waters generally have
a greater decaying power than stagnant waters. In fertile marine or fresh
water which contains a high percentage of organic substances, lime and
phosphorous (eutrophic water) and consequently has a high yield of fish,
unpreserved nets of vegetable fibres are more quickly destroyed than in
unfertile, clear water. For instance, in the fertile brackish water of a North
Sea harbour (Europe) with a high rotting power, cotton netting yarns
decayed completely within seven to ten days during summer and autumn at
15 to 20C temperature, and heavier manila netting yarns lost 75 to 85
percent of their breaking strength within four weeks.
Fishing gear left uninterruptedly in water for a long time is naturally more
liable to rotting than when used only temporarily, and is especially liable to
rot if set on the bottom where the contact zone between the putrid mud and
the water has the strongest rotting power. Rotting is stopped only when nets
are completely dried out even to the inside of the knots.
1.1.2 PRESERVATION AGAINST ROTTING

The search for means to increase the resistance against rotting is probably
as old as the use of vegetable fibres for fishing nets and a great number of
preservation methods have been developed by practical fishermen, by fishery
research institutes or the chemical and textile industries. The methods of the
practical fishermen mostly consist of the use of coaltar, wood-tar or carbo-
lineum, either alone or combined with petroleum, benzene, etc., or in the
treatment with tanning solutions as catechu ("cutch"), or other extracts of
the bark or wood of certain trees. The use of metallic compounds such as
potassium bichromate, copper naphtenate, copper sulphate, coprous oxkfe
(e.g, "Tettalin") were introduced by research institutes tod the chemical
industries.
4 NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING GEAR
Of the variety of preservation methods, two comparatively highly efficient

and thoroughly tested combination methods deserve attention the "Testalin"
:
preservation and the preservation by tannin plus potassium bichromate (9a).
Testalin method: The nets are boiled for 30 minutes in a solution con-
taining 2 percent of a tannin agent (e.g. catechu or mangrove-extract)

with an addition of 1 percent of the coprous oxide agent "Testalin."
After the nets are dried, the treatment is repeated, adding another 2
percent of the tannin agent but no more Testalin. Additionally the
nets, while still wet, may be dipped in carbolineum.
Tannin plus potassium bichromate method: The nets are boiled for 30
minutes in a solution containing 2 percent of a tannin agent. After
drying they are put for one hour into a solution containing 3 percent
of potassium bichromate and after rinsing in water they are dried.
This process is repeated, adding another 2 percent of tannin agent. If,
in addition, the nets are dipped in carbolineum a "three-bath-method"
is obtained which is one of the best net preservation methods known
in fisheries.
The preservation effect obtained by the various methods depends on the

degree of the cohesion between the preserving agent and the fibres. Tar and
carbolineum, even if deposited in a thick layer on the surface of the netting
yarn, do not cling tightly round the individual fibres but leave gaps. They are
therefore considerably less effective than the two methods described above,
by which the surface of each fibre is completely covered with the bactericide
preserving agent, which also penetrates into fibre-cuticles and cell-walls.
Furthermore these agents are also not easily removed by the water and
therefore provide vegetable fibre nets particularly cotton with a comparatively
high degree of resistance to decay.
Figure 2 demonstrates how many times the usefulness of netting yarns,
preserved by various methods, can be increased as compared with untreated
samples. Nos. 6 and 7, representing the methods briefly described above, rank
highest. Simple preservations, e.g. by tar, carbolineum or tannin alone
(Nos. 1 to 3) are quite unsatisfactory unless they are repeated frequently at
short intervals. A high preserving effect can only be obtained by combining
the treatments with tannin, a metallic compound, and carbolineum or tar. Of
the metallic compounds tested potassium bichromate is the best. It may be
mentioned that most preservations offered by the chemical industries, which
consist in only soaking the nets in special solutions, do not improve the
resistance against rotting to any considerable extent.
With regard to the, efficiency of net preservation against rotting, four
essential reservations should be made ;
tLi Even the best preservation can only retard the decomposition of vegetable
.
fibres in water but cannot prevent it.
The various vegetable fibres react differently to preservation. As shown in
Figure 2, a high degree of protection can only be obtained for cotton

but not for hard fibres (manila) and also not for hemp.
As really efficient preservation methods require a number of operations

and costs cannot be neglected, the fishery is reluctant to accept them
and instead uses less efficient ones usually with unsatisfactory results.
The preservation of fishing nets may have side effects on the physical
properties of the netting, such as stiffness, flexibility, extensibility,
elasticity, breaking strength, mass, colour, shrinkage, diameter,
which
have to be considered because they may be disadvantageous for fishing
gear.
Insumming up, it can be stated that for fishing gear vegetable fibres
present many disadvantages, the most important of which is the short useful
lifetime. Still, for thousands of years, fishermen had no choice and had to
work with gear made of material which, properly speaking, is not really
suitable for this purpose. The fact that the introduction of synthetic fibres
was one of the most important revolutions in modern fishing is mainly due to
one predominant characteristic: they do not rot. Furthermore, no other
innovation in fishing can be as widely applied as the new net material. It is of
equally great advantage to large scale deep-sea industrial fishing as it is to the
small-scale artisanal fishery and one can only agree with the words of an
expert that synthetic fibre "brings to one of man's oldest occupations the
miracle of science and, in doing so, provides easier living for the fisherman."
1.2 Synthetic fibres
"Synthesis" is the scientific and technical term for a chemical process by

which chemical elements or simple basic substances are combined and built up
to complicated and completely new fabrics with new properties. Man-made
fibres synthetically made of such simple substances as phenol, benzene,
acetylene, prussic acid, chlorine a.o. are, therefore called synthetic fibres, as
compared with other artificial fibres made of complicated natural products
such as cellulose and protein which have only to be transformed into fibres
(cellulose rayon, cellulose wool, protein rayon).
1 2. 1 REMARKS ON THE MANUFACTURE
Hie development of synthetic fibres was started around 1920 by investiga-

tions of the famous chemist H. Staudinger (winner of the Nobel Prize for
chemistry in 1 953). fie found thai all fibrous material consists of long chain
motecutes in which a great number of equal simple units are linked together.
It is this very structure which gives the fibrous material the

properties re-
quired from a textile fibre. Based on this knowledge, a great deal of further
chemical research has been carried out in the last 50 years, at first in the
USA and in Germany, to create such fibre-forming "macromolecules," a
term much used in chemistry, which was introduced by Staudinger. At
present the most important countries manufacturing man-made fibres are,
in the order of their output: USA, Japan, Federal Republic of Germany,
USSR, Great Britain, Italy and France.

It isneither possible nor necessary to deal very intimately with the very
complicated methods of manufacturing synthetic fibres. Only the most
important steps shall be mentioned, without entering into details. For this
purpose, a schematic and simplified outline for the best known synthetic
fibre, nylon (Figures 3a and 3b) may serve as an example.
First step:
At the beginning there is a simple raw material originating of course

from a natural product such as coal, oil, lime, common salt. In the
case of nylon the raw material is phenol, made of coal tar (see Figure
3a).
Second step:
From the raw material, the basic substances, the monomers, needed
to build up the macro-molecules, are obtained by a number of chemical
processes. For the production of nylon, two basic substances are
required: adipic acid and hexamethylenediamine, which are combined
to the PA salt (see Figure 3a).
Third step:
The next important manufacturing process is the polymerization or
polycondensation, i.e. the forming of the chain of macro-molecules or
polymers. This process mainly consists in heating in an autoclave
under high pressure by which, in the case of nylon, a great number of
hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid molecules are alternatingly
joined to each other in such a manner that, in the end, long linear
polymers are formed. In the nylon polymers the two components are
linked together by a special atomic grouping (NHCO) which is known
as an amido group. For this reason polymers of this particular type
are called polyamides. The polyamide polymer leaves the autoclave
in the form of ribbons which are cut into chips (see Figure 3b).
Fourth step:
(See Figure 3b) The substance polyamide (nylon)
most now be
converted into fibre form by melt spinning. For this purpose the
polyamide chips are melted and threads are formed by squirting the
water coal air
JflL coke
benzene hydrogen nitrogen

* chlorine
chlorobenzene ammonia
phenol hydroxylamine
hydrogen
nitric acid
cvclohexanol
cvclohexanone
+ nitric acid
Qdjpic acid
+ ammonia
adiponitriie
+ hydrogen
hexamethvlenediamine
FROM CHEMICAL RAW MATERIALS

TO POLYAMIDE &B SALT
u
^ Mwurfacturmf proccw of PA 6.6 wh. Coo*
~ "
-
^TWo the bk substance* adipic

*
j (schematized).
PA 6.6 salt
POLICONDENSATION
*
Finished Polymer PA
^>
cut into chips
-SPINNING
spinneret-*
cooling air-*
DRAWING
FROM PA SALT TO PA NETTING YARN
FIGURE 3b. Manufacturing process of PA 6,6 fibre. Fnom

the ttage of fonning the polymer to the final product.
<ichetn*tized)
molten substance through spinnerets. The viscous threads become

stiff in air, but they are not yet suitable for the use in yarns. They are
still extremely ductile and have a comparatively low tensile strength.
Fifth step:
The manufacturing of filaments is finished by drawing. The threads

are stretched three to five times their original length, a process by
which they obtain their final fineness, diameter, tensile strength and
extensibility.
1.2.2 CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION

The following chemical groups or classes of synthetic fibres are used for
fishing nets:
Polyamide Symbol: PA
Polyester PES
Polyethylene PE
Polypropylene PP
Polyvinyl chloride PVC
Polyvinylidene chloride PVD
Polyvinyl alcohol PVAA
These technical terms indicate the various fibre-forming substances of the
different groups. The symbols or abbreviations of the terms, adopted inter-
nationally, should be kept in mind because they are frequently used in

technical literature and also in this manual.
The polyamide (PA) fibres are manufactured in several types differing in
their chemical components and also in some properties, e.g. the melting
point (see Table 2c). Each type is marked by a figure which is added to the
generic name and refers to the number of carbon atoms in the components
(monomers). The most important types are PA 6.6 and PA 6.
Polyamide 6.6, the manufacturing of which is presented in Figures 3a and
3b, has two components, hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid, each
containing six carbon atoms. The fibre was developed in 1935 by W.H.
Carothers (USA), one of the most eminent scientists in the chemistry of
macro-molecules, and was called "nylon."
Polyamide 6, first known under the trade name "Perlon" is built up from
one monomer called caprolactam, which contains six carbon atoms, and was
developed in 1937/38 by the chemist P. Schlack (Germany). At present there
are in the world more producers of PA 6 than of PA 6.6.
Prom the fisheries point of view there is no difference between these two
PA types which have practically the same mechanical properties. Netting
yarns made of PA 6.6 or PA 6, when manufactured in exactly the same man-
ner, wHl also have the same suitability for fishing nets. Therefore, when
discussing the properties of netting yarn in this manual, the two PA types are
not distinguished.
The polyester (PES) fibres were developed by J.R. Whinfield and J.T.
Dickson (UK) in 1940-41. They result from polycondensation of terephthalic
acid and
the alcohol ethylene glycol. Chemical compounds of an acid and an
alcohol are known as "esters," from which the term polyester for this fibre
group results. The first trade mark of this fibre was "Terylene."
Polyethylene (PE) fibres, which are used for fishing gear, are produced by
a method developed by Ziegler (Germany) in the early 1950's. Contrary to an
older technique of polymerization (UK), which required very high pressure
of 1000 atm or more, the newer method works with low pressure and organ o-
metal catalysts, e.g. aluminium alkyl. The fibres obtained by this new method
have greatly improved physical properties. The monomer ethylene, the basic
substance of polyethylene, is normally obtained by cracking petroleum. The
same applies to propylene, the basic substance for producing polypropylene.
Polypropylene (PP) fibres, which were developed in 1954 by Natta
(Italy), were first known under the trade name "Meraklon." Polyethylene and
polypropylene are often collectively called "polyolefines." Here they are
distinguished as two separate groups because of their different properties with
regard to fishing nets.
Polyvinyl chloride, (PVC) developed by F. Klatte and H. Hubert (Ger-
many) from the monomer vinyl chloride, was the first synthetic fibre to be
produced on an industrial scale (1934). It was also the first synthetic material
to be used for fishing gear under the trade name "PeCe," and thus the first to
demonstrate the immense practical advantages of rot-proofness (9a).
Polyvinylidene chloride (PVD), developed in 1939 in the USA, is produced
by co-polymerizing a mixture of vinylidene chloride (at least 80 per cent) and
a second component, e.g. vinyl chloride. In this composition it is known under
the name "Saran." Another group of chlorofibres obtained by co-polimeriza-
tion is covered by the name "Vinyon" (USA).
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibres, the production of which is based on the
research of W.O. Hermann and W. Haehnel (1931), have been greatly
improved in Japan since 1938. The type of PVA-fibre made and used for
fishing nets in Japan has been made insoluble in water by different levels of
acetalizationand now has the symbol PVAA (e.g. "Kuralon").
The PVC, PVD and PVAA are less widely spread in fisheries
last three,
over the world as the other groups. They are mainly produced and used for
fishing nets in Japan.
The above selection is restricted to the application for fishing nets and
does not cover all chemical groups of synthetic fibres produced by die
industry. For instance, one of the most important group for the textile
industry, the polyacrylonitrile fibre, is not mentioned. It is known, among
others, by the trade names Acrilon (USA, UK, Canada), Casimtilon (Japan,
South Krnca), Cresian (USA), Crytenka, Nymcryion (Netherlands), Doha,
Braton, Redon (FR of Germany), Exlan (Japan), LeacrH (Italy). Nitron
(USSR), Often (USA, UK, Canada, Netherlands).
K2.3 TRADE NAMES
The chemical terms for the various groups of synthetic fibres are some-
what complicated. Furthermore, producers want specific trade names for
commercial reasons. Consequently there are not only one or a few names for
each type of fibre but many, which vary from country to country and often
within a country from manufacturer to manufacturer. The development of
modern extruders, which simplify the production of monofilaments and
fibrillating films from PP and PE, has lead to an increase in number of
manufacturers and thus further contributed to the somewhat confusing
number of trade names for one and the same product.
In one of the most extensive publications of trade names of man-made

fibres for the whole world (28) there are listed:
88 trade names for polyamide 6.6 (PA)

186 , , , polyamide 6 (PA)
100 polyester (PES)
78 polyethylene (PE)
136 polypropylene (PP)
46 polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
19 polyvinylidene chloride (PVD)
24 polyvinyl alcohol (PVA and PVAA)
In spite of this large number of names this list is still not complete because it is
virtually impossible to keep it up to date. Fortunately, only a relatively
small number of these trade names is used and needs to be known in the
fishing industries. Aselection of the most important ones for fishing nets are
Table 1 which are intended to enable the identifica-
in italics in the lists in
tion of the chemicalgroup so that the suitability of a product offered under
the trade name only can better be judged.
Hie selection of trade names in Table 1, apart from the products of the
large industrial countries, especially includes the products of countries with
small chemical industries which may he of interest with regard to price, time
of delivery, etc. In general this list does not claim to be comprehensive and
certainiy is not meant to indicate any preferences.
Some of the terms are no longer trade names only but have become
generic terms for a whole group of fibres. For example, "nylon" is applied as
a synonym for all PA fibres (nylon 6.6 or nylon 6); "Saran" is the generic
'
TABLE 1 TRADE NAMES OF SYNTHETIC FIBRES
Arg =Argentina; Braz = Brazil; Can = Canada; CSSR = Czechoslovakia; = DDR

German Democratic Republic; Den = Denmark; Fra = France; Germ = Federal
Republic of Germany; GB = Great Britain; Ind = India; It = Italy; Jap = Japan;
Mex = Mexico; Neth = Netherlands; NZeal = New Zealand; Norw = Norway;
Pak = Pakistan; Pol = Poland; Port = Portugal; Roum = Roumania; SKor = South
Korea; Swed = Sweden; Swit = Switzerland; Turk = Turkey; Yug = Yugoslavia.
POLYAMIDE 6 (PA 6)
Akulon (Neth) Enkalan (Neth) Nylfil (Mex)

Amilan (Jap) Enkalon (Neth, GB) Nylpak (Pak)
Amilon (CSSR) Enzlon (NZeal) Nytelle (USA)
Anzalon (Neth) Fisisa (Peru) Ortalion (It)
Atlas-Draht (Germ) Forlion (It) Perlon (Germ)
Atom (Taiwan) Garnyl (Ind) Pescalon (GB)
Ayrlyn (USA) Glamour (Peru) Platil (6 + 6.6) (Germ)
Bifil (Neth) Helion (Malta, It) Platon (Germ)
Bodanyl (Swit) Hilon (SKor) Polygal (Chile)
Caprolan (USA) Hirlon (Arg) Prenylon (Arg)
Celon (GB, Fra, Swed) Hsien-Chin (Taiwan) Pylon (Pak)
Century nylon (Ind) Jaykaylon (Ind) Relon (Roum)
Chemlon (CSSR) Julon, Yulon (Yug) Rulon (Roum)
Chinlon (China) Kapron (USSR) Seflon (Turk)
Cifalon (Port) Korlon (SKor) Silon (CSSR)
Clion (It) Lilion (It) Sttton (Pol)
Cordenkalon (Neth) Mirlon (Swit) Supralon (Yug)
Cuerda-Nylon (Mex) Monosheer (USA) Teco-Polyamid (Germ)
Cydsa-Nylon (Mex) Nailonsix (Braz) Tecron (Spain)
Dayan (Spain) Neva-Perlon (Germ) Textilion (Braz)
Dederon (DDR) Nilom (Pafc) Turlon (Turk)
Delfion (It) Nirlon (Ind) Ulon (Taiwan)
Dimafil (GB) Nurel (Spain) Unel (Can)
Duralon (Mex) Nycel (Mex) Yuan Bao (Taiwan)
POLYAMIDE 6.6 (PA 6.6)
Akvalon (Norw) Celfibras (Braz) Neva-Nylon (Germ)

Amyd (USSR) Cordura Nylon (USA) Nylon
Anyd (USSR) Ducilon (Arg) Poliafil (USA)
Antron (Arg) Herox (USA) Prenyl (Arg)
Anzylon (NZeal) Hisilon (Arg) Promilan (Jap)
Blue C Nylon (USA, GB) Jayanka (Ind) Roblon (Den)
Brilon (Arg) Kenlon (GB) Synthyl (Greece)
Bri-Nylon (GB) Knoxlock (GB)
Cedilla (USA) Luron (GB)
POLYESTER (PES)
Amfi-Terfenka (Neth) Kalimer(lt) Terlenka (GB, Neth)
Avlin (USA) Krafter-F (Jap) Teron (Roum)
Celtron (Venezuela) Lalelen (Turk) Terylene (GB)
Dacron (USA) Lavsan (USSR) Tetoron (Jap)
Delcron (Mex) Nerlen (Mex) Torten(Pol)
Dicrolene (Arg) Polycron (Peru, Chite) Trevira (Germ)
Diolen (Germ) Quintess Polyester (USA) Vcnccron (Venezuela)
Encron (USA) Slotera (CSSR) Vestan(Germ)
Bnkatene (Neth) Tergal (Fra) Vitel (USA)
Fortrcl (USA) Tcriber (Spain) Vycron (USA)
GrisuteMDOR) Tcriprat, Tcrprat (Spain) Wellene (USA)
Hualon (Taiwan) 7Vr/r/(It) dOO
TABLE 1 continued
POLYETHYLENE (PE)
Amco, PE, PP (USA) Hostalen G

(Germ) PE, PP (Can)
Polytie,
PP (USA) Hsien-Chin (Taiwan) Radiant Twine, PE, PP
Amcostrap, PE,
Akvaflex (Norway) Kanelight (Jap) (USA)
Amerfil, PE, PP (USA) Laveten, PE, PP (Swed) Rigidex (GB)
Argon (Fra) Levilene (ft) Rofil (GB)
Bellex (Jap) Marlin (Iceland) Sainthene (Fra)
Caralyan (Jap) Monolene, PE, PP (Can) Scanflex, PE, PP (Den)
Ccrfil (Port) Multilene, PE, PP (Can) Spiralok, PE, PP (Can)
Corfiplosle (Port) Nex-M (Jap) Sunline (Jap)
Courlene (GB) Norfil(GB) Tanikalon (Jap)
Dawbac, PE, PP (USA) Northylen (Germ) Teco-Polyathylen (Germ)
Diamond, PE, PP (USA) Nymplex (Neth) Tiptolene, PE, PP (Neth)
Drylene 3 (GB) Omni,PE,PP(Mex) Trofil (Germ)
Etylon (Jap) PCX, PE, PP (GB, USA) Tuff-Lite-L (USA)
Fifmtex, PE, PP (Norw) Platilon (Jap) Tufton, PE,PP (Can)
Filtrona, PE, PP (GB) Polex (Jap) Velon LP (USA)
Flotten (Fra) Polital, PE, PP (Germ) Velon PS (USA)
Fortiflex (USA) Politen-Omni (Mex) Vestolen A
(Germ)
Gold Metal, PE, PP (USA) Poly-twine, PE, PP (Can) Vislene (It)
Hiralon (Jap) Polyex, PE, PP (USA) Wynene, PE, PP (Can)
Hi-Zex (Jap) Poly-Net (Germ) X-Crin (It)
POLYPROPYLENE (PP)
(see also under PE)
Akvaflex PP (Norw) Merakrin (It) Prolene (Arg)

Beamctte (USA) Monopro (Can) Propycell (Can)
Cotton (GB) Movlon (Port) Pro-Zex (Jap)
Cournova (GB) Multiflex (Den) Red Star (GB)
Danaflex (Den) Narco-Olefin (USA) Ribofil (GB)
Drylene 6 (GB) Novolen (Germ) RR (Den)
Duracore (USA) Tenite (USA)
Ourcl (USA) Nymplex P (Neth) Three Diamonds Pylen (Jap)
Duron (GB) Olanc (USA) Tritor (GB)
Fibrite (GB) Patlon (USA) Trofil P (Germ)
Gcrlon(It) Polyclassis (Germ) Tuff-Lite-P (USA)
Herculon (USA) Polyfitene (Neth) Ulstron (GB)
Hostalen PP (Germ) Polygrit (USA) Velon PP (USA)
Labren(CSSR) Polyprop-Omni (Mcx) Vestolen P (Germ)
Marvess(USA) Polysplit (Swed) Viking (GB)
Pro-Fax (USA) XP-Filaments (USA)
POLYVWYL CtOJORIDE <fVC)

Avi*coVinyon(USA) Teviron (Jap)
Thermovyl(F
Valtren(J
VinyonE(
Wynene
Stavioyl
TABLE \ continued
POLYV1NYLIDENE (PVD)
(Copolymer Fibres)
Clorene (Fra) Omni-Saran (Mex) Ssaniw (USSR)
Darvan (USA) Saniro (USSR) Tejido (Arg)
Draka-Saran (Neth) Saran (Jap, USA) Velon (USA)
Furlon (Jap) Soviden (USSR)
Kurehalon (Jap) Spark-L-Ite-Saran (USA)
POLYV1NYL ALCOHOL (PVA(A)) (and similar)
Cremona (Jap) Mewlon (Jap) Titanol (USSR)
Kancbian (Jap) Mikron (SKor) Trawlon (Jap)
Kuralon (Jap) Mikulon (SKor) Vinylon (Jap)
Kuremona (Jap) Niti-Vilon (Jap) Woolon (Jap)
Manryo (Jap)
Many trade names of synthetic fibres are combined trade names, com-
posed of the generic name of the fibre and the name of the producer or coun-
try. These are not included in Table 1. Some examples are:
PA : Asahi Kasei Nylon, Bayer-Perlon, Beaunit Nylon 6, Celanese

Nylon, DuPont Nylon, Enka-Nylon, Firestone-Nylon,
Nailon-Rhodiatoce, Nylon-Fabelta, Nylsuisse, Toray Nylon.
PES :
Enka-Polyester, Kanebo-Polyester, Teijin Tetoron.
PE :
Imperial Polyolefine, Industrial Polyolefine.
PP : Chisso Polypro, Dawbarn DLP, Mitsubishi Pylen, Teyobo
Pylen, Wyomissing Polypropylene.
PVD : Asahi-Saran, Bolta-Saran.
PVAA Kurashiki Vinylon, Nichibo Vinylon.
Another category of trade names which must be mentioned refers to
combination twines for fishing gears which consist of two different synthetic
fibre components and are mainly produced in Japan. Examples are:
+ Saran
+ Saran
+ PVAA staple
+ Saran
+ PVC filament
+ Saran
+ PVAA or PVC staple
+ PVAA staple
+ Saran
+ Saran
+ PVC filament
+ PVC filament
+ PVC filament
+ Saran
+ PA staple
+ PVC*tapie
1.2.4 BASIC FIBRE TYPES
Forfishing nets there is now a wide choice of textile materials available.

In addition to the seven synthetic fibre groups providing different properties,
there are within these groups various types or forms of fibres which again
provide different properties. Most synthetic fibres are produced in several of
the following basic forms:
continuous filaments (multifilaments),

staple fibres,
monofilaments,
split fibres,
cut thin monofilaments,
textured continuous filaments.
1 .2.4. 1 Continuous filaments (multifilament yarn)
These are fibres of indefinite, practically They have a

infinite length.
silk-like appearance and are produced of fineness, gen-
in different degrees
erally much thinner than 0.05 mm

diameter. The finest types, of which 1,000
metres have a weight of less than 0.2 gram, are even thinner than natural silk.
Material of fishing nets is usually made of filaments of which 1,000 metres in
length weigh between 0.6 gram and 2 grams.
A quantity of continuous filaments is gathered up, with or without twist,
to form a filament yarn, in ISO Standards frequently described as multi-
filament. These yarns are smooth and have a high degree of lustre unless they
have been treated by chemical means. All filaments run the whole length of
the yarn which, at any point, contains exactly the same number of filaments
in the cross-section. Sample (a) in Figure 4 shows a netting yarn consisting
of fine filaments.
A special type of continuous filaments are the textured continuous
filaments (multifilaments). They are looped and tangled before twisting and
have a good knot stability. This type of fibre is not usually used in fishing
gear.
1.2.4.2 Staple fibres
These are discontinuous fibres, usually prepared by cutting filaments into

lengths suitable for the yarn spinning process. Their fineness is similar to that
of continuous filaments, their length generally ranges from 40mm to 120mm,
or more.
Staple fibres are bound by twisting to form a spun yarn. It is only by the
pressure caused by this twisting that the short fibres are held together and
form a continuous strand which is called a single yarn. In this regard syn-
thetic stapic fibre yarns resemble cotton or wool yarns. Netting yarns made of
stapie fibre have a rough surface owing to the numerous loose ends of fibres
stteking out from the twire. This hairy nature decreases slippage of the
jJuM^s, Spw stapte fibre yarns have a lower tensile strength and higher
extensibility than continuous filament yarns made of the same kind of syn-
thetic fibre material.
A special type of PP staple fibres is made from PP monofilaments with a
diameter of about 0.11 to 0.13mm and fibre lengths between 90cm and
112 cm. Yarns are produced on bast or hard fibre spinning systems (92a).
FIGURE 4. Netting yarns composed of different

types of fibres (a) fine filaments ; (b) monofilaments
:
(synthetic wires); (cO splitting film tape; (c 2 )

split-fibres.
1.2.4.3 Monofilaments
The term monofilament, in the proper sense, means a single filament
which is strong enough to ftinction alone as a yarn without having to undergo
further processing. This is the essential difference to the fine continuous
filaments and staple fibres described above which cannot directly be used (as
individual fibres) for netting. Especially transparent PA monoftlainents are
used as single filaments for fine gillnets. In practice, however, the term mono-
filament is a more general term covering all coarse filaments with larger
diameter and stiffness and a wiry character (synthetic wires). They mostly
have a circular cross-section and diameters between 0.1 and 1.0 or more, mm
but monofilaments with oval or flat cross-section are also manufactured,
i.e. 0.17 +
0.34 mm
or 0.24 +
0.48 mm.
A number of monofilaments may be twisted together to form a yarn.
There is no special International Standard term for this type of yarn. Some-
times they are described as folded monofilament yarns or yarns made of
monofilaments. Sample (b) in Figure 4 represents a netting yarn composed
of monofilaments with oval cross-section.
1.2.4.4 Split fibres
Split fibres which have been developed rather recently, originate from
oriented plastic tapes (films) which are stretched during manufacture by such
a high draw-ratio that the tapes split longitudinally when twisted under
tension. Therefore, a yarn made of these fibrillating tapes contains split
fibres of irregular fineness which, in some respects, are similar to natural
hard or bast fibres.
in Figure 4 is such a plastic tape which already shows the
Sample (cO
beginning of longitudinal splitting. Sample (c 2 ) represents a netting yarn
made of tapes which have split up into fibres during the twisting process.
Split fibres may also be obtained by mechanically fibrillating film tapes
directly after extrusion.
1 .2.4.5 Use for netting yams
For netting yarns not all fibre types are available for each of the seven
chemical groups (see also Table 2b).
Polyamide (PA) netting yarns: preferably made of continuous filaments
(multifilaments), especially for marine fishing gear; staple fibres also
available; monofilaments mainly as single filaments, but also twisted
to yarns or twines; no split fibres.
Polyester (PES) netting yarns: mainly made of continuous filaments; no
split fibres.
Polyethylene (PE) netting yarns: most commonly made of folded mono-
filaments (wires); staple fibres not manufactured; continuous filaments
and split fibres available but not common in fishing gear.
Polypropylene (PP) netting yarns mainly made of continuous filaments or
:
split fibres; monofilaments suitable for ropes. (PP is the most suitable
for producing fibrillating film tapes, followed by PE.)
Pdyvinyl chloride (PVC) netting yams: mainly made of continuous
filaments, but staple fibres also available; no split fibres.
Potyvinyiidene cWoride (PVD) netting yams; mainly twisted monofila-
;-,^^^ -.,,.,
ftrfyvmyi tfcota of staple fibres,
1.2.5 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNTHETIC FIBRES

In the following only those properties are mentioned which are pre-
dominantly based on the fibre substance. A
review is given in Table 2. In
order to fully characterize the properties of netting material, the influence of
twine construction and twine fineness must also be considered, but this will
be dealt with separately further on. The following explanatory remarks on
fibre characteristics are meant to supplement Table 2.
1.2.5.1 Endurance in water
As already mentioned, for the fishery the greatest advantage of synthetic

fibres is rot-proofness, i.e. their resistance against destruction by mildew in
air and bacteria in water. This property is of such great importance for
fishermen that it now has become the prime requisite for a fibre to be con-
sidered suitable for fishing nets.
Rot-proofness, however, does not mean that synthetic materials are
entirely unaffected in their properties when immersed in water for prolonged
periods. As an example, Figure 5 shows the influence of uninterrupted
immersion water for about 1 years on the breaking strength of netting
in
yarns made of different kinds of synthetic fibres. In order to properly appre-

ciate the relatively small reduction in breaking strength, it must be stressed
that this test provided severe conditions. In practical fishing it never occurs
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100%
FIGURE 5, Remaining breaking strength of braided trawl
twines in percentage of the Initial breaking strength after
eaiiiiemiiî^^
of a hwtoaTwith high decaying power, ;
>
3
that a fishing gear stands uninterruptedly in water for so long a time, and un-
treated cotton twines tested simultaneously were destroyed within seven days.
The long durability of synthetic fibre nets which are not subjected to strong
mechanical wear and tear may be demonstrated by two examples fyke nets :
made of the polyvinyl chloride fibre PeCe have been used in lakes for more
than 25 years, and a large river stow net made of PA is continuing to catch
fish after 19 years in a big river with a strong current and very polluted
water.
1.2.5.2 Resistance to weathering (see Table 2,1}.
The term weathering is used to describe the combined effects of light,
rain, wind, industrial smokes, and gases on the properties of textile material.
It is virtually impossible to distinguish between the separate effects of each
of these factors, but it can be taken for granted that the strongest deterioration
effect is caused by the ultra-violet part of the sun's radiation. Owing to
seasonal and local variations in the intensity of sunlight, the degree of
damage done to synthetic fibrous materials may differ; it will, however, in
general exceed that caused by immersion in water (see 1.2.5.1).
The various kinds of synthetic fibres differ very much in their susceptability
to and rate of deterioration by exposure to light and weather (see Table 2,1)
which is measured by the decrease in the breaking strength.
Non-treated synthetic fibres, especially in the form of continuous filaments

or staple fibres, are white and lustrous. For textile purposes they may also be
manufactured as dull or semi-dull fibres, delustred by incorporating special
delustring agents, e.g. titanium dioxide, into the polymer before melt-
spinning (see Figure 3b). PA fibres delustred in this way have a considerably
lower resistance against weathering than the normal lustrous types of the
same kind of fibre and should therefore not be used for fishing nets. This
dullness, however, should not be mistaken for the dull appearance of machine-
made netting which is normally due to coating with special resins in order to
reduce slippage of the knots.
The effect of weathering also depends on the thickness of the netting yarn.
The thicker the netting yarn the lower the losses in breaking strength.
Therefore, in the case of ropes, the deteriorating effect of weathering will in
general be almost negligible (92a).
Fibres made of non after-chlorinated PVC, e*g. Rhovyl, Envylon, Teviron,
have the highest resistance against sunlight even when exposed for several
years. In trials carried out at a place in Central Europe (Figure 6) a netting
yam made of PVC had not changed its breaking strength after having been
exposed to the effect of 1500 sun-hours, (Polyacrylonitrile fibres, which are
not tised in fishing gear, have similar properties in this regard.)
Normal PA fifres (continuous filament and staple) have a similar
ttpista^ vegetable fibres, PES (Figure 6,
ample 2X ÂA, J^ fib more resistant. It
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10 20 30 ^0 50 60 70 80 90 100 %
FIGURE 6. Remaining breaking strength of netting yarns (of approximate 2-3
mm diameter) in percentage of the initial breaking strength after exposure to
1500 SUB hours.
than the other because the results of weathering trials vary with different
places, different seasons and also due to differences in the properties of
fibres produced by different manufacturers.
PP had originally a very low resistance against sunlight, but the incor- ,'
poration of proper antioxidants and radiation-absorbers into the polymer

has greatly improved this property, although not to the extent provided by
PA (sec Figure 6, samples 1 and 3). Other synthetic fibres also need such
fight absorbers, especially PE.
!5*e sttweiiti io far <MI resistance to weathering refer to undyed material
onl. By dywng, the useful fife of net materials can fee considerably extended
of light absorbers. The dyeing of the netting
tr may be carried out either by the netmaker
or by the fisherman himself and various colours may be used. PE and PP

are difficult to dye by normal dyeing methods. A
good protection for PA
nets against light can be obtained by dyeing with catechu without any addi-
tives. PVAA nets, however, should not be treated with catechu or other types
of tannin because they may be damaged by these agents. Treatment with
coal tar, other coal derivates, bitumen, black varnish, or similar agents,
used to increase the stiffness, the sinking speed, the abrasion resistance, or
the knot stability of netting, may also increase the light resistance. Nets
treated with coal tar are about twice as heavy as untreated nets. Another
possibility of dyeing which can only be carried out by the fibre producers
consists in adding fine colour pigments to the polymer prior to extrusion
(see Figure 6). This "spin-dyeing" is preferably used for monofilaments and
film tapes made of PE and PP. It has the advantage that the colour is
incorporated in the fibre substance and cannot be washed out. (Pigments are
finely divided particles of colour of about 0.001 mm, which may be incor-
porated in the polymer before the filament is formed. They are not soluble
in the polymer.) The best protection of this kind against light, especially for
PP, is obtained by adding soot to the polymer. The high light-absorbing effect
of soot is demonstrated by the PP samples 5 and 7, as compared to the undyed
PP sample 3 (Figure 6). The PE samples 8 and 9 have obtained a good pro-
tection by green and orange pigments, while blue and orange pigments with
which the PP samples 4 and 6 were treated do not act as light absorbers but
have even a photocatalytic effect which accelerates the deteriorating effect of
sunlight. Although sunlight is generally said to be effective only on the surface,
i.e. the outermost layers of a rope, orange pigmented ropes of 56 mm
dia-
meter made of PP monofilaments lost almost 40 percent of their initial
breaking strength during a two years outdoor exposure due to this photo-
catalytic effect (92a).
Weathering experiments can only show the differences in the relevant
properties of the various kinds of fibres but tell little about the actual useful
life time of fishing nets in operation. This depends to a large extent on the
care of the fisherman himself. Under normal conditions there is no need to

expose fishing nets to sunlight. Synthetic net materials do not rot. Therefore
they do not need to be dried but can be stored also in wet condition. For
protection against sunlight they should always be covered. An exception is
stationary fishing gear which stands for a considerable time immediately
under or even partly above the water surface, such as some types of trap-
and box-nets, raft traps or stow nets. Such fishing gear should be dyed,
preferably black or, if they are not subject to strong mechanical forces or
wear and tear, made of highly light resistant fibres like PVC.
In this connection it should be mentioned that sun radiation is partly
reflected by the water surface and is also absorbed in water* Even in absolutely
dear and water in a depth of 1 m, only 47 percent of the sun radiation
pure
is still to be found, but no natural waters are absolutely dear. Furthermore,
the violet and ultraviolet part of the sunlight spectrum, which mainly causes
the deterioration of textiles, suflfers strongest absoiptionin water.
very clear water, where a white disk may still be seen in a depth of 8 to 12 m,
only 20 percent of ultraviolet rays remain in a depth of 1 m
and in 5 depth m
nothing is left. The deteriorating effect of sunlight is therefore much lower in
water than in air.
1.2.5.3 Density
Density is the mass (weight) per unit volume. It is preferably expressed

3
as grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm ). Fibre density (see Table 2a) may
influence the properties of fishing nets in the following ways :
The lower fibre density, the smaller the weight of netting in water
as compared to the air-dry weight (see Table 2i). Consequently netting
made of fibres with densities below 1.00 g/cm 3 i.e. PE and PP, float
,
in water and therefore hold more weights (sinkers).
The sinking speed of netting (without accessories) in water will

obviously increase with the density of the fibrous material it is made
of. Though the density of tar is lower than that of most fibres the
sinking speed of netting is increased by tarring. The function of the

tar is to exclude interfibre air by which a temporary buoyancy
decreasing sinking speed may be caused.
Without treatment Tarred
Polyamide (PA) 3.5 cm/1 sec 6.5 cm/1 sec

Polyvinyl alcohol (PVAA) 4.5 cm/1 sec 7.3 cm/1 sec
Polyester (PES) 7.0 cm/1 sec
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 8.0 cm/1 sec 9.0 cm/ 1 sec

Saran (PVD) 10.5 cm/1 sec 1 1.5 cm/1 sec
These data refer to netting yarns of a diameter of about 2 to 3 mm.

Thinner netting yarns sink more slowly. The sinking speed is important
for some types of fishing gear, especially surrounding nets (purse
seines), which should sink as fast as possible and for such gear netting
material of high density would be advantageous.
Density and specific volume are inversely proportional. Consequently

the bulkincss of nets of equal weight increases with decreasing density
of the fibres they are made of as does the diameter of netting yarns
with equal weight per unit length or the runnage (metres per 1kg)
of the netting yarns of equal diameter.
L2.5A The melting pofat

The meking point (Table 2c) may be used for fibre identification (see
L16). The ^lining point (TaWc 2b) and the shrinkage should be taken into
"
%^ dye-bath. The temperature
is 4wwged by hot treatnient and for PVAA the temperature

should be kept below 50C. Before dyeing nets, a dyeing test should be
carried out with a small sample of the netting to be treated, in order to find
out the eventual degree of shrinkage of the meshes.
1 .2.6 IDENTIFICATION
As shown in each of the synthetic fibre groups has well-defined

Table 2,
characteristics it from other groups. These may determine
which distinguish
its suitability for certain types of fishing gear and the fisherman should
therefore always know to which chemical group his net material belongs.
Unfortunately there are less visual differences between the various kinds of
synthetic fibres than there are in vegetable fibres and synthetic netting material
can therefore rarely be determined by its appearance alone. If the trade
name is known with certainty, one can find out the chemical group from
trade-name lists such as the one given in Table 1. If this is not the case,
several methods of identification may be applied. In the following, only
those are considered which can be carried out easily and without elaborate
techniques and apparatuses (with the exception of the determination of the
melting point). This excludes for practical reasons more elaborate methods
which require expensive equipment and/or specific expertise such as micro-
scopic examination and micro-photographs, staining with special dyes or
reagents, determination of fibre density, as well as infrared spectroscopy,
gas chromatography and differential thermal analysis. For further infor-
mation see Bibliography (109), (3), (28), (127) and (130).
1 .2.6. 1 General remarks
For the methods of identification described here, the following general

remarks and instructions apply:
To avoid undue complication they are confined to the eight synthetic

fibre groups mentioned in Tables 2, 3, and 4.
If ever possible, the reaction of the synthetic material to be identified
should be compared with the reactions to the same method of known
material
Not only one but several test methods should be applied for confir-
mation of the fibre identity. For each test a new sample of the material
to be tested must be used.
of one land <rf

any doubt that the material does not consist
If there is
fibreonly but may be a combined netting yarn (see l.Z3)f several
should be tested
spedteons from different parts of the netting yarn
separately.
Finishing agents (pigments, colours, delustring and stabilizing agents,

adhesive substances, oil, starch, resin) used for dyeing, stiffening or
stabilizing the netting yarn, the netting, or its knots, may change
the test results to be expected from raw and unfinished materials.
They should therefore be removed from the specimen by a suitable,
simple treatment, taking appropriate care that the fibres are not
unduly damaged. For instance, boiling in distilled water will often
be sufficient.
1.2.6.2 Water test
It is advisable to start the identification with this test. In a short piece of

the netting yarn a simple overhand knot is tied. The piece is put into a vessel
filled with water. Air bubbles in the material must be squeezed out by hand
under water. Preferably a wetting agent (e.g. 1 g/1 Lissapol N

or Nekal BX)
should be added to the water. The water test serves to classify the netting
material in two groups, i.e. those synthetic fibres which float in water (PE
and PP), and those which sink (all other kinds of synthetic fibres, see Table 2a:
fibre density).
1 .2.6.3 Visual inspection
Another preliminary sorting test is the visual identification of the type

of fibres. Since for netting yarns not all chemical groups are used in all fibre
types, there are some possibilities of deducing the synthetic material. PE, for
example, is not produced as continuous filaments and staple fibres, and so
far only PP is produced for fishing nets in the form of split fibres. Further
indications are given in 1.2.4.5 and in Table 2d.
1.2.6.4 Burning test
For this test only a clean flame and eventually two forceps are needed.
The best source of flame is a Bunsen burner or, if a gas supply is not available,
an alcohol lamp, but even a cigarette lighter may be used. The following
should be observed: the reaction of the netting material near the flame, and
after removal from the flame, the smell of the gaseous products (smoke), and
the residue.
In the early days of the introduction of synthetic fibres into fishing the
burning test was very often used by fishermen as it is the simplest for distin-
guishing any synthetic fibres from cotton. Cotton and other vegetable
fibres, and also most of the man-made fibres made of regenerated cellulose,
bum rapidly in the flame and continue burning after removed from the
flameu They have afterglow, the smell of smoke is similar to that of burning
paper and tte reside consists of a small amount of fine ash. The synthetic
They shrink and melt in the flame,
>
drips from the flame, mostly forming a bead or a hard,
RAW MATERIALS KR NETTING 27
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Table 3 shows the reactions to the burning test of the different synthetic
fibres by which they can be identified. It should be mentioned, however, that
in practice the differences are not always so clear as shown in the table. For
an accurate identification it will often be necessary to verify the results of the
burning test by the solubility test and/or the melting point test.
1.2.6.5 Solubility test
This relatively simple chemical test does not require any particular skill
in chemistry, provided that the safety precautions common for chemical

laboratories are observed, especially when working with boiling reagents.
No expensive or complicated equipment is needed. Required are: several
glass test tubes of about 25 ml capacity, a heat source (e.g. Bunsen burner
or alcohol lamp), a holder to hold the test tube into the flame, and the chemical
reagents quoted in Table 4. If an electric hot plate is used test tubes are use-
less and glass beakers of 50 to 100 ml in size and glass stirring rods are
taken instead.
The of the sample to be tested should be in as loose a form as
fibres
possible. Therefore, the netting yarn must be untwisted and the fibres cut
into pieces of about 1 cm in length. Coarse material, like split fibres, and
especially monofilaments, should be reduced to very small pieces. Small
samples of the material and 10 to 15 ml of the solvent should be put into the
test tube. Further directions for the application of the solubility test may be
taken from Table 4. The reagents quoted have been selected so that only one
reaction needs to be observed: soluble or not soluble.
In most cases it will not be necessary to conduct the test with all reagents
given in Table 4.
Polyamide (PA) fibres are soluble in the reagents (a) and (e). If it is
desirable to separate the two types from one another, (c) can be used, in
which PA
6 is soluble but not 6.6. PA
Polyester (PES) fibres are not soluble in (a), (f) and (g).
Polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) fibres are not soluble in (b)
and (c).
Poiyvinyl chloride (PVC) (not after-chlorinated; see note (3) in Table 2)

is the only synthetic fibre here mentioned which is soluble in reagent (g)
at room temperature.
Saran (PVD) may be identified by its solubility in (f) and (c).
Polyviayl alcbobol (PVAA) (after^treatcd with formaldehyde; see note (4)

in TaWe 2) is soluble in (a) but not in (e).
PE and PP cannot be distinguished from one another by a solubility test.
The burning test (Table 3) shows some differences in the reactions of these
two synthetics but they are not sufficiently characteristic for identification to
always be possible. Hie most reliable method to distinguish PE from PP is
to determine the melting point.
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FIGURE 7.Device for Melting Point Determination ("Kofler Heizbank").

MP: metal plate, on which the material to be tested is
electrically heated, special
laid. The temperature on the plate slidingly decreases from 264 degree Celsius at
one end to 50 degree Celsius at the other end.
ScT: scale of temperature. Length of the instrument: 40 cm.
Supplier: C. Reichert A.G., Wien (Vienna) XVII, Hernalser Hauptstrasse 219,
Austria.
1 .2.6.6 Melting point test
The melting points of the thermoplastic synthetic fibres are significantly

Table 2c). The determination of the melting point of an un-
different (see
known net material is, therefore, a very reliable identification method.
Unfortunately the equipment needed is not quite simple, although the actual
test with suitable equipment is easy to perform. The melting point test is
mentioned here, mainly because it enables one in a relatively simple manner
to determine whether a given net material, which floats in water, is PE or PP.
There are several devices available on the market for the melting point
test. One example, which is easy to operate and provides accurate results, is
shown in Figure 7.
CHAPTER 2
NETTING YARNS
2.1 Construction of netting yarn
With regard to the construction, there are three main types of netting
yarn: twisted netting yarn, braided netting yarn, and netting yarn of knotless
netting. Before discussing them, some technical terms have to be defined.
2.1.1 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

The following terms and definitions are based on standards of the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It is said in these
standards: "For each individual country the only valid standard is the
national standard of that country." It is, however, usual that the ISO
Member Bodies accommodate their national standards to the ISO standards
and thus, little by little, an international uniformity will be reached which is
of great importance for the international trade and the exchange of infor-
mation in industry and science. Therefore, where ISO standards already exist,
they should be used (52 to 68a).
2.1.1.1 Netting yarn

This is the standardized universal term (54) for all textile material which
is suitable for the manufacture of netting for fishing nets, and which may be
directly knitted into netting by machine or by hand, without having to
undergo further process. Thus, a single monofilament may also be a netting
yarn, if it is directly knitted into netting (see 1.2.4.3). Where the specification
of the type of a netting material is not essential the general term netting
yarn should always be used, as is being done in this manual.
2.1.1.2 Yarn
The tern yam (55) without any addition, is a geira^

all types and structures of linear textile products. It is not used
m this maauaL
2.1.1.3 Single yarn (55)
Single yarn is the simplest continuous thread composed of fibres. With

regard to the fibre material one may distinguish: single spun yarn, single
filament yarn, single yarn made of monofilaments, and single split fibre
yarn (see 1.2.4). Single yarns are the components of netting yarn.
2.1.1.4 Netting twine or folded yarn
Netting twine (see 2.1.1.1) or folded yarn means a netting yarn which
is made of two
or more single yarns or monofilaments by only one twisting
operation. The term has formerly had the same meaning as nowadays the
term netting yarn. Other terms like net twine, fishnet twine, fishing twine
should not be used any more (54).
2. 1 . 1 .5 Cabled netting twine or cabled yarn

This a netting yarn which combines two or more netting twines by
is
one (or two) further twisting operations (54).
2.1.1.6 Braided netting twine

This is a netting yarn which is manufactured by braiding (or plaiting) (54).
The terms mentioned in 2.1.1.4, 2.1.1.5 and 2.1.1.6 are used and defined in
an ISO standard particularly made for the fishing industry (54). In a new
ISO standard for the textile industries the term "twine" is eliminated. The
product obtained by one twisting operation is called "folded yarn** and not
"twine*'. Instead of "cabled netting twine" the term "cabled yarn" is
used (55).
2.1.1.7 Twist
Twist is "the spiral disposition of the components" (129) of single yarn,

folded yarn, or netting yarn. As a numerical value the term indicates the
number of turns per unit of length ("amount of twist"), for instance, per
1 metre (t/m) or per 1 inch (t/i). In this manual only t/m is used.
2.1 .1 .8 The direction of twist

This isby the capital letters S and Z (52). "The product has
indicated
S twist when
held in a vertical position, the spirals or helices formed
if, it is
by the fibres or filaments around its axis incline in the same direction as the
central portion of the letter S/' "The product has Z twist if, when it is held
in a vertical position, the spirals or helices formed by the fibres or filaments
*roand its axil incline in the same direction as the central portion of the
tetter Z/* (see Figure 8a).
NETTING YARNS 33
2.1.1.9 Coefficient of twist or twist factor, a

a is "a measure of the twist hardness of yarn, determined
by multi-
plying the turns per unit length by the square root of the count in a direct
system" (129). The formula for the Tex-system reads: a tex = t/m x V T^nn*
lUlAs
(The terms "Tex system" and "tex" are defined in 2.2.). By means of the
coefficient of twist it is possible to compare the amount of twist of netting
yarns of different fineness and thus to find out if there are differences in the
twist hardness.
2.1.1.10 Braiding
This is the "process of interlacing three or more threads in such a way
that they cross each other and are laid together in diagonal formation" (129).
This process is sometimes also known as "plaiting." The product of the
braiding process is the "braid" (braided netting yarn).
2.1.1.11 Strand
This is the (not standardized) term for one of the individual components
(129) of a twisted or braided netting yarn. In this manual it is only used for
the components of braids; the components of twisted netting yarn are
called single yarn or netting twine (folded yarn) respectively.
2.1.2 CONSTRUCTION OF TWISTED NETTING YARN

The following description of the construction of netting yarns (see
Figures 8 and 9 and Tables 5 and 6) is intended for the better understanding
of the user, but certainly not to give directions on how to manufacture
them. The different netting yarns used for the great variety of fishing gears
cover a wide size range from less than 0.20 to about 6 mm diameter. mm
Heavy netting yarns such as are required for bottom trawls of large stern
trawlers are usually not twisted but braided.
The characteristics of a twisted netting yarn are determined by number
and fineness of the single yams and the way in which they are folded and
twisted together.
2.1.2.1 Single yam

Single yam, made of staple fibres (spun yam, see L2.4.2), has to be
relativelyhard twisted because the thread obtains its strength by the twisting
together of the individual fibres only, i.e. the more the thread is twisted,
the higher the breaking strength. However, this is true only up to a certain
point, called the critical degree of twist. Any twisting beyond this point
would weaken the thread. Single yarns made of continuous filaments or
monofilaments (wires) are strongest if they are not twisted at all, but it is
usual to twist also these types of single yarn to simplify the manufacture
of the final product and for better protection of the individual filaments
against damage.
Film tapes (e.g. made of PP) must be twisted to obtain the desired
fibrous character (see 1.2.4.4) except that they have been fibrillated mechani-
cally after extrusion.
The various sizes of netting yarn are produced by combining single yarns
of different fineness and/or number. Examples are given in columns c and d
of Table 5, where the number of single yarns and their nominal and actual
fineness for the netting yarns in columns a and b, are indicated. (For the
designation of netting yarns and the definition of Rtex see 2.2). Single yarns
are not used in netting for fishing gear.
2. 1 .2.2 Netting twine or folded yarn
There are various ways of folding, plying or doubling single yarns. The
simplest method to make a netting twine or folded yarn is to combine two
or more single yarns by only one twisting operation (see 2.1.1.4; Figure 8,
b; Figure 4c 2 ; Table 5 specimens nos. 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 18). With the
exception of the finest netting yarn (Table 5, No. 1), they are all threefold
yarns. It is, however, possible to combine more than three single yarns to
such a simple netting twine. The twist direction may be S or Z. Mono-
filaments which are twisted together to form a netting yarn have the function
of single yarns. In Table 5, No. 18 and in Figure 8c are examples for netting
twines or folded yarns containing three monofilaments. There are also
netting twines made by one twisting operation which contain more than
three monofilaments. A particular example is given by No. 31 of Table 5.
Here four fine PA monofilaments are twisted together very loosely, to form
a folded yarn suitable for gillnets (see also Section 3.6.2).
2. 1 .2.3 Cabled netting twine or cabled yarn
Most netting yarns used in netting for fishing gear are not of the simple
netting twine type just described, but are cabled netting twines, produced
in three steps: (1) Fibres are combined to form single yarns; (2) several
single yarns are twisted together to form a folded yarn or netting twine;
(3) several of these folded yarns or netting twines are twisted together by a
secondary twisting operation to form a cabled netting twine type.
Twisted netting yarns Are usually twisted alternatively in S and Z direction,
i.e. each successive twist is in the opposite direction to the
preceding one
(S/Z/S or Z/S/Z). Figure 8d shows a netting yam of the cabled netting
twwe type conaiting of three folded yams, each of which is composed of
four single yarns. The three folded yarns of the netting yarn in Figure 4a
yarns. Other constructions am given in TaWc 5
M,l$rfaaPEiiettmg yarns except No. 18).
NETTING YARNS 35
Usually cabled netting twines are composed of three folded yarns and two
or four folded yarns are less common (e.g. Table 5, No. 28).
2. 1 .2.4 Cabled netting twine of higher order
By a further twisting operation cabled netting twines of the second order

are obtained (e.g. Table 5, Nos. 16 and 17). For these examples of netting
yarns four or six single yarns respectively are twisted to form a netting twine
(folded yarn), four of these are twisted into a cabled netting twine, and three
of these are once again twisted to obtain the final product.
directions of twist
fibres
monofilaments
single yarns
netting yarn
folded yarns
Z (orS) C (netting twines )
fi bres
netting yarn yarn

(cabled netting twine)
Z(orS)
FIOUM 8. Construction of twisted netting yams.
FIGURE 9,-Conftructioa of a complicated netttaf yarn (for

form of a cabled netting twine of the third
trawls) in the
order mamjfftctured in five misting operations.
NETTING YARNS 37
Figure 9 shows the very complicated construction of a cabled netting twine

of the third order manufactured in five successive twisting operations:
1 .
Single yarn ;
2. Netting twine (folded yarn);

3. Cabled netting twine of the 1st order;
4. Cabled netting twine of the 2nd order;
5. Cabled netting twine of the 3rd order.
Such complicated and heavy netting yarns (see also Nos. 16 and 17 in Table 5)
are, for instance,used for heavy trawlnets. The reason why they are composed
of such a great number of fine single yarns is probably because heavier single
yarns are not available. Due to the four or five twisting operations and to
the high degree of twist necessary (see column f of Nos. 16 and 17, Table 5),
these constructions have many disadvantages as compared to the normal
cabled netting twines. The increase in weight is very high, the breaking
strength is comparatively low and the extensibility increases to an undesirable
extent. Due to the relatively high weight, the fineness of the single yams
FIGURE 10, Twist counter (twist tester) by which the twist in a known length of
unwound until the components are
netting yarn, or folded yarn, or single yarn is
parallel
N = Netting yarn sample fastened between two clamps.
P Pre-tension, applied to the specimen during testing.
NC - Nonrotatable clamp, horizontally a4Justabte on a splint (S)
to permit
different lengths of specimens. *^j
RC Rotatable damp, It is rotatable in either direction and directly connected
to a revolution counter (SC), which indicates twist number and twist
W - Wfeed for driving the rotatable clamp by hand (or by means of an electric
motor).
Length of the apparatus: about 100 cm.
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NETTING YARNS 39
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naturally higher than for normal netting yarns. Heavier single yarns would
enable a simpler and more economic production of heavy netting yarns
and at the same time provide better properties.
2. 1 .2.5 Amount of twist

The amount of twist may be determined by a twist counter as shown
by Figure 10 (65). The amount of twist has a very great influence on the
breaking strength and the extensibility of netting yarns (see below).
In Table 5, column e, only the final twists in turns per one metre (t/m)
of netting yarns of different fineness are considered, but not the inner twist
of the folded yarns.
In general three degrees of twist are distinguished: soft, medium and
hard twist. In some cases it would be advantageous to use a fourth degree:
very hard. In Table 5 there are netting yarns of the same nominal fineness
but with a different degree of twist, e.g. Nos. 5 and 6; 7 and 8; 9 and 10;
11, 12 and 13; 14 and 15. Nos. 5, 7 and 14 have medium twist, Nos. 9 and
11 medium to hard twist, Nos. 6, 8, 10 and 12 hard twist and Nos. 13, 16
and 17 very hard twist. Column g demonstrates that the increase in weight,
due to twisting and folding, depends on the degree of twist as is represented
by the coefficients of twist in column f. With hard twisting, the difference
between the total tex (see 2.2.2.2) of the untwisted single yarns and the
actual Rtex of the finished netting yarn may be more than 30 percent. The
reduction in length (column h) is, of course, also dependent on the degree
of twist.
It is not possible to specify the three or four degrees of softness or hard-
ness of a netting yarn by numerical values of t/m or a. They should rather
be considered with regard to the following factors:
fineness (diameter) of the netting yarn;

kind of fibre of which the netting yarn is made;
purpose, which the netting shall serve;
relation between primary and secondary twist in cabled netting twines.
The amount of twist needed to achieve a certain hardness of a netting

yarn depends primarily on its diameter. Fine netting yarns (e.g. first specimens
in Table 5) require much more turns per metre to reach the same effect of
twist or the same degree of hardness than heavy netting yarns (e.g. Table 5,
Nos. 14 and 15). This effect can be judged by the coefficient of twist in
connection with the pertinent t/m of various netting yarns (Table 5).
Table $ shows the calculated values of t/m for PA netting yarns of almost
all normal diameters assuming a coefficient of twist of a =
150. Coefficients
of twist of approximately this value ait frequently used for PA netting yarns.
As already mentioned (see 1.2.5.3) the various kinds of synthetic fibres
differ in density. Consequently with equal mass per unit length the diameter
of netting yarns of different synthetic material increases with decreasing
NETTING YARNS 41
TABLE 6. NUMBER OF TURNS PER 1 METRE (T/M) AND RTEX VALUES (WEIGHT IN GRAMMES
OF 1000 m) OF NETTING YARNS WHICH ALL HAVE A COEFFICIENT OF THE FINAL TWIST <X = 150
Rtex t/m Rtex t/m Rtex t/m
fibre density.The amount of twist (t/m) depends on the diameter of the

netting yarn. Netting yarns of the same diameter for the same hardness
therefore require the same twist (t/m), independent of the kind of fibre
materials. From this it follows that netting yarns of different synthetic
material (density) for the same hardness require different coefficients of
twist, because this factor is not related to the diameter but to the fineness
(twine number) of the netting yarn. With equal fineness PP netting yarns
will be thicker than corresponding PA netting yarns and, therefore, require
less t/m and consequently a lower coefficient of twist. Most medium size
PA netting yarns of medium twist have a coefficient of twist of about 150 to
160, but finer netting yarns usually have lower and heavier netting yarns
higher coefficients of twist. The same medium twist for PP continuous
filament netting yarns is obtained by a coefficient of twist of about 130 to
140 and again the finer netting yarns have a lower and the heavier netting
yarns a higher coefficient of twist. As shown in Table 5 medium twisted
PE netting yarns have a coefficient of twist between 100 and 110 which, in
addition to the low density of PE, is also due to the stiffness of the wiry
monofilaments as compared with the soft and flexible continuous filaments
of PA and PP above.
netting yarn naturally also depends on the
The desired level of twist of a
requirements for the type of fishing gear for which it is to be used. Gillnets
usually need a soft twist; bottom trawls, purse seines and many types of
small fishing gear need a medium twist, and midwater trawls and various
lines a hard twist.
far only the final twist of netting yarns has been discussed. There is,
So
however, a relation in a cabled netting twine between the secondary or cable
twist of the final product and the primary or fold twist of the folded yarns
which may be expressed by the following formula:
fold twist
cable twist , . . .
or
, 1Jt
v number of folded yarns
fold twist =
cable twist x Vnumber of folded
This relation is important for obtaining a "twist-balanced" netting yarn,

which does not snarl or untwist or form into loops. There should be no
"twist liveliness" in the netting yarn. It is easier to produce twist-balanced
netting yarns from PP continuous filaments than from PA and PE contin-
uous filaments. Such PA and PE netting yarns therefore usually are stabilized
by a twist setting operation which generally consists in a treatment in
saturated steam.
2.1.3 CONSTRUCTION OF BRAIDED NETTING YARNS

Braided netting yarns are produced by interlacing a number of strands
in such a way that they cross each other in diagonal direction to the edge of
the fabric (see 2.1.1.10). These braids used for netting are actually in the
form of a tube and the size of the lumen depends on the kind of braiding.
The braiding machines have spindles (bobbins) which move in a serpentine
circle, with half the spindles in the right and the other half in the left direction.
Thus the strands of one set of spindles pass alternately over and under one
or more of the strands of the other set of spindles. Table 7 and several
figures show the three essential factors of construction :
core;
number and kind of strands;
structure of the braid.
2.1.3.1 Core
This is the term for single yarns, folded yarns or monofilaments which do
not belong to the braided tube but fill out the space inside (lumen) the
braided tube (Figure 11). When a round cross-section of the final product is
desired (e.g. for lines) a relatively thick core is needed. If the core is supposed
to contribute to the breaking strength of a netting yarn, its extensibility
should be equivalent to that of the braided sheath. For this reason cores of
netting yarns made of continuous filaments mostly consist of single yarns
which are twisted to increase the extensibility. PE netting yarns are mostly
manufactured with cores which may consist of one up to more than 30
monofilaments. These monofilaments frequently are not twisted. When
testing the breaking strength of such braids it may happen that due to the
differences in extension, the core breaks already before the braided tube
has reached its maximum strength.
Table 7 gives netting yarns designated by Rtex-values with and without
core. Column e shows the increase in weight of the finished netting yarns
due to braidkig and adding of a core in percentage of the total weight of all
strands of the same unit length (1000m) in not braided condition, not
including tbc single yarns of the core. Naturally, a core adds considerably
to the weight If this core is very thick as in sample No. 11, the increase in
wtjgjit can amount to more than 50 percent
NETTING YARNS 43
11 1
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- -* *^ P^ i-^ M -* *-< -^ <^^îî-<
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.s
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,
jjj Jj J5 JJ {Q U
single yarns braided netting twine

total number: 26
core with 2 single yarns
each strand with 3 single yarns

Rtex
FIGURE 11. Example of a braided netting yarn with core and 8 strands. Each
strand consists of 3 single yarns lying side by side.
As the core frequently does not contribute to the breaking strength to

the same degree as it increases the weight, for fishing nets braids without
core are preferable because they are also softer and, therefore, have a better
knot stability. Whereas twisted netting yarns from PA continuous filament
do not render sufficient initial knot stability so that the netting has to be
treated with a bonding agent and/or heat-setting, such soft braided netting
yarns without core usually provide sufficient resistance to knot slippage
without treatment. Coreless netting yarns have an oval cross-section.
2.1.3.2 Number of strands

The total number of strands of a braid depends on the number of
spindles of the machine on which the bobbins with the strands are mounted.
In Table 7 common constructions with 6, 8, 12 and 16 strands are represented.
Machines with a greater number of spindles (e.g. 20 or more) are preferably
used for making lines. Nowadays, the 16-strand construction is chosen for
heavy netting yams of codends of big trawl nets (see Figure 12 and Table 7,
Nos* 24 to 27). A
strand may consist of a different number of twisted or not
twisted single yarns which usually aft not twisted into a folded yam but are
lying side by side. Examples for the different compositions of strands are
given in Table 7 column b. For example, the strands of netting yarns Nos. 8
to 11 contain only one single yarn; the strands of the netting yarn No. 27
consist of 8 singk yarns. No, 23 is a more complicated netting yarn, each
strand being a cabled netting twine consisting of two folded yarns. Hits type
NETTING YARNS 45
FIGURE 12. 16-strand braid, as frequently used for heavy trawl nets. The picks
or stitches lying side by side in a row have been hatched. The two marks
(x)
indicate where a certain strand reappears in the same row (see also
Figure 13,
"length of stitch").
is comparable to the twisted netting yarns Nos. 16 and 17 of Table 5, and

also has the same disadvantages: great increase in weight, too high extension
and low breaking strength.
2. 1 .3.3 Structure of the braid
The structure of the braid (i.e. the way of interlacing the strands) may
be one of the following:
one strand over one and under another;

one strand over one and under two others;
one strand over two and under two others.
In Table 7all braids consisting of 6 and 8 strands are braided "over one and
under one", all braids with 12 and 16 strands are braided "over two and
under two" (see Figure 13). These two structures are most common for
netting yarns.
The tightness, hardness or compactness of the braid can be determined
by counting the number of visible picks (or stitches) in a row (see Figures 12
and 13b) per unit of length, e.g. 10cm (Table 7, column c), or 1 m. This
numerical value, however, cannot directly be used for comparing the tightness
of braids of different structures as the tightness depends to a great extent
upon the fineness and the number of strands. In Table 7 examples for the
interrelation between the fineness of the braid, the number of strands, the
number of stitches and the tightness (or hardness) are given. The distinction
between the various degrees of tightness by the terms "soft," "medium,*'
"hard" (column f, Table 7) is only subjective.
The influence of the structure (number of strands) upon the appearance
and the tightness of the braid may be seen from Figure 14. To facilitate the
comparison of the tightness one row of picks (or stitches) in each netting
yarn has been dye4 black.
FIGURE 13. Most common constructions of braided netting yarns.

(a) 8-strand braid "over one under one/'
(b) 16-strand braid "over two under two."
The arrows indicate the length of the spiral pitch which is caused by one complete
circle of the spindles. In the 8-strand braid (a) this
length extends over 4 picks (or
stitches) and in the 16-strand braid (b) over 8 picks in a row. Such a length is
designated by the technical term "length of stitch." The tightness (or hardness) of
the netting yarn may be specified by the number of picks (e.g. the hatched
picks)
in a row per unit length of the braid (see also Table 7, column
c).
The x-signs indicate where a certain strand reappears in the same row: in sample
"a" after 4 picks, in sample "b" after 8 picks.
The terms pitch, pick and stitch are taken from (45).
2.1.4 NETTING YARN FROM KNOTLESS NETTING

This manual deals only with netting materials, i.e.
netting yarns, and
not with the manufacture and the properties of netting and
fishing nets.
With knotless netting, however, netting yarn and netting can
hardly be
discussed separately, because the final
netting yarn forming the bars of the
meshes and the joints, which correspond to the knots in knotted
netting,
are manufactured by the same machine in only one
working process. There-
fore the following three main types of knotless
netting are briefly described:
Japanese twisted knotless netting

knotless Raschel netting
braided knotless netting.
Example* are given in Figure IS, but it should be pointed out that each of
these types can be made in various forms of which
oniy one for each type is
shown in the figure. For more information on knotlesi netting consult (12),
NETTING YARNS 47
FIGURE 14. Braided netting yarns of different

construction.
(a) 6-strands, each of 4 single yarns; R 2448 tex.

(b) 8-strands, each of 4 single yarns; R 6496 tex.
(c) 12-strands, each of 2 single yarns; R 3985 tex.
(d) 1 6-strands, each of 5 single yarns;R 9821 tex.
2.1 A 1 Japanese twisted netting

This was invented in 1922. It came, however, into general use only in the
beginning of the fifties, in connection with the introduction of synthetic net
48 NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING OEAR
FIGURE 15. Examples for the construction of bars and joints of knotless netting.
(a) Japanese twisting technique.

(b) Raschel technique.
(c) Braiding technique.
(ace. to v. Brandt, A., 1965)
materials. The bars of the meshes, i.e. the netting yarns, consist of two
components of either single or folded yarns, which are twisted together by
the netting machine. After the desired length of the bars is reached, the two
components of the one netting yarn (bar) are connected with the two
components of the neighbouring yam by interlacing one or several times,
thus forming the joints (see Figure 15a). The more the netting yarns are
connected with each other at the joints, the more the shape of the meshes
will change from the conventional rhombic into a hexagonal form. If the
components of the netting yarn are crossing only once, as shown in Figure
15a, the netting yarns run diagonally through the netting; if they are crossing
twice or more, the netting yarns describe zigzag lines.
2,1.4.2 Raschel netting
This has been known in the textile industry for a long time, e.g. for
window curtains, but it was introduced into fishing only in the fifties* In the
construction of bars and joints much more variations arc possible than with
NETTING YARNS 49
Japanese twisted netting. One example is shown in Figure 15b. In the most
common form, a bar is composed of three threads, of which two are "laid-in"
or "swing" threads which are crossing each other, and one, the looped
thread which runs a more complicated winding path and, therefore, is much
longer than the other two. At regular intervals, the joints are formed by
interlacing the components of two neighbouring bars, thus forming the
meshes. The principle of joining is similar to that of twisted knotless netting,
but the construction of the joints in Raschel netting is more complicated,
as may be seen when comparing a and b in Figure 15. Similar to the Japanese
twisted netting, joints of different construction and of different length can
be made, and also the shape of the mesh becomes hexagonal with the in-
creasing length of the joints. Usually all threads are of the same fibre material
and of the same fineness, but there are also combinations with components
of different fineness, or even of different fibre material. According to Japanese
experiments the combination of PA and PE continuous filament threads
seems to be advantageous for purse seines. For small mesh sizes the output
of Raschel machines is much greater than that of conventional (knotting)
netting machines, but with increasing mesh size a point is reached, where
knotted netting can be produced more economically. This is one of the
reasons why Raschel netting is preferably used in small meshed gears, like
purse seines, and much less in big meshed gears, like large trawl nets.
It is claimed that in comparison with Japanese twisted netting, Raschel
netting is easier to repair.
2.1.4.3 Braided netting
This is a recent development and has not yet been introduced into
fishing on an industrial scale (Figures 15c and 16). The bars (netting yarns)
are real braids consisting of three or four strands, which are braided together
with the strands of the neighbouring bars, thus forming the joint. All threads
run diagonally through the netting.
It is possible that this type of knotless netting, which has given promising
results as a material for bottom trawlnets in deep-sea fishing will prove
superior to the other types of knotless netting (7).
2. 1 .4,4 Properties of knotless netting

The close connection between netting yarns and joint
in knotless netting
excludes a number of the commonly applied
tests to conventional netting
yarns. Furthermore, the basic differences in the constructions of the three
types and the variability within each type of knotless netting do
not allow to
specify the properties of the netting yarns of knotless netting in the same way
as far conventional netting yarns. Therefore only some funeral tftpi^ks are
made here.
Knotted netting has some principal disadvantages tor fishing nets.
Knotting causes a significant decrease of the breaking strength.
The knots
n*o^^
(ace. to Ktust, 1972)
NETTING YARNS 51
protrude and are therefore more subject to abrasion, particularly in the lower
panels of bottom trawlnets. A substantial proportion of the length of the
netting yarn goes into the knots, thus increasing the weight but not the useful
area of the netting. This portion increases with decreasing meshsizc and
increasing diameter of the netting yarn (see below).
The following tabulation gives examples for the influence of the dia-
meter of a netting yarn on the share of the knots in the total mass of knotted
netting, meshsize about 50 mm extended (length of mesh), (54), (75).
Contrary to these unfavourable characteristics of knotted netting, knotless

netting is said to have several essential advantages which are mainly due to
the absence of knots:
for thesame area, knotless netting would be lighter; mass (weight)

and bulk are greatly reduced (sometimes a decrease in mass of about
50% is quoted);
due to the lighter and less bulky netting the gear is easier to handle;
production costs are lower due to the considerable saving of material

and the fact that higher priced folded yarns (netting yarns) are not
required. With small meshsize, the output of the Raschel machines is
very high (e.g. purse seines made of Raschel netting may be 25 to
30 per cent cheaper than with knotted netting);
knotless netting can have a lower towing resistance in water so that
either the towing speed or the gear size can be increased;
the abrasion resistance is higher;

with the same mass of netting per unit area, the me$h breaking
strength of knotless netting is higher;
knotless netting has a more constant and more accurate meshsize;
dirt dc^nc^ adhere so much to knotks netting which is easier cleaned
and more quickly dried. AV^^
For an exact evaluation of the above points, it must be kept in mind that the
term "knotless netting" covers a great variety of constructions which more or
less differ from each other so that a general uniformity of properties cannot
be expected. In some cases the advantages quoted may not be based on
sufficient experience in practical fishing. Some examples may illustrate this
rather confusing situation. In one set of experiments with a certain type of
Raschel netting and corresponding knotted netting no difference in towing
resistance could be observed (12). Another Japanese investigation resulted
in knotless netting having lower towing resistance than knotted netting (49).
Still other experiments with braided knotless netting in trawls resulted in
increased towing speed as compared with knotted netting (7).
In knotted netting the knots are the points of strongest abrasion. How-
ever, comparative tests with knotted and braided knotless netting in bottom
trawls have shown that the degree of abrasion in knotless netting is not
smaller but extends over the whole surface of the netting (7). Similar
experiences may have led the Japanese trawl fishery to use knotless twisted
netting on soft ground and to prefer knotted netting for rough ground and
also for those parts of the trawls which are easily damaged such as lower
wings, lower belly and codend.
There is a similar trend in purse seining (e.g. in Japan and Norway), i.e.
to make the bulk of the net of knotless netting, but use knotted netting for
those parts which are subjected to stronger stress and wear and tear, such as
bunt and selvedges.
The
feasibility of the different kinds of knotless netting for fishing nets is
stillnot thoroughly investigated and, furthermore, new developments of this
netting type can be expected. A final judgement can therefore not be given
yet but it can be stated that knotless netting offers advantages for certain
fishing gear such as trawls and purse seines and that it probably has more
extensive prospects for the future.
2.2 De^mrtion of netting ytrra
The fineness (or coarseness), also known as number or count, is one of

the most important characteristics of netting yarns, the clear and un-
mistakable specification of which is indispensable for purchasing, and as a
basis for testing, evaluation of properties and selection of netting yarns. The
designation of the fineness of a netting yarn commonly refers to either the
mass (weight) per unit length or the length per unit mass of a single yarn.
The tot 1$ * direct system indicating the so-called "linear density" or the
"titre"; thesecond method (length per unit mass) is an indirect system.
Both between mass and length and the
syateiiU cover only the relation
-'netting yarn, but no other details such as the kind of
construction of the
'
-
-
In texiik ajid fishing industries of the different countries numerous

designation or counting systems of the above types based on various measur-
NETTING YARNS 53
ing units have been in use or are, unfortunately, still in use. In addition there
are factory numbering systems which have little or no relation to the structure
of the netting yarn and are therefore useless without additional information.
In order to do away with this confusion and so facilitate international
trade and the exchange of information in techniques and science, the
Technical Committee Textiles of the International Organization for Stan-
dardization (ISO) proposed to introduce worldwide one universal direct
system based on metric units, which should be applicable to all kinds and
types of yarns and replace all the various other traditional numbering
systems. In view of the international nature of fishing, this proposal is of
great significance for fishing net materials and all efforts should be made to
promote its general acceptance.
2.2.1 THE TEX SYSTEM

The numbering system recommended by ISO is called the Tex system
(abbreviation Tt). "It expresses the linear density, that is to say the mass of
a certain length of a textile material. The system is decimal and employs
metric units. The basic unit is the "tex." The linear density in "tex" expresses
the mass in grammes of one kilometre of yarn" (55), (58).
1 tex - 1 g/1 000 m.
The higher the tex value, the heavier the yarn. The number of the yarn is
indicated by the numerical value followed by the term tex, e.g. 23 tex
designates a single yam, of which 1 000 m
have the mass of 23 grammes.
In addition to this tex value the ISO standard provides also for multiples
and sub-multiples of this unit:
millitex (mtex) = 1 milligramme per kilometre

decitex (dtex) = 1 decigramme per kilometre
kilotex (ktex) = 1 kilogramme per kilometre (58).
The tex values mentioned so far refer to the single yarn only. The final
product, the netting yarn, may be designated by the resultant linear density,
indicated by the symbol R, to be put before the numerical value. This Rtex
means the mass in gramme per 1 kilometre of the final product, either as
nominal value (see Table 5), or as actual value if it derives from the actual
determination of the mass per unit length of the specimen,
A
technically complete designation of a netting yarn
for the use of textile
industries is rather complicated because it comprises information about
number of single yarns and folded yarns as well as about amount and
direction of twist of each twisting operation (85). As an example, the
complete designation of a cabled netting twine
would be:
20tcxZ700 X2S400 x3Z200;)R132tex

The figures TOO, 400, 200 indicate the twist in turns per metre <t/ni), StoCt
for fishing such comprehensiveness was considered exaggerated, ISO has

recommended simplifying the designation of netting yarns (53).
2,2.2 TEX SYSTEM FOR NETTING YARNS

In the relevant ISO standard for the designation of netting yarns for
fishing nets (53), the multiple and sub-multiples of the tex unit are omitted,
so that tex is the only unit throughout. Unfortunately, manufacturers of
fibresand yarns frequently ignore this special standard of the fishing industry
and use the unit decitex. (In order to obtain the tex value, the numerical value
of decitex must be divided by 10.)
ISO further recommends two different methods of specifying netting
yarn:
A more complete designation for general usage;
A brief designation for particular cases.
2.2.2.1 Complete designation
The complete designation of a netting yarn would comprise:
tex value of single yarn
number of single yarns in the first fold

number of folded yarns in the finished product
Rtex value of the finished product
of the finished product
final twist direction
The three characteristics are to be joined to each other by the multi-

first
plication sign ( x), while the Rtex- value is to be separated from the preceding
part by a semi-colon (;). The above designation refers to netting yarns in the
most common form of cabled netting twines (Figures. 17 and 8d). Examples
for the designation of this type as well as for other types of twisted netting
yams are:
Netting yarn in the form of a netting twine (Figure 8b)

23 tex x3;R75texZ.
Netting yarn in the form of a cabled netting twine
23 tex x 4 x 3; R 320 tex Z (Figure 8d) or
23 tot x 2 x 3; R 160 tex Z (Figure 17)
Netting yarn in the form of a cabled netting twine of the second
order (we 2.1.2.4)
23te*X4 X3 x3;RlO(texS,
In a simplification (not recommended by ISO) which is frequently used by
and fishermen ê number of single yarns and folded yarns it not
NETTING YARNS 55
quoted separately, but only the total number of single yarns. Accordingly
the examples for cabled netting twines above would read: 23 tex x 12;
R 320 tex Z and 23 tex x 6; R
160 tex Z and the example for the cabled
netting twine of the second order 23 tex x 36; R
1000 tex S.
This abbreviation in quoting the total number of components of netting
yarn has also been used in Tables 5, 10 and 12 of this manual, but it should
once again be stressed that this is not in accordance with ISO standards.
Another deviation from the standard which is also frequently used in
practice is found in Table 5, II, column a: The monofilaments composing the
netting yarns are specified by their diameters only and not by their tex values.
(In Table 13 the single PA monofilaments are specified by both).
2.2.2.2 Brief designation

The brief designation consists in giving the resultant linear density
(Rtex) of the netting yarn only. This value includes the increase in mass per
unit length due to the twisting or braiding process and expresses the mass
of the finished product in grammes per one thousand metres. This value
should not be confounded with the sum of the tex values of the single yarns
composing the netting yarn which sometimes is called "total tex." For the
above example of a cabled netting twine
23 tex x 4 x 3
the product of the single yarn tex x the number of single yarns (total tex)
is 276, but the Rtex is 320, owing to the increase in length and mass of the
single yarns used up by the twisting processes.
In most practical cases the Rtex value given will not express the accurate
mass in grammes of one thousand metres of the finished product, but an
approximate nominal value, as for instance, the Rtex values in Tables 10,
1 1 and 12. For most practical purposes, such as purchase of netting materials,
this nominal Rtex will be sufficient, but for certain specific purposes such as
the detailed analysis of netting yarn construction, the actual Rtex obtained
by exact determination of mass per unit length is required (see Tables 5 and
7). This actual Rtex is greatly dependent on the
amount of twist or on the
tightness of the braid respectively. Several examples of twisted netting yarns
made of PA continuous filaments are listed in Table 8 (85), demonstrating
that actual Rtex values increase with increasing coefficient of twist.
Particular cases where the brief designation of netting yarns apply are:
Heavy twisted netting yarns as used for large trawlnets. They should
be designated by Rtex followed by the symbol for the direction of the final
twist of the finished product:
Examples: R4000 tex Z

R S
5305 tex
R 8350 tex S ^ ^
single yarns cabled netting twine

total number: 6 (cabled yarn )
Rtex Z
FIGURE 17. Example for the complete designation of a netting yarn of the
cabled netting twine type.
As a more detailed designation would prove very complicated, the same

brief designation should be used for all combined twisted netting yarns
consisting of different synthetic fibre components (see 1.2.3).
Since the complicated structure of braids does not allow a more detailed
designation which would at the same time be simple enough for use in
fishery, all types of braided netting yarns (Figure 1 1) fine, heavy or com-
binedshould be designated by their Rtex-values only without any addition.
Examples: R790tex
R4300tex
R 17500 tex
223 CONVENTIONAL SYSTEMS AND TEX SYSTEM

lit this manual only the four most important conventional numbering
systems and their conversion into the tex system will be discussed.
22.34 International titre
Since the introduction of synthetic continuous filaments for netting

international Titre expressed in Denier (abbreviation Td) was
NETTING YARNS 57
TABLE 8 THE INFLUENCE OF THE COEFFICIENT OF FINAL TWIST (a) ON THE RESULTANT
TEX VALUES (ACTUAL RTEX) OF PA CONTINUOUS FILAMENT NETTING YARNS
total tex = product of single yarn tex x number of single yarns; for coefficient of twist
see 2.1. 1.9.
and is still widely used. For instance, the term 210 den. indicating one very
common type of single yarn made of nylon is probably known to all fisher-
men around the world. The basic unit "Denier" of this direct system indi-
cates the weight ingrammes per 9,000 metres of a filament or single yarn.
The conversion formula is:
tex = 0.111 xTd
Example: 210 den = 23 tex (see also Table 9).
Netmakers and fishermen often still use the single yarn number of 210 den,
wrong sense. For instance designations such as
in the
210/48, 210/60 or 210/160
are out of date, written in the wrong way and misleading. The international
titre is a direct system like the tex system, and, therefore, the single yam
litre (210) and the number of single yams must be joined by the aultipJica-
tion sign (x) and not separated from each other by an oblique line (/),
which may be mistaken for a division sign. These designations are misleading
in column a of TaWe 5)
(such as the descriptions of the samples 5 to 13
became heavier PA netting yarns are not composed of safcfi* grîmm^
of fine of the titre 210 den., but of a smaller number of l*e*vi*r
single yarns
58 NETTING MATERIALS FOR FHHINO GEAR
single yarns with higher litre, which usually are a multiple of 210 den.
(= 23 In column d of Table 5 examples of the real structure of PA
tex).
netting yarns are given showing single yarns of
92 tex= Td 840 den. (210 x 4)

115 tex = Td 1050 den. (210 x 5)
138 tex = Td 1260 den. (210 x 6)
552 tex = Td 5040 den. (210 x 24)
2.2.3.2 Metric number
The metric number system (Nm) is an indirect system. The numerical

value of Nm
indicates the length of a single yarn in metre per mass of one
kilogramme. The conversion formula into the tex system is:
1000
tex =
Nm
Example: Nm 20 = 50 tex (see also column 2, Table 9).
2.2.3.3 English cotton count
The English cotton count (Nec ) is also an indirect system. Its unit of length
is840 yards (one hank), the unit of mass is 1 English pound (Ib). For instance,
Nec20, indicates a single yarn of 20 x 840 = 16 800 yds per 1 pound. The
conversion formula into the tex system is:
590.5
tex = -=r=
Nec
Example: Nec20 = 30 tex (see also column 3, Table 9).
2.2.3.4 Runnage
The runnagc has been and still is generally used in addition to other
numbering systems such as metric number or English count. It is mostly
expressed in metres per one kilogramme (m/kg) or yards per one pound
(yds/Ib). The runnagc in m/kg is the reciprocal of Rtex. While the other
above-mentkwjed systems refer to the single yarns, the runnage refers to the
finished product (netting yarn),
Ttw conversion formula into the tex system is:
NETTING YARNS 59
TABLE 9 EXAMPLES FOR THE CONVERSION FROM SOME CONVENTIONAL NUMBER SYSTEMS
INTO THE TEX SYSTEM
Td = Mm =
International titre in denier; Metric number; Nec :
English cotton count;

m/kg = Runnage in metres per one kilogramme,
Columns 1, 2 and 3 give the designations for most of the single yarns commonly used for
netting yarns. Column 4 contains only a limited selection of the many sizes of netting
yarns, i.e. of the final products.
2.3 Properties of netting yarns
Such properties which are predominantly based on the characteristics of

the fibre material, e.g. endurance in water, resistance against weathering,
as well as structural
sinking speed, weight in water, melting point (1.2.5),
characteristics such as fineness, amount of twist and tightness of braids
have already been discussed The following description of the most
(2.1.2)
of netting yarns is linked to this earfier to-
important physical properties
formation and further elaborates with regard to the final products, fit %
-
complemented by brief references to testing methods.
2.3.1 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
(Properties of netting yarns and testing methods.) The following defini-

tions of terms are considered essential for proper understanding. Although
not all of them are used in this manual, the additional ones may be found
useful for studying other literature on the subject.
2.3. 1 . 1 Standard atmosphere

The standard temperate atmosphere for testing is the atmosphere
specified for physical tests in dry condition of textile materials. It requires a
relative humidity of 65 percent 2 percent and a temperature of 20C2C.
In tropical and sub-tropical countries an alternative temperature of 27C
2Cis admissible (64), (129).
2.3.1.2 Tensile test
This is a test to measure the resistance of a material to the force tending

to stretch the specimen in one direction. It is performed by a special tensile
testing machine (2).
2.3.1 .3 Tensile stress or tensile strength
(Both terms are used in technical literature, but not ever with equal
definition.)
(a) General: The resistance to deformation developed in a fibre, a yarn,
a netting yarn or a rope, subjected to tension in one direction, up to the
breaking point or any other point before rupture. The term is also used for
distinction from deformation by other forces as torsion, compression or
shear (2).
(b) The force per unit cross-sectional area of the unstrained specimen
2
expressed in kgf/mm (also termed true tensile strength). Because of the often
irregular shapes of textile fibres and the structure of the twisted and braided
netting yarns, it is very difficult, if not impossible, to determine the cross-
sectional area of the netting yarns. Therefore, for comparing the strengths
of different kinds of netting yarns, tenacity or breaking length should be
used (129, 2, 25, 78).
(c) The term "tensile strength" is also used with the same definition as
"breaking strength".
2.3.1.4 Tenacity
Breaking tenacity is the tensile stress (force) per unit linear density of the
unstrained specimen. U is calculated from the breaking strength and the
linear density. Expressed in gramme-force per lex (gf/tex) the numerical
values ase equivalent to the values of the breaking length in kilometer (see
NETTING YARNS 61
2.3. 1 .5 Breaking strength or breaking load
Breaking strength (also breaking load) is the maximum force applied to

a specimen in a tensile test carried to rupture. It is commonly expressed in
kilogramme-force (kgf). (In ISO standards both terms are used: "breaking
strength" and "breaking load". In this Manual preference is given to
"strength".) The breaking strength may be tested as dry yarn breaking
strength, wet yarn breaking strength, dry knot breaking strength, and wet
knot breaking strength (62), (68).
2.3.1.6 SI units offorce

In new
international standards (ISO) the units are expressed in the
International Unit System (SI). The units of force are, e.g., newton (N),
decanewton (daN), or centinewton (cN).
1 kgf = 0.98 daN; 1 daN = 1.02 kgf.
For breaking strength decanewton (daN) is preferably used. The numerical
values in daN will be approximately 2 % lower than the values in kgf.
2.3. 1 .7 Knot breaking strength
This is the maximum force applied to a knotted specimen in a tensile test

carried to rupture (62).
2.3. 1 .8 Mesh breaking strength
This is the maximum force applied to a mesh, taken from a netting, in a

tensile test, until one of the knots or joints breaks (63).
2.3. 1 .9 Load at rupture
This is the final force at the moment the specimen or the first component
of the specimen breaks, when or after the breaking strength has been reached.
The load at rupture is usually, but not always, identical with the breaking
strength (62).
2.3. 1.10 Breaking length

This the calculated length of a specimen, the mass of which is equal
is
breaking strength. Expressed in kilometres (km) it

to its is numerically
equivalent to the tenacity in gf/tex (62), (2), (129).
2.3. LI 1 Nominal gauge length
This the length of a specimen under specified pre-tension. fa tensifc

is
tests, for example, this length is measured from nip

to nip of tto jaws of the
holding devices of the tasting machine in the starting posftkm W*

2.3.1.12 Prehension
This is the relatively low tension applied to straighten the specimen and
to establish the nominal gauge length. All measurements of length or
elongation should be carried out under a well-defined pre-tension (90).
2.3. 1 . 1 3 Time-to-break
This is the period measured in seconds from the moment a (generally

increasing) tension is applied to a specimen until the breaking strength is
reached (62), (68).
2.3.1.14 Extensibility
This is the property of a material to undergo extension or elongation

under the influence of a force (2).
2.3. 1.15 Elongation (Extension)
This the increase in length of a specimen during a tensile test (2.3.1.2)

is
expressed of length, e.g. millimetres or centimetres (2). Permanent

in units
(or irreversible) elongation is the part of the total increase in length which
remains after the removal of stress. Elastic (or reversible) elongation is the
part of the total increase in length which is annulled again, either immediately
or after a longer period of removal of stress (129).
2.3. 1 . 1 6 Elongation percent
This the increase in length of a specimen expressed in percentage of

is
the nominal gauge length (68), (90), (68a).
2.3.1.17 Elongation at the half knot breaking strength
This is the increase in length of a specimen at the half knot breaking

strength (90), (68a).
2.3.1.18 Load-elongation curve

This a graphical representation, showing the relationship between the
is
change dimension of the specimen in a tensile test in the direction of the

in
applied stress, and the magnitude of the applied stress (90).
23. 1 19 . Tenstie hysteresis curve
This is a complex load-elongation curve, obtained from a specimen

which is subjected to a certain tension which is less than the breaking strength,
and then allowed to relax without tension (2).
2,3.1,20 Elasticity
This i* the property of a material by virtue of which it tends to recover

it* original length and shape after removal of the stress causing elongation (2).
NETTING YARNS 63
2.3.1.21 Toughness
This is the property by which a material can absorb work. Breaking
toughness is the actual work per unit mass of the specimen which is required
to break it. A quantitative measurement of the work can be obtained by
determining the area delineated by the respective load-elongation curve
(see 2.3.1.18), (2), (45), (25).
2.3. 1 .22 Flexural stiffness
This is the resistance of a specimen to lateral or bending deformation.

It may also be defined as the force required to cause a unit of bending
deflection (18).
2.3. 1 .23 Abrasion resistance
This is the resistance of a material or a specimen to wear of the whole or

any part of it when rubbed against a surface. For testing it may be defined as
the ability of a material to withstand abrasion under defined testing condi-
tions, which should be as similar as possible to the mechanical wear in
practical use (2), (18).
2.3.1.24 Shrinkage
Shrinkage (shrink) is the reduction in length of a specimen induced by

wetting or other treatment, e.g. setting. (Setting is the process of stabilizing
fibre material and netting yarns, generally by means of moist or dry heat)
(129).
2.3.1.25 Knot stability
This the ability of the knots in the netting to retain their original form
is
by resisting the inversion into another form without slip and also the loosen-
ing with resulting slip but without inversion (18).
2.3.2 TESTING OF NETTING YARNS

There no doubt that fishermen should have a good knowledge of the
is
properties of net materials in order to be able to select the most suitable

netting yarn for the specific requirements
of different fishing gear. The
numerical values by which these properties are mostly specified are detra>
mined by tests carried out by the laboratories of fibre and netting yam
manufacturers, by special (public) testing institutions or by
scientific textile
or fishery institutes. Since the testing results depend to a certain extent on the
have to be standardized to obtain
testing methods and instruments, these
comparable results not only within one country but also on an international
level. As
netting yarns differ in their construction and in the way they are
used from the material for most other textiles, and as the tests and the testing
conditions should be as similar as possible to working conditions, ISO has
started to work out specific standards for the testing of netting yarns and
netting for fishery. So far the following methods have been standardized :
Determination of breaking load (strength) and knot breaking load of netting

yarns (62), Determination of mesh breaking load of netting (63), Determin-
ation of change in length after immersion in water (66), and Determination
of elongation of netting yarns (at half the knot breaking load) (68).
As there is no need for fishermen to know in detail the sometimes compli-
cated instruments and methods for testing, the following selective description
is meant to give not more than a general idea on how the most important
properties are being determined.
2.3.2.1 .
Breaking strength (also breaking load)
The breaking strength determined by a special tensile testing machine

is
(dynamometer) which stretches the test sample (netting yarn) by applying an
increasing force until it breaks. The great number of different tensile testing
machines used in the various countries can be classified into three main types :
Machines working with constant-rate-of-specimen-elongation ;
machines working with constant-rate-of-load, and

machines working with constant-rate-of-traverse, (62).
The known and rather common pendulum machines belong to the latter
well
type. The more modern but expensive electronic recording dynamometers
are working with constant rate of elongation and are characterized by high
accuracy and versatile applicability. One example of this type is shown in
Figure 18, which gives some more details.
For testing knot breaking strength one of the weaver's knots (English
knots) (Figures 19a and b) should be tied in the netting yarn samples. These
are the only knots permitted by the ISO standard because they are most
common in fishing nets. There is, however, no strong reason why other
kinds of knots used in netting for fishing should not also be permitted for
testing, e.g. the square or reef knot (Japanese netting) or the double weaver's
knot (62), (89),
For determining the mesh breaking strength, the arrangement shown in
Figure 19c should be mod. His test requires that none of the loose ends of
the mesh slip hi the knots. If this cannot be avoided then the knot breaking
strength test alone should be employed* It has then to be taken into account
that the results of knot breaking strength tests and mesh breaking strength
tetts are not comparable and that the knot breaking strength tests always
NETTING YARNS 65
FIGURE 18. Tensile testing machine with electronic force determination.

M = box of the electric motor driving the machine.
LC = load
cell, available with various
H = holding devices (damping heads, measuring ranges.
damps, grips). In the machine shown the
upper holding device is moved at constant speed. The force is measured
by the electronic load cell.
N netting yarn to be tested.
Sc= circular indicator scale (dial) with main pointer and maximum pointer
which remains at maximum load*
O = graph recorder stationary
6
with graph paper for recording load-elongation curve*
IMitAjA. W>1rtW4
a ir
* swncn
-.1. .B
ooaru.
i
^
"
HdghtVth machine about 240 cm.

2.3.2.2 Elongation
The determination of the change of length of a netting yarn caused by
the application of a stressing force is also carried out with a tensile testing
machine (68a). The netting yarn sample without knot of a certain length is
fastened to the clamps of the machine, and extended under increasing force
until half of its respective knot breaking strength is reached. For elongation
tests, preference should be given to machines with constant rate of elongation
and equipped with electronic force meter and also autographic recorder for
the load-elongation curve. Such type of machine is indispensable for more
sophisticated elongation property tests such as elongation by permanent
loading, at repeated loading and unloading (hysteresis effect) and deter-
mination of total elongation in relation to elastic and permanent elongation
under different conditions (90). A simple method of testing the elasticity
will be described hereafter.
FIGURE 19.-(a) and (b) The two forms of the weaver's knot (English knot)
recommended by ISO for testing the knot breaking strength of netting yarns,
(c) Arrangement for testing the mesh breaking strength. The clamps of the
tensile testing machine are replaced by pins of stainless material, over which the
mesh b mounted.
2.3*2.3 Knot Mobility
(No international standard yet) One possibility for testing this property
isto fasten only three of the four ends of the two netting yarns forming the
kaot in the clamps of a tensile testing machine as is shown in Figure 20.
NETTING YARNS 67
FIGURE 20. One possibility of testing

the knot stability. Only three of the four
ends of the weaver's knot are fastened in
I I the clamps.
Knots which have not under increasing force. The

sufficient stability will slip
amount of the force at which slipping occurs as a measure of knot-
may serve
slip resistance. Slippage can be either continuous or interrupted as can be
observed very well when a load-elongation curve is recorded during testing.
Unlike a normal elongation curve, the curve of a slipping knot shows
irregularities (spikes or teeth, see Figure 21).
Another similar test would be to stretch a mesh mounted over the holding
devices which are used for mesh breaking strength test (see Figure 19c), There
are several other possibilities of testing knot stability which do not need to
be discussed here.
10 tt 12 IJ 14 tS 1$ r? t * 20 2) 22 2) 24
FIGURE 21 .Load-elongation curve of a slipping weaver'* knot la this case the

knotstarts to slip at a certain force and continues slipping In a jerking manner
with increasing force.
6
FIGURE 22. Apparatus for measuring the length of netting yarn, also used for
determining the change of length after immersion in water. The pre-tension
during measuring should correspond to the weight of 250m of the netting yarn
to be tested.
(ace. to Klust, 1968)
2.3.2 A Change of length in water
The apparatus for measuring the length of netting yarn (Figure 22) should
be used. It should allow a measuring length of at least 100 cm and the free
application of a fixed pretension. The netting yarn sample with a marked
length of about 100 cm is measured on the apparatus first in dry condition
and then, after immersion in water for a fixed time, in wet condition (66).
This apparatus is also convenient for measurements of lengths for other
purposes, e.g. determination of the fineness of netting yarn.
2.3.2.5 Diameter
(No international standard yet) The diameter can be determined by

means of a special gauge (Figure 23). Results of sufficient accuracy for
practical use are obtained with netting yarns of circular cross-section, but
not with very soft netting yarns (as wet netting yarns made of PA
staple
fibre) or normally braided netting yarns without or with only a small core
(74). The diameter can be determined more accurately by optical measure-
ment with a calibrate^ micrometer scale and a normal microscope. The
netting yarn sample is placed without any tension on the micrometer under
the microscope objective and the diameter read directly from the micrometer
calc. Other methods for measuring the diameter are described in (18).
NETTING YARNS
FIGURE 23. Gauge for measuring the diameter of

netting yarns.
The specimen is placed between the two circular
flat metal plates AI and AI- By pressing lightly on
key B the pointer is actuated and indicates the
diameter on the scale to the nearest 1/100 mm.
Height of the apparatus about 13 cm.
2.3.2.6 Flexural stiffness
Figure 24 illustrates a non-standardized testing method. It is applicable

to netting yarnsmade of continuous filaments or staple fibres, but the results
may become somewhat inaccurate when testing netting yarns of great
stiffness, e.g. heavy netting yams made of split fibres or of wire-like mono-
filaments. (Other methods are described in (IS).)
FIGURE 24. Apparatus for measuring

the flexural stiffness of netting yarns.
A piece of netting yarn 20 cm in length
is fixed inthe metal clamp 3 in such a
way that forms a loop. A light plastic
it
hooked into the loop. Water
vessel 2 is
isdropped from a burette into the vessel
until the widest opening of the loop
A-B has decreased to 5 mm. The weight
of the vessel plus the quantity of water
(cubic centimetres) give the measure in
grains of the nexural stniness (schema-
Height of the apparatus about 95 cm.

(ace, to v. Brandt, 9a)
NETTING YARNS 71
2.3.2.7 Abrasion resistance
Due to the complex and varying fishing conditions, it is virtually im-

possible to simulate in laboratory tests the real wear and tear fishing nets are
subjected to during fishing. Many methods and devices for testing the abra-
sion resistance of textiles have been developed. Since they differ in important
testing conditions such as the type of the abrasive material, e.g. shot-blasted
Dural cylinder, hardened carbide steel bar, oil-stone, carborundum bar,
emery paper, and the pressure or stress applied to the specimen during
testing, the results are not comparable. Unfortunately, it is not possible to
decide (nor generally agree) which of the proposed methods is the best. A
more recent type of testing machine (Figure 25) comes relatively close to the
fishing conditions as it allows the testing of knots under water.
The measure for the abrasion resistance is the remaining knot breaking
strength of the specimen after chafing by a certain number of double frictions.
Figure 25 gives full details of this testing machine and method.
2.3.3 BREAKING STRENGTH AND KNOT BREAKING STRENGTH OF NETTING YARN

Tables 10 to 20 give a rather comprehensive review of the fineness
(number), the diameter, the dry breaking strength (straight) and the wet knot
breaking strength of netting yarns made of polyamide (PA) continuous
filament, twisted and braided, polyamide (PA) staple fibre, polyester (PES)
continuous filament, polypropylene (PP) continuous filament, twisted and
braided, polypropylene (PP) split fibre, polyethylene (PE) wire, twisted and
braided, polyvinyl alcohol (PVAA) staple fibre and of single polyamide (PA)
monofilaments. Netting yarns made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and poly-
vinylidene chloride (PVD) are not represented because they are not of
importance for most fishing countries. For instance, in Europe only PA, PE,
PP and PES are used for fishing nets. The size range listed in Tables 10 to
20 covers the most common netting yarns so that the data may serve as a
useful guide for selecting suitable material for any type of fishing net.
When comparing the values of breaking strength tests of a netting yarn,
dry, straight (unknottedj, with those of the same netting yarn, wet, knotted,
it must be kept in mind that according to ISO standard (62) the breaking
strength wet knotted is actually tested with two netting yarns while the dry,
straight (unknotted) breaking strength refers to one netting yarn only. Conse-
quently the test values for wet, knotted breaking strength are higher in spite
of the actual reduction of breaking strength of the netting yarn by knot and
the two test values are not directly comparable. For more realistic comparison
the test values for wet knotted may be divided by two and these half values
have therefore been added in brackets in the last column of Tables 10 to 20.
2.3.3,1 Fineness
The fineness of the netting yarns in these tables is specified by the resultant
tex (fctex g/lOOOm) and by the runnage in m/kg. These values fdftr to
72 NETTING MATERIALS POT. FISHING GEAR
FIGURE 25. Apparatus for testing the abrasion resistance.

MPE = Small cupboard (erecting table) containing the drive motor, the com-
pressed air pump and the electric switching elements.
W Weights which compensate the weight of the tank with water and exert a
pressure on the specimen during testing.
Gear with three drive pulleys of different size for selecting the required
abrasion speed.
S Switches for compressed air pump and drive motor.
C 2 Counters, one for setting the total number of double frictions at
which testing is to be finished, and the other one for the continuous
counting of the number of abrasion movements.
WT Metal tank with water (for testing the wet abrasion resistance). The
tank, to the bottom of which the emery paper is attached, is moving
back and forth in one direction with a certain speed and repetition rate.
EP Emery paper of special graining.
CP Pneumatic ctampmg device with knotted netting yarn sample (K). The
damping device Is attached to a swivelling arm (SA) which is turned
cover to u idft during testing to such a way that the specimen touches the
emety paper in the tank. The damping device with the specimen can also
perform reciprocating motions but in opposite direction to the motions
of the tank containing the abrasive paper. The motion of the clamping
device can be stopped if charing in only one direction is desired.
, valve id coasting tube of the compre^
'
tviiibk.)
Width o?the ar*fc aboot 90cm*
NETTING YARNS 73
TABLE 10. TWISTED NETTING YARNS MADE OF POLYAMIDE (PA) CONTINUOUS FILAMENTS
With regard to the description in column "a" of heavier netting yarns, see 2.2.3.1 and
Table 5.
normal medium twist or tightness of braid respectively. Greater deviations

from these values may occur due to differences in the fineness and/or con-
struction of the single yarns or to additional treatment of the final products.
The figures in Table 10 are particularly reliable for netting yarns of PA
continuous fiUunent with single yarns of 23 tex (= 210 denier) or a multiple
of it (e.g. 1 to 19). Common single yarns for PP continuous filament
Ncwu
netting have' 21 tex (
yams 190 denier) and for PES continuous filament
netting yarns 28 tex ( 250 denier) (Tables 14 and 15).
The complicated process for manufacturing fine continuous filaments
to a small number of
(muhifilarnents) has in general restricted this product
and split fibres, of PE and PP,
big chemical works. Moaofilaments especially
TABLE 12. TWISTED NETTING YARNS MADE OF POLYAMIDE (PA) STAPLE FIBRES
NETTING YARNS 75
require much less complicated and expensive processes and equipment and
are therefore produced by a very large number of smaller factories. Conse-
quently the continuous filament materials produced by a few are much more
uniform than the monofilaments and split fibres of PE and PP produced by
many. With the latter, finenessand other properties of single yarns and
finished netting yarns may vary from manufacturer to manufacturer due to
differences in factors such as quality of the basic substance, pigments in-
corporated into the polymer for spin-dyeing (see 1.2.5.2), method and
machinery for extrusion, degree of drawing (stretching) the material during
manufacture, size and form of the cross-section of monofilaments or thickness
and width of the film tapes and, finally, details in the construction of the
finalproduct.
Ithas to be mentioned that Rtex and runnage in Tables 10 to 20 are
rounded off average values and, therefore, the multiplication of Rtex by the
corresponding manage does not always exactly give the figure 1 000000.
NETTING MATERIALS FOR HOMING GEAR
TABLE 14. TWISTED NETTING YARNS MADE OF POLYESTER (PES) CONTINUOUS FILAMENTS
With regard to the description in column "a" of heavier netting yarns see 2.2.3.1 and
Table 5.
2.3.3.2 Breaking strength of straight netting yarns

In the majority of tables published by netting manufacturers usually the
dry breaking strength of straight (unknotted) netting yarns is given. This
property is therefore also listed in Tables 10 to 20, although netting yarns
in fishing nets are not straight but tied in knots or other joints, and the netting
is operated in water and not in dry condition. Dry breaking strength of
straight netting yarns is therefore of rather limited significance in the case of

fishing nets, particularly as the strength of knots or joints is always con-
siderably below the strength of the straight netting yarn.
For ropes made of vegetable and synthetic fibres international standards
(ISO) already exist from which the purchaser may take mass, breaking
strength and construction data for ropes of all practical diameters (56), (57),
(59), (60), (67). It is to be hoped that these ISO standards will lead to more
uniformity of constructions and properties of ropes, thus facilitating selection.
For netting yarns such international standards do not exist yet. The
values of breaking strength and knot breaking strength given in Tables 10
to 20 are therefore not standardized requirements but rounded off average
values based on tests of a large number of netting yarns of good quality from
various countries and manufacturer*. Since they are average and not peak
values it i* possible that some materials will be found better, but probably,
NETTING YARNS 77
TABLE 15. TWISTED NETTING YARNS MADE OF POLYPROPYLENE (PP) CONTINUOUS FILAMENTS
TABLE 16. BRAIDED NETTING YARNS MADE OF POLYPROPYLENE (PP) CONTINUOUS FILAMENTS
TABLE 17. TWISTED NETTING YARNS MADE OF POLYPROPYLENE (PP) SPLIT FIBRES
TABLE 18. TWISTED NETTING YARNS MADE OF FOLDED POLYETHYLENE (PE) MONOFILAMENTS
(WIRES)
NETTING YARNS 79
TABLE 19. BRAIDED NETTING YARNS MADE OF FOLDED POLYETHYLENE (PE) MONQFILAMENTS
(WIRES) FOR HEAVY TRAWLNETS
more frequently, actual material will not reach these values, particularly as
regards heavy netting yarns.
PVAA material is represented here only as staple fibre netting yarns
(Table 20) because it is mainly used in this form and almost exclusively in
the Japanese fishery. A
recent trend is that PVAA staple fibre is being
replaced by continuous filament which has a considerably higher breaking
strength. With the same kind of fibre material netting yarns of continuous
filament are always stronger than those of staple fibre.
TABLE 20. TWISTED NETTING YARNS MADE OF POLYVINYL ALCOHOL (PVAA) STAPLE FIBRES
B CDC b
AS ABA
C D C D
FIGURE 26. Types of knots:

(a) Overhand knots, sometimes used for testing the knot breaking strength (not
used for making netting).
(b) Weaver's knots (English knots. Sheet Bends) are the most common knots for
making netting. They should therefore be used for testing the knot breaking
strength (sec also Figures 19a and b)*
(c) Reef knots (Square knots) used in Japan for making netting.
(d) Double Weaver's knots used for netting in order to prevent knot slippage (61).
Netting yams made of PVC and PVD (Saran), which are not listed in the
tables have a stilllower breaking strength than PVAA netting yarns. PVC,
which was utilized mainly because of its low price, is gradually disappearing
froan fisheries. It is being replaced mainly by PE mid PP which probably are
'
the cheapest fibres and have also better properties than PVC.
NETTING YARNS 81
- dirtct ion
FIGURE 27. Direction in knotted net-

ting.
T-direction (Twinewise or transverse
direction) the direction parallel to the
is
general course of the netting yarn.

N-direction (Normal direction) is the
direction at right angles to the general
course of the netting yarn.
(ace. to ISO Standard 1974 (54))
PVD (Saran) is mainly used in mixed netting yarns, i.e. in combination

with other materials. Such netting yarns of dissimilar components mostly
consist of two kinds of fibres (see end of 1.2.3) and are meant to combine
the desirable properties of both materials. For instance, mixed nylon (PA)
and Saran (PVD) netting yarns combine the high breaking strength of nylon
with the high specific gravity of Saran resulting in an end product of reasqn-
able strength and high mass (sinking speed) which is of advantage e.g. for
purse seines and deep sea gillnets. The breaking strength of such combined
netting yarns lies in general between that of their components and depends
on the share of each kind of fibre in the final product
In Japan more than ten different mixed netting yarns are produced
representing about 5 percent of the total production of all synthetic nets (70).
2.3.3.3 Weaver's knot breaking strength
The values of the wet knot breaking strength in Tables 10 to 20 have been
obtained by tests with the weaver's knot (Figures 19a and b and 26b). The
two pieces of netting yarn in this knot each form a loop of which the simpler
one is hatched in Figures 19a and b and indicated by AB in Figure 26b. The
other somewhat more complicated loop is white in Figures 19a and b and
indicated by CD in Figure 26b. For the knot breaking strength tests presented
in Tables 10 to 20 the ends A and B of the knot were fixed in one clamp
of the tensile testing machine and the ends C and D in the other clamp.
This testing arrangement is considered to be particularly appropriate because
it is closest to themost common position of the netting yarn and the knots
in fishing nets where the meshes are subjected to the main stress in N (normal)-
direction (Figure 27).
The performance of netting in a fishing gear does not only depend on the
strength of the netting yarn it is made of, but just as much on the construction
of the gear. Fishing gear which is subject to considerable stretch or pressure,
such as trawlnets or river stow nets, should be constructed in such a manner
that the stress is equally distributed over the largest possible netting area.
If in a badly constructed net a large share of the total stress is concentrated
PVA (A I staple
PE. monof.
PR split fibre
PR contfll, mort than R 500 tx
PP, cont.fiU under R 500 tex
PES, cont fii.
PA. single monof, mort than 250 ttx

PA. sinoU monof, undr 250 Ux
PA, stapU
PA, cont. fit, mof+than R 4000 tx I i
PA. cant, fit, R 1000 ttx to R 4000 ttx I
PA. com tit.. undtr R I OOP ttx
f
dry, without knot
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 ISO

per c*nt.
Ftouw28.~4lel*tkKh^
iad wot, knotted of different land* of netting yam.
(btock)
e judfnit tee 2.3.3 ad Tfcfeta ID to 20.
NETTING YARNS 83
on a few meshes only (e.g. bosom quarters), they will break even when
made of strong netting yarn.
The breaking strength of the weaver's knot tested in T (twinewisc or
transverse-direction (Figure 27) by fixing the ends and A C
in one clamp
and the ends B and D
in the other clamp of a tensile tester (Figure 26b) will
mostly, but not always, be lower than in N-direction.
The different kinds of netting yarns react differently to knotting and
wetting. Also for this reason wet knot breaking strength tests are much more
significant for fishing gear than dry, straight (unknotted) breaking strength
tests. In Figure 28 the relationship between the dry, straight breaking strength
and the wet knotted breaking strength of netting yarns of different material
demonstrates the combined influences of knotting and of water. With PA
and PP continuous filament netting yarns and with single PA monofilaments
the loss in breaking strength by knotting depends somewhat on the fineness
(Rtex) of the netting yarn: the finer the netting yarn the lower the loss. The
high loss in strength with PVA(A) netting yarn is caused not only by knotting
but also by the effect of water. PE folded monofilament (wire) netting yarns
have a relatively low dry breaking strength, but this disadvantage is partially
compensated by the fact that they are not affected by water and that their
loss in strength by knotting is lower and this material therefore comes out
best (140 percent) in this comparative test (see 2.3.3).
For practical purposes netting yarns should be selected according to the
absolute values of wet knot breaking strength listed in Tables 10 to 20. The
different reactions of the various net materials to knotting and wetting can
then be ignored.
In the codends of trawlnets and also in the selvedges of some other
fishing gears netting braided of double netting yarn is frequently used. An
example for the resulting knot is shown in Figure 33. This doubling of
netting yarn will mostly not give double the knot breaking strength. Examples
for some kinds of netting yarn are given in Table 21.
TABLE 21. BREAKING STRENGTH WET KNOTTED OF DOUBLE NETTING YARNS IN PERCENTAGE
OF SINGLE NETTING YARN (100%)
Kinds of netting yam Breaking strength, wet, knotted

Fibre Rtex %
The edges of netting in fishing gear are also frequently strengthened by

meshes made of stronger netting yarn. The width of such selvedges varies
widely according to the purpose and they may be found on the lower edge
only, on both lower and upper edge, or all around a certain piece of netting.
In machine-manufactured netting sheets netting yarns with only small
differences in thickness can be directly combined during the braiding process.
Also complex selvedges consisting of several strips with increasing thickness
selvedge
FIGURE 29. Netting with selvedge made of
thicker netting yam. The row of knots, marked by
man circka and by an arrow, consists of "mixed'*
knots which are made of one fine and one thicker
netting yam.
NETTING YARNS 85
of netting yarn from the inside outwards can be machine braided. For
instance, some types of big trap nets have the bulk of the netting made of
nylon 23tex x 18 and a selvedge braided simultaneously consisting of three
each three meshes deep. The strips are of decreasing twine size, e.g.
strips,
23tex x 27, 23tex x 24 and 23tex x 21. Icelandic herring purse seines have
such selvedges of even up to 10 strips of different netting yarn size, e.g.
from 23tex x 144 down to 23tex x 15 (131).
Between strips of different netting yarn size there is one row of "mixed"
knots which are tied from a finer and a thicker netting yarn (Figure 29).
Table 22 gives examples for the knot breaking strength of such knots con-
sisting of two different netting yarn sizes in percentage of the knot breaking
strength of the finer netting yarn. From this the following conclusions can
be drawn:
If two netting yarns of different fineness are combined in a weaver's
knot, the breaking strength of this "mixed" knot is always larger than
that of the finer of the two netting yarns only.
Mixed weaver's knots, the simple loop (AB) of which is made of the
thinner netting yarn and the more complicated loop (CD) of the
thicker one, are stronger than knots where AB consists of the thicker
and CD of the thinner netting yarn.
The greater the differences in the fineness of the two netting yarns,
the greater the increase in the knot breaking strength, as compared
to that of the finer netting yarn (see Table 22, groups 6, 8, 9 and 10).
The mesh breaking strength ofknotted netting which can be deter-

all
mined only on meshes with non-slipping knots (see 2.3.2.1 and Figure 19c)
is 10 to 25 percent lower than the knot breaking strength (tested as shown
in Figures 19a and b) because the strength of a mesh is determined by the

weakest of its four knots.
2.3.3.4 Other knots

Of other knots used for fish netting the reef knot or square knot is used
only in Japan (Figure 26c).
The single weaver's knot is the most common knot type for fishing nets.
With netting yarn of a rough surface (vegetable fibres, synthetic staple
fibres,and split fibres), this knot will pro vide sufficient knot stability (resistance
to slippage). Netting yarns made of continuous filaments and monofilaments
have a very smooth surface, especially when twisted, and the knots therefore
tend to dip which leads to meshes of unstable and unequal shape and size.
This is most undesirable for gillnets where the catch depends on a certain
"opening of mesh" (54) (see Figure 59). Knot stability is also necessary for
many other gears such as trawls to maintain the correct hanging of netting
to lines, a particular designed shape and the proper distribution of the
stress in the netting to prevent local overloading which may lead to damage.
TABLE 22. BREAKING STRENGTH OF WEAVER'S KNOTS MADE OF NETTING YARNS OF DIFFERENT
FINENESS (89)
Regarding the terms "Loop AB" and "Loop CD'* see Figure 26b. The first example in each
group gives the knot breaking strength of the finest netting yarn of the group (100%).
Fibre Loop AB Loop CD Knot breaking strength

in percent
Finally,knot slippage may cause additional wear of the netting yarns rubbing
against each other leading to reduced lifetime.
For these reasons manufacturers try to improve the resistance against
knot slippage either ty suitable treatment of the netting or by using the
dofcbte weaver's knot (Figure 26d). This knot, which can be machine braided,
grvw the netting sufficient toot stability even with difficult material such
NETTING YARNS 87
as thick monofilaments. Compared to the normal single weaver's knot, the

double weaver's knot has the disadvantage of larger weight and bulkiness.
Some examples showing the differences of the knot weights (not of the
weight of the netting!) are given below:
An example for the different dimensions of the two types of knot is given
in Figure 30. With thin netting yarn and larger mesh size the differences in
mass and size of the knots will be of little significance for the netting and
can be ignored, but with increasing diameter of netting yarn and decreasing
meshsize, mass and bulk of the knots may need to be considered. If it is
at all possible to obtain sufficient knot stability by treatment of the netting,
the single weaver's knot should be given preference to the double knot. For
FIGURE 30. Single weaver's knot and double weaver's knot

made of the same netting yarn.
g8 NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING GEAR
fine gillncts made of transparent PA single monofilaments, which owe their

high catching efficiency to their relative invisibility in water, the single knot
is less visible than the double knot.
In general, the breaking strength of a knot decreases with the angle into
which the loops of the netting yarns are forced by the knot and it increases
with the number of loops in the knot. Accordingly, the overhand knot and
the reef knot have a somewhat lower breaking strength than the single
weaver's knot and the double weaver's knot is the strongest.
2.3.4 DIAMETER, RTEX, AND KNOT BREAKING STRENGTH

Thevalues of diameter given in Tables 10 to 20 refer only to twisted
netting yarns. In most cases it will be impossible to measure accurately
with simple methods the diameter of braided netting yarns without core as
are commonly used for netting, because this material is rather soft and has
an irregular, non-circular cross-section. The diameters of braided netting
yarns (except braids with thick core) given by manufacturers are usually
nothing more than denotations of trade articles and frequently do not
correspond to the actual thickness. The same applies to the determination
of the diameter of the netting yarns in knotless netting of the Raschel and
the braided type (see 2.3.2.5).
The diameter values in the tables refer to dry netting yarns. In general
PA netting yarns become somewhat thinner in wet condition, whereas the
diameter of netting yarns made of PES, PE, PP and PVC (continuous
filament and monofilaments) remains practically unchanged. The diameter
of PVA(A) staple netting yarns increases in water by about 7 to 12 percent.
This indifference of netting yarns made of continuous filament and mono-
filament to water is one of the great advantages of synthetic as compared
with vegetable net materials which become considerably thicker by swelling.
The following average increases of diameter in water have been found,
expressed in percent of the initial dry diameter (74) :
cotton netting yarn + 10 %

hemp netting yatn +20%
manila netting yarn + 33 %
sisal netting yarn +34%
In addition to the numerical diameter values given in column "d" of Table 10
and in Table 12, the photographs in Figures 31a and 31b give an impression
of the thickness of practically all common siies of twisted netting yarns made
lie diameter of netting yarn is a major factor for the resistance of

fishing gear to water flow and therefore also for the power required or the
fpeed obtained in towing a certain gear: the thinner the the
netting yam
lower tfce resistance, low resistance is in most instances also advantageous
NETTING YARNS 89
860
950
1030
1200
1280
U30
1570
2000
2800
ftouiw 3Ia.~Most common sorts of twisted PA

continuous filament netting yirm, i Hated in
TMe 10, in natural stae.
1800
2120
FIGURE 3 lb. Twisted PA staple fibre netting

yarns, as listed in Table 12, in natural size.
for the catching efficiency because, due to reduced water stow or turbulences,
the frightening effect on fish will also be reduced.
When comparing different types of netting yarn, the Rtex values, being
the mass in grams of 1000 m, may serve as a relative measure for the mass of
netting. Lower Rtex, i.e. lower mass of the netting, may facilitate handling of
the gear. For the same kind of fibre lower Rtex usually means lower price,
since netting and netting yarns are commonly sold on a mass basis.
The most important practical property of net material is the wet knot
breaking strength (or mesh breaking strength or the breaking strength of the
joints in knotless netting) because it indicates the ability (and limitations) of
the netting for withstanding stress during fishing. Therefore, this property is
decisive for the selection of netting yarns, but it must always be considered
together with diameter and fineness (Rtex) which often are also of high
significance for the efficiency of fishing gear. The interrelationship between
these three properties for various kinds of net material are discussed below.
2.3.4. 1 Diameter and knot breaking strength
Apart from the construction of netting yarn, the relationship between

diameter and knot breaking strength is determined by two factors density :
(specific gravity) and strength of the fibre material, (see Tables 2a and 2e
NETTING YARNS 91
and 1.2.5.3). With equal mass per unit of length, the diameter of the netting
yarn increases with decreasing density. With equal or almost equal fibre
strength, for a given knot breaking strength the netting yarn made of material
with lower density will be thicker. Finally, with approximately equal density
but different fibre strength, for equal knot breaking strength the netting yarn
made of the weaker fibres will be thicker. The differences in diameter of
netting yarns will obviously increase with the differences in one or both
factors.
For instance, in Figure 32 two pieces of netting with equal wet knot
breaking strength are compared: one is made of cotton fibres the other of PA
continuous filament. Though cotton has a greater density than PA (see
Table 2a), the cotton netting yarn is much thicker because of its inferior
fibre strength. The different size of the knots is particularly noteworthy.
The differences in knot size between the PE netting yarn and the two PA
netting yarns in Figure 33 are due to the accumulating effects of lower density
and inferior strength of the PE fibres, although the differences in strength
between PA and PE are much smaller than between PA and cotton (all three
knots were tightened by a force of 100 kgf).
A more precise comparison of the relationship between diameter and
wet knot breaking strength of different kinds of netting yarn is enabled to be
made by Figure 34 which shows graphically the average values listed in
Cotton PA 'cont'fftf.
FIGURE 32, Netting samples of cotton and PA continuous filament made of

netting yarns of equal wet knot breaking strength.
-100mm 2
I
I 1 1 J
208mm 2 340mm 2 U6,5mm 2
a b c
FIGURE 33. Netting yarns with equal wet knot
breaking strength, made of:
(a) PA continuous filaments, twisted;
(b) PE monofilaments, braided;
(c) PA continuous filaments, braided.
The diagram under the photo shows the different
size of the areas covered by the knots.
NETTING YARNS 93
Tables 10, 14, 1 5, 17, 18 and 20. The following numerical values were extracted
from the curves of this figure :
Twnttd netting yarns mad* of
1
Polyamide cool filaments
2 Polypropylene conl Moments
3 Polyethylene monofilaments (wires)
4 Polyit*r cont filaments
5 Potyamid* tapl tibrt
Polypropylene split fibres
(average values )
Knot breaking load, wet

and Diameter
""so I
TO ' So" -t- 110 '
^0 -t- ISO
I
170
-f 190 fI
210 '
230 2SO ]
270 290
300
to to too 120 UO ItO 200 220 2tO 2tO 2tO
Knt wet breaking (Md m kgf

FIGURE 34. Relationship between wet knot breaking strength and diameter of
twisted netting yarns made of different kinds of fibre.
(1) Polyamide continuous filaments, (2) polypropylene continuous filaments*

polyethylene monofilaments (wires), (4) polyester continuous
(3) filaments.
(5) polyamidc staple fibres and polypropylene split fibres (average values).
With equal wet knot breaking strength, PP continuous filament netting yarns
are by 25 to 29 percent and PE folded monofilament netting yarns by 24 to 29
percent thicker than PA continuous filament netting yarns, whereas PES
continuous filament netting yarns are slightly (2 to 5 percent) thinner.
2.3.4.2 Wet knot breaking strength and Rtex
Even more significant is the relationship between wet knot breaking

strength and Rtex, which is shown for twisted netting yarns in Figure 35 and
by numerical values in Table 23a and for some heavy braided netting yarns
in Table 23b (page 98).
Twisted ntttrng yarns made of
120
1
Polyamide contm filomtnts
2 Polypropylene contm fllamtnts
3 Polyethylene monofllamtnti (wires)
A Polyester contm filaments
5 Poly vinyl alcohol Staple fibres
Knot breaking load, wet

and R tex
i
* Braided FA netting yarns (average values I
'
i
Cotton netting yarns (single values )
600 MO 1000 ttOO 1400 IfOO WO 2000 2200 2400 2100 2800 3000
700 900 MOO l00 t00 1700 (00 2100 2300 2500 2700 2WO
R ten
FIGURE 35. Relationship between wet knot breaking strength and Rtex of twisted
netting yams made of different kinds of fibre. (1) polyamide continuous filaments,
(2) polypropyplene continuous filaments, (3) polyethylene monofilaments folded,
(4) polyester continuous filaments, (5) polyvinyl alcohol staple fibres.
NETTING YARNS 95
The relative netting yarn mass (Table 23a) needed to obtain a certain
equal knot breaking strength may be expressed approximately by the follow-
ing ratio :
PA c.f. : PA st. : PP c.f. : PE mon. : PES c.f. : PVAA st. =

100 : 200 : 110 : 120 : 130 :
300,
and for the heavy braided netting yarns (Table 23b):
PA c.f. : PP c.f. : PE mon. - 100 : 107 : 120.
In Figure 35 some average values of braided PA continuous filament netting

yarns are inserted to demonstrate that this is the strongest of all netting
materials dealt with in this manual. This is further supported by Figure 33
where the braided PA specimen forms a considerably smaller knot than the
twisted PA specimen with equal knot breaking strength.
2.3.4.3 Diameter and mass

Manufacturers of PP and PE sometimes refer to the relationship between
diameter and mass of netting yarn (Rtex or runnage, respectively), which
is represented in Figure 36. With equal diameter the mass of netting yarn
obviously decreases or increases with the density of the fibre material of

which it is made. The following numerical examples are taken from the
curves of Figure 36 :
With equal diameter PP continuous filament netting yarns are about 30

percent lighter and PES continuous filament netting yarns more than 30
percent heavier in mass than PA continuous filament netting yarns. On the
other hand, PP netting yarns of the same diameter have about 30 to 37 per-
cent lower breaking strength than PA netting yarns. Though the thickness
of netting yarns cannot be neglected for many fishing gear types, adequate
strength is mostly more important and consequently net material will more
often have to be selected according to the knot breaking strength and not
the diameter of netting yarns.
2.3.5 FLEXURAL STIFFNESS
The flexural stiffness is and

the resistance of a netting yarn to lateral
bending deformation and Figure 24). The numerical
(see 2.3.1.22, 2.3.2.6
values in columns d and e of Table 24 give the mass in grammes which
is required to reduce the widest opening of a loop formed by a 20 cm piece
of netting yarn down to exactly 5 mm (Table 24 on page 100).

Netting yarns and netting made of soft continuous filament or staple
fibre are frequently treated with bonding agents which change the stiffness
of netting materials (see 2.3.5.7). Because of the great number of various
agents and concentrations used by manufacturers of netting materials or by
fishermen, it is not possible to clearly define their stiffening efficiency. The
following remarks, therefore, exclude treatment with agents but include
heat setting.
The examples of netting yarns of different fibre material and construction
in Table 24 cover the common range of flexural stiffness found in practice.
This property depends on kind, basic form (see 1.2.4) and fineness of the
fibre material and on the construction and the thickness of the netting yarn.
2.3.5.1 PA single monofilaments
The PA single monofilaments Table 24, Group I, are relatively

listed in
flexible, to facilitate mechanical manufacture of netting. Their flexural

stiffness increases with increasing diameter. The finest monofilaments, e.g.
0.10 and 0.20 mm, used for fine gillnets, have a very low stiffness. In water
the stiffness of all PA monofilaments is reduced. They are then considerably
softer than in dry condition.
2.3.5.2 PA continuous filament netting yarns
Netting yarns made of PA continuous filament (Groups II and III in

Table 24) have a very low flexural stiffness unless treated with stiffening
agents. They are the softest materials used for fishing nets, especially when
braided and wet. Because of their extremely low stiffness, PA netting yarns
finer than Nos. 7 and 8 cannot accurately be tested any more by the method
used, especially when wet. The amount of twist influences the stiffness of
dry PA netting yarns. A higher coefficient of twist causes higher stiffness,
NETTING YARNS 97
Twisted netting yarns made of
1
Poly amide contin filaments
2 Polypropylene contin filaments
3 Polyester contin filaments
i Polyamide staple fibres
* Polyethylene monotilaments (average values)
SCO 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 <
2500 I
2700 I 2900 '
3)00
600 MO 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2tOO 2tOO 3000 3200
FIGURE 36. Relationship between Rtex and diameter of twisted netting yarns
made of different kinds of fibre. (1) polyamide continuous filaments, (2) poly-
propylene continuous filaments, (3) polyester continuous filaments, (4) polyamide
*
staple fibres, folded polyethylene monofilaments (average values).
as can be seen by comparing e.g. specimens 7 and 8, or lOa and lOb, res-
pectively, but in wet condition these differences decrease. Like mono- PA
filaments also all PA
netting yarns become considerably softer in wet
condition.
Heat-setting makes the material somewhat stiffer, as can be seen by
comparing samples 9a and 9b, or lla and lib, respectively. The fineness
of the single continuous filaments composing the netting yarn has also a
remarkable influence on the stiffness. The braided specimen 15, consisting
of filaments of 2.2 tex, has about double the stiffness of specimens 12 to
14 which have almost equal Rtex but are made of the much finer filaments
of 0.68 tex.
2.3.5.3 PA folded monofilaments netting yarns

Netting yarns made of PA monofilaments (Group IV of Table 24)
to the stiffest netting materials and their increase in stiffness is much
belong
more clearly related to increasing Rtex than with PA continuous filament
netting yarns. The stiffness of PA netting yarns of comparable construction
TABLE 23a. WET KNOT BREAKING STRENGTH (KGF) AND CORRESPONDING RTEX VALUES OF
TWISTED NETTING YARNS MADE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FIBRE
kgf Rtex values of netting yarns made of
PA c.f. PA st. PP c.f. PE mon. PES c.f. PVA (A) st.
TABLE 23b. WET KNOT BREAKING STRENGTH (KGF) AND CORRESPONDING RTEX VALUES OF
HEAVY BRAIDED NETTING YARNS MADE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FIBRE
kgf Rtex values of netting yarns made of
PA c.f. PP c.f. PE mon.

NETTING YARNS 99
made of folded monofilaments of equal diameter and equal chemical structure

is directly proportional to Rtex, i.e. it is doubled when the Rtex is doubled
(see below).
No. Rtex Flex, stiffness
The fineness (thickness) of the single monofilaments composing the netting

yarn has an even greater influence than the Rtex, as can be seen by comparing
specimens 17, 18 and 19 which have almost equal Rtex. By doubling the
diameter of the monofilaments the stiffness value of the netting yarn increases
by a factor of about three.
Netting yarns of PE monofilaments have similar characteristics. For
instance, the specimen 46b made of 0.20 mm diameter monofilaments is
much stiffer than the even heavier specimen 46a which is made of 0.15 mm
diameter monofilaments.
Manufacturers of netting yarn are therefore able to vary the stiffness of
netting yarns made of folded monofilaments (synthetic wires) and of split
fibres by varying the fineness (diameter) and the number of the individual
elementary threads. Another possibility of influencing the stiffness of this

coarse material available to the fibre producers consists in adding special
softening agents (plasticisers) of different efficiency and in different quantity
to the polymer during the manufacture of the monofilaments.
2.3.5.4 PES and PP continuous filament netting yarns
Netting yarns made of PES continuous filaments (Group V) and PP

continuous filaments (Group VI) are somewhat stiffer than those made of
PA continuous filaments and, unlike PA, dry and wet stiffness are practically
equal. By mixing the soft continuous filament material
with split fibres or
monofilaments, an increase in stiffness can be obtained. There exists, of
course, a very great number of possibilities for variations in this type of
combined netting yarns. Some examples are given in Group VIII of Table 24.
2.3.5.5 PP split fibre and PE folded monofilament netting yarns

Also with netting yarns made from PP split fibres or PE monofilaments
many variations in stiffness may be obtained according to diameter and
kind of the components. Some examples are given in Groups VII and IX,
respectively.Both types of netting yarn belong to the stiffest and hardest
material used for fishing nets.
8
TABLE 24. FLEXURAL STIFFNESS OF NETTING YARNS

The term "treated" indicates heat setting of the netting yarn.
NETTING YARNS 101

For the comparison of synthetic and vegetable fibre netting yarns some
data are given in the following, referring to netting yarns with equal diameter.
In dry condition manila netting yarn is very stiff, similar to synthetic

folded monofilament netting yarn. In water all vegetable fibres swell and they
become softer. In netting yarns of simple construction (only one twisting
operation, see 2.1.1.4) and with a low amount of twists, the fibres can freely
expand and the stiffness of the netting yarn decreases as well. This is the
case with the manila and hemp netting yarns listed above. The cotton sample
is a cabled netting twine of the construction 50 tex x 15 x 3. Due to the
relatively (single yarns and folded yarns) and

hard twist of the components
of the product, the swelling cotton fibres become tightly compressed
final
and the stiffness of this netting yarn in wet condition is consequently
increased.
2.3.5.7 Stiffening agents
For
stiffening netting materials consisting of soft continuous filaments
or staple fibres a large variety of stiffening agents is available, mainly
produced by the chemical industry. The choice varies in different countries
and frequently new substitutes come up. Since it is not intended to go
deeper into this subject or to make an evaluation, in the following only a
few agents are discussed. Other products than the examples mentioned here
may be equally or even more effective and the selection for a specific purpose
will depend mainly on local availability and economic considerations.
Some of the more common stiffening agents are :
Tar, such as coal-tar or wood-tar.

Other coal-derivates, like carbolineum.
"Black varnish" which mainly consists of pitch and benzene (benzol)
as a solvent or diluting agent in different concentration.
Bitumen, a natural or artificial derivate of mineral oils.

NETTING YARNS 103
These four agents are mostly black and colour the netting accordingly.
Copper naphtenate (e.g. "Cuprinol") has a green colour.

Synthetic rubber solutions.
Synthetic resins.
Polyvinyl acetate emulsions.
Some of these agents do not change the natural colour of the netting but
many of them must be applied at rather high temperature.
For the application and selection of stiffening agents it must be taken
into account that they do not only influence the flexural stiffness but usually
also most other properties of netting material either in a favourable or an
unfavourable way.
Mass and diameter will always increase. Some agents, e.g. tar or black
varnish, improve the sinking speed, the resistance to light, the abrasion
resistance, the knot stability and even the wet knot breaking strength.
Furthermore, length or meshsize (shrinkage, e.g. due to hot application
of the agent), extensibility and colour may be changed. Therefore, it is
recommended to first test the effect of unknown stiffening agents on the
various properties of the netting material with a small piece of netting before
the whole net is treated (see also 1.2.5.4). The following examples are meant
to give an idea of what effects can occur.
Netting made of PP continuous filament netting yarn:
Treated with
coal-tar black varnish
Immersion in the agent 30 min 30 min

Temperature about 65C about 30C
Increase in weight after 4 weeks
air-drying +130% +64%
Increase in wet knot breaking strength +25 % +24 %
Meshsize dry unchanged unchanged
Meshsize wet -5.8% -1.6%
Black varnish dries quicker than coal-tar. Both agents do not damage
the fibre substance of PP and PA except tar that contains a substantial
percentage of phenol.
Netting yarns made of PA continuous filaments and PA staple fibres,

treated with black varnish at room temperature, not diluted and diluted
with equal amount of benzene :
PA cont.fil. PA staple
not diluted diluted not diluted diluted
Immersion in the agent 20 min 20 min 20 min 20 min

Increase in weight after
2 weeks air-drying 46% 21% 108% about 65%
Change in length by
treatment (dry) 0.0% -1% _IQO/
j.y /o __ 35/
J.J/Q
Increase in wet knot
breaking strength + 14.3% +17.2% +11.4% +16.3%
Decrease in extensibility -0.06%
Flexural stiffness, un-
treated 17 5-8
Flexural stiffness, treated 51 59 16-22 23-25
The main purposes of stiffening netting or netting yarns is to facilitate

the handling, cleaning and repair of fishing gears and to improve the knot
stability. There of course, fishing gears for which high flexural stiffness
are,
is undesirable, e.g. tine gillnets, because their catching efficiency would be
affected.
2.3.6 CHANGE IN LENGTH IN WATER

The amount of the change in length of netting yarn between dry and wet
(in water) is of practical interest (66), (73), (91) because of its possible effect on
the meshsize. Different materials react differently to wetting and subsequent
drying. For the test results listed in Table 25, dry condition refers to standard
atmosphere. The direction of changes in length in normal water at room
temperature (about 20C) expressed in percent of the length in dry condition
(column b) is indicated by ( ) for shrinkage and (+) for lengthening.
Immersion in hot or boiling water, as may be required for dyeing or other
treatment of nets, will always cause a shrinkage, the amount of which
should be determined before treating larger amounts of netting or whole
gears (see also 1.2.5.4). The greatest part of the changes in length, also in
cold water, occurs within a few minutes after immersion. The length measure-
ments were carried out with a pre-tension on the specimens corresponding
to the mass of 250 m
of the respective netting yarn. Such a pre-tension is
necessary to straighten the specimens, but it should be kept in mind that
even the comparatively low force used in these tests has already an influence
on the length because a great part of the changes in length caused by wetting
are not resistant even against this low force (see also 2.3.7).
NETTING YARNS 105
It may be mentioned that changes in meshsize are caused also by factors

other than water. For example, a shortening may be brought about by sand
or other particles penetrating the structure of the netting yarn during fishing
or by a heavy shock load (see below, Figure 58).
2.3.6.1 Netting yarns made ofPES, PE and PP

Netting yarns made of PES continuous filaments, PE folded mono-
filaments, PP continuous filaments and PP split fibres remain practically
unaffected by water and subsequent drying of the wet specimens has also no
significant influence on the length (Table 25, Nos. 30 to 45).
2.3.6.2 PA continuous filament netting yarns
PA
continuous filament netting yarns react differently in water. Most
either shrink or lengthen and only few types remain unchanged. The
extent of change in length depends on the construction and treatment. The
examples given in Table 25 are all PA netting yarns made of high tenacity
continuous filament yarns which were subjected to strong stretching during
manufacture.
Finer PA netting yarns with medium twist which have not been treated
by heat-setting (Nos. 1 to 6) shrink in water by about 2 percent. On the other
hand, hard twisted PA netting yarns (Nos. 7 to 12) will mostly lengthen
somewhat in water. The amount of lengthening increases with increasing
twist and if combined with a more complicated construction (Nos. 13 and
14) reaches up to about 5 percent.
Intensive heat-setting (Nos. 23 to 29) gives the material a high resistance
against dimensional changes in water. Untreated PA netting yarns of similar
type shrink by about 4 to 6 percent (Nos. 15 to 22). Intensive heat-
setting means that the specimens are very much stretched during the heating.
A criterion of such "genuine" heat-setting is the decrease in mass per unit
length and in extensibility of the netting yarn, provided that the specimen
has not been treated with a bonding or stiffening agent.
Immersion in boiling water only without a simultaneous strong stretching,
as is frequently employed by net manufacturers to stabilize the knots or to
adjust a certain meshsize, has the opposite effect of intensive heat setting,
i.e. nettings or netting yarns shrink and the mass per unit length and the
extensibility increase. Netting yarns treated in this way lengthen in water
of room temperature under a small pre-tension.
Compared to their length in wet condition, air-drying makes PA netting
yarns shrink, mostly by about 2 percent. Intensive heat-setting reduces
the differences between wet and redried condition. Repeated wetting and
drying has no significant effect on PA netting yarns in addition to the first
wetting and drying.
NETTING YARNS 107
TABLE 25 continued
Netting yarns of vegetable fibres always shrink in water. The following

average values can be quoted:
Material Shrinkage in % of dry length

Cotton -6 to -10
Hemp, thin netting yarns up to 3
Hemp, heavy netting yarns -6 to -8
Manila -3.5 to -6
Sisal netting yarns react similarly as manila netting yarns. After wetting,
netting yarns made of vegetable fibres regain only part of their original
length upon drying.
2.3.6.4 Change ofmeshsize in water
The changes in length of netting discussed above give an idea of the

reaction in water of the different kinds of netting yarns, but the numerical
values should not directly be applied to the change of meshsize.
The values for mesh opening shown in Table 26 were measured with a
special gauge ("Scottish gauge," (17)) using a pressure of only 1 kgf through-
out.
As is to be expected, the influence of water on the meshsize is in principle
the same as on the length of netting yarns (Table 25). There are none or only
small changes with PP and PE netting, only a small change with PA netting
made of netting yarns treated with intensive heat-setting, and comparatively
larger changes with netting made of untreated PA netting yarn.
= PA single monofi lament 0.15mm

---- PA single monofilament 0.20mm
* PA cont. til. netting yarn R25t?x
W wetting ,
Or* Drying
FIGURE 37. Changes in meshsize due to wetting
and drying of netting made of the finest PA material
as used for fine gillnets. The measurements were
taken with a special gauge for finest gillnets and
not with individual meshes but with a piece of
netting, five meshes long by five meshes deep. The
load of 1 kgf is applied as a pre-tension to all five
rows of meshes, 100 gf to each thread. The O-line
indicates the initial meshsize of the dry netting (80).
The reaction of very fine PA netting as used for light gillnets made of
monofilament and finest continuous filament netting yarn is illustrated in
Figure 37.
While for synthetic materials the differences in changes in length between
netting yarn and meshsize are small, they are rather high between netting
yarns and netting made of vegetable fibres. The swelling of the fibres causes
not only shrinkage but also a considerable increase in diameter of the netting
yarn (see 2.3.4). In addition to the shrinkage of the bars of the mesh, the
knots consequently become significantly thicker and thereby the mesh
opening is even more reduced. The effect of wetting on the meshsize of
manila netting is illustrated in Table 27. In this case the mesh opening was
measured with a special gauge recommended by the International Council
for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) for the accurate determination of the
mesh opening in trawl codends with a pressure of 4 kgf (17).
From Table 27 the following conclusions can be drawn. The thicker the
manila netting yarn, the more the mesh opening is reduced (swelling of
knots); the smaller the initial mesh opening, the higher the reduction in
NETTING YARNS 109
ro so os r^ oo
o o o
is is
1+1o
*-<' r-'
-
+1 I
+1 -f I I
o oo' oo os
77
r-
r^
o o o ' r-;
+ +1 + -f I +
s
*
?4
4
^^ i
I
So
Iio **a
jz
52
cs
** -5
t^
;
8
I I
f II
>v II II
iA aoo
C C
1~ |.s
ne-
set
sf si | If
t2wo
I
o wo
S Z3 2 32 22
11 ii >.,
2 O
3*-
"
1
o*^
*- P?
p
4^ uble
o stretc
O Q Q Q Q
I 1
1
C CJ' C2
no NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING GEAR
percent (size relation between bar and knot); with double braided manila
netting the mesh opening is reduced in size much more than with single
braided netting (size of knots).
TABLE 27. CHANGES OF THE MESH OPENING OF MANILA NETTING IN WATER (10), (11)
2.3.7 EXTENSIBILITY
Prior to the introduction of synthetic fibres into fishing, it was common

practice to judge a netting material only by its breaking strength. Today the
breaking strength alone is considered insufficient as criterion for the efficiency
and suitability of a netting material because, with the higher requirements
for progressive fishing gear and the new synthetic materials which enable
a much wider range of choice to satisfy them, the extensibility has for many
purposes gained similar significance as the wet knot breaking strength. For
example, gillnets of different type usually require small to medium, bottom
trawls in general medium and rnidwater trawls high extensibility. The main
advantageous features of extensibility are the ability to absorb shock loads
and to better distribute the total load over the netting of a fishing gear.
The term "extensibility", meaning the ability of a netting material to
change its dimension under a tensile force, refers to a complex property
NETTING YARNS 111
which involves a considerable number of different factors and aspects

such as:
Amount of elongation immediately after application of a specific

tension, e.g. the breaking strength, or the knot breaking strength. In
this case the specimen is loaded only once.
Reaction ot netting yarn to a gradually increasing force showing the
relationship between the magnitude of stress and the change in
length by means of a load-elongation curve (see 2.3.1.18), or by
determination of the elongation at different degrees of loading.
Influence of the kind of fibre and the construction and treatment of
the netting yarn on its extensibility.
Reaction under sustained load over longer periods of time.
Elongation caused by a very high shock load.
Reaction of netting yarns to repeated loading and unloading (Hys-
teresis effect), with different forces and different periods of time (26a,
92a, 121).
Elasticity properties which include the total elongation, elastic
elongation, permanent elongation and the degree of elasticity under
different conditions of amount and duration of loading.
"Creep," especially for PP and PE material.

Properties of energy absorption (toughness).
Not all of these properties have yet been sufficiently investigated with regard
to netting material, partly because the testing of some of them requires
highly specialized equipment and techniques.
Apart from the magnitude of stress or pressure, the extensibility depends
on the capability to stretch of the fibre material, as well as the construction
and the after-treatment of the final product (netting yarn or netting).
TABLE 28. AVERAGE VALUES OF ELONGATION ( %) AT HALF WET KNOT BREAKING STRENGTH OF
NETTING YARNS OF HIGH TENACITY MATERIAL AND MEDIUM TWIST OR MEDIUM (NORMAL)
TIGHTNESS OF BRAID, n = NUMBER OF SORTS OF NETTING YARN TESTED
2.3.7.1 Elongation at half knot breaking strength

Manufacturers mostly quote the elongation at a specific force such as the
breaking strength of the straight netting yarn in dry condition. This is a con-
dition which is of no relevance for fishing nets. Therefore, the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) has recommended to test and to
quote instead the elongation of netting yarn, dry or wet, at half the value
of the corresponding breaking strength of the weaver's knot (see 2.3.2.2 and
(90)). The data in Table 28 were measured in accordance with the above
ISO Standard (68a). The elongation is expressed in percent increase of the
initial length of the specimens. As regards the construction of the
netting yarns tested, it should be pointed out that the term "medium twist"
covers a relatively wide range of levels of twist. The elongation of netting
yarns is influenced significantly even by small increases or decreases of
twist and this is the main reason for the deviation of the values from the
average (see maximum and minimum values). For PE monofilament and

PP split fibre, the differences may also be partly due to the different texture of
the fibre material. Since most synthetic fibres are hydrophobic, in general
wet and dry elongation are nearly identical with the exception of PA which
can absorb sufficient moisture to affect not only the breaking strength but
also the elongation. As shown by the following examples, the elongation of
PA in wet condition is some percent higher than in dry condition (see also
Figure 47):
There are considerable differencesin the extensibility of netting yarns

made of different fibres (see average values in Table 28). Netting yarns
with still higher elongation like those made of PA
staple fibres, which are
not represented in Table 28, are dealt with below (see Figure 40).
The different vegetable fibre net materials provide a similar range of
wet elongation at half wet knot breaking strength. Manila netting yarns extend
by about 8 to 10 percent, hemp netting yarns by about 12 to 15 percent and
the thicker sorts of cotton netting yarn by 25 to 30 percent and more.
2.3.7.2 Load-elongation curves

The elongation value at half wet knot breaking strength, which rarely
NETTING YARNS 113
kgf
72-
68-
64-
Continuous filament
60-
1 23 te 9; R 240 ttx
56'
2. 23 ( 12, R 320 ttx
52-
3. 23 te 15/R 400 ttx
46- 4 23 tt 18, R 470 ttx
S. 23 tt .
27, R 650 ttx
44-
6 23 tt 48, R 1300 ttx
40
7. 23 t
60, R 1560 ttx
36 8 23 tt 96, R 2500 ttx
32-
28-
24--
20
16
12"
8--
9 10 11 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 20 21 23
Elongation in ptr ctnt
FIGURE 38. Load-elongation curves of twisted netting yarns (wet) made of PA

continuous filaments.
occurs in fishing nets, does not suffice to give an adequate idea of the exten-
sibility propertiesof netting materials. The practical aspects of the relationship
between stress and elongation can much better be judged by means of load-
elongation curves.
Figures 38 to 45 give examples of such curves for various kinds of netting
yarn. The increasing force expressed in kgf is plotted on the ordinate, and the
increasing elongation in percent on the absciss. The maximum force corre-
sponds to the half wet knot breaking strength of the respective netting yarn,
but the actual tests were conducted with individual netting yarns, unknotted,
in wet condition. All samples are of medium twist or braid. The curves were
recorded autographically by the testing device shown in Figure 18. Each
of Figures 38 to 45 refers to netting yarns of different fineness (different
Rtex values) made of one specific kind of fibre. All curves are drawn accord-
ing to the same elongation scale to facilitate comparison, whereas the scale
of force is different according to the breaking strength range of the respective
kgf
264
252
240"
228-
216-
204-
Continuous filament
192 Polyamid* nttting yarns
9. R 3000 ttx S
iao
10 R 4100 ttx S
168
11. R 4000 ttx S
156- 12. R II 000 ttx S
--
144
132-
120"
108
96
84 -
72"
60
48
-
36
24
12
h- I h-
8 9 10 II 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 2:
Elongation in ptr ctnt
FIGURE 39. Load-elongation curves of heavy twisted netting yarns (wet) made
of PA continuous filaments.
netting yarns. It should be emphasized that many types of fishing gear have
never to withstand great stress and that, even with large gear, net material
is in the majority of cases subjected during fishing only to relatively small
forces. However, in rough weather or with large catches, and then in parti-
cular during certain phases of operation (e.g. hauling, course changes during
towing or "fasteners"), the mechanical stress on fishing gears such as purse
seines, trawls, liftnets, gillnets will largely exceed the normal values up to
and even past the breaking point leading to respectively high elongation. It
is,therefore, advantageous to know the elongation of netting yarn over a

wider range of tension. This is provided by the load-elongation test curves
which allow for the determination of the relationship between force and
NETTING YARNS 115
ss
o
FIGURE 41. Load-elongation curves

of twisted netting yarns (wet) made of
PES continuous filaments.
PC 1 1
y ester netting yorns
(braided )
1 R 945 tex
2 R 1960 tex
3 R 2980 tex
4 R 3000 tex
5 R 3890 tex
1 234567 in per cent

Elongation
FIGURE 42. Load-elongation curves of

braided netting yarns (wet) made of 234 567
PES continuous filaments. Elongation in ptr ctnt
elongation over the whole range or any section or for a specific value which
may be of particular interest.
For the following evaluation and discussion of the load-elongation
curves in Figures 38 to 45, section 2.3.7.1 should also be considered.
Each kind of fibre has not only a specific degree of elongation but also a
typical form of load-elongation curve which can be used to assist in the
NETTING YARNS 117
Polyethylene netting yarns
1 R 660 tex
2 R 1010 tex
3. R 1350 tex
4 R 1640 tex
5 R 2010 tex
6. R 3500 tex
7 R 4160 tex
1 2 34 5 6 7 6 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Elongation in per cent
FIGURE 43. Load-elongation curves of twisted netting yarns (wet) made of PE

folded monofilaments.
identification of fibre materials. As regards the amount of wet elongation,

the main synthetic netting materials can be placed in the following order:
polyester, with the smallest degree of elongation ;
polypropylene;
polyethylene;
polyamide, with the highest elongation.
Continuous filament
yams
Polypropylene netting
R 210 tex
R 290 tex
R 520 tex
R 640 tex
5. R 730 tex
6. R 1190 tex
7 R 1UO tex
R 1515 tex
R 3500 tex
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 U 15
FIGURE 44. Load-elongation curves of twisted

netting yarns (wet) made of PP continuous
filaments.
Furthermore, two main types of load-elongation curves can be distin-

guished (Figures 38 to 45). The first type refers to netting yarns made of
PES (Figures 41 and 42), PE (Figure 43) and PP (Figure 44). It is an almost
straight line indicating that these materials have a comparatively strong
resistance against stretching. The other type refers to PA
(Figures 38 to 40)
and PVAA (Figure 45). These materials have relatively more elongation at
low loads than at higher loads. The curves therefore have a somewhat
parabolic form and are in general ''softer" or more yielding than the first
type.
With equal kinds of fibre, netting yarns made of staple fibres have not only
a lower breaking strength but also a considerably higher extensibility than
NETTING YARNS 119
U
Polyvfnyl alcohol (staple) ncttina yarns
12
1. 30 t 6, R 200 tx
10 2. 30 U 9, R 310 Ux
3 30 15, R 520 Ux
8 4 301 18; R 620 tx
5 30 t 24, R 830 tx
6 6 30 t 30, R 1040 Ux
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 20 21
Elongation in pr ctnt
FIGURE 45. Load-elongation curves of twisted netting yarns (wet) made of

PVAA staple fibres.
those made of continuous filaments. This is illustrated for PA by the

comparison of Figures 38 and 39 with Figure 40.
At equal loads the elongation of netting yarns naturally increases with
decreasing size or diameter, i.e. Rtex value. In other words the heavier
(thicker) the netting yarn, the more force (or load) is required to obtain
elongation.
The relationship between the amounts of force and elongation, and
between the force and the fineness of netting yarns is of great importance
for the efficiency of net materials for various fishing gear as well as for
international meshsize regulations and related measuring methods aiming
at the protection and management of fish stocks. For the latter elongation
at low loads is of particular interest. The respective tests (Figure 46 and
Table 29) were therefore started without any pre-tension and these load-
elongation curves begin at zero load. Table 29 provides additional infor-
mation to Figure 46, i.e. the values of gf per tex, percentage of knot breaking
strength, and percentage of elongation corresponding to the loads of 1,2,3,4,6,
8 and 10 kgf. It is important to note that the eight netting yarns differ consider-
ably in fineness. As an example the following wet elongation values were
obtained for a force of 2 kgf (see Table 29).
1 .
PA, R 976tex, medium twist 6.7 % elongation
2. PA, R 242 Itex, hard twist 5.8% elongation
3. PA, R 2513tex, medium twist 3.0 % elongation
4. PA. R 5808tex, medium twist 2.2 % elongation
5. PA, R 6487tex, hard twist 4.2 % elongation
6. PE, R6386tex, braided 0.9 % elongation
7. PA, R11876tex, braided 2. 3% elongation
8. PA, R17148tex, braided 1 .6 % elongation
The force of 2 kgf on a single netting yarn would be equivalent to the

pressure of 4 kgf for the measurements
of the mesh opening. This pressure
ge~
c w-2
S JS ed
*-J=
w
Sfl
"8*8
till
2 2*3-5
NETTING YARNS 121
g I
I ".
.1
u
o>
<
mrst-î-o-^rofs
I I
s 1
te
'go
2? i
N <N ^ d O O O*
^ P
/^ c *
"
a
li ,*
11 i :!
^ O d O O
E 1
-.
* ss
d <N *^
s
I
riddddddd
1
f
.OOOOOOO
^ d d d d d d d
lia
has been adopted for the calibrated pressure gauge which is recommended
by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) for all
studies requiring an accurate measurement of the mesh opening in the
codend of trawls (see also (17)).
This ICES Recommendation does not take into account the strong
dependence of elongation on the fineness and the consequent difference in
the influence of the measurement on the measured value for different yarns.
The pressure or force applied to textile samples for the purpose of length
measurements should always be in comparable relation to their fineness
or their breaking strength. For mesh measurements in the codends of large
bottom trawls which are made of very heavy net materials, this pressure
should be relatively small, e.g. 0.1 gf per tex (= the weight of 100 m of the
netting yarn) only.
As already mentioned (section 2.3.7.1) dry and wet elongation of netting
yarns made of PES, PE and PP are nearly identical. This applies also to the
form of the load-elongation curves of these materials. Similarly the form of
the load-elongation curves of dry PA netting yarns differ from those for
wet condition, as is the case for the elongation of this material. These dif-
ferences occur mainly in the lowest range of loading, where the curves of
dry netting yarns, contrary to those for wet netting yarns, are inclining
towards the ordinate (the load axis) (Figure 47).
comparison of net materials of different fineness or different
If direct
kind of fibre is required, it is advantageous to show in the load-elongation
curves the increasing test load as percentages of breaking strength or half wet
knot breaking strength (e.g. 5 percent, 10 percent, 20 percent ... up to 100
percent) rather than in actual kgf. Another possibility is to express the test
loads in values of tenacity (gf/tex) or tensile stress (kgf/mm 2 (see 2.3.1.3b).
In Figure 48 the load is given in percentage of the wet breaking strength
(unknotted). To convey an idea of the elongation characteristics over the
full range different from the foregoing load-elongation curves (Figures 38
to 47), those of Figure 48 reach up to the full wet breaking strength of the
straight netting yarns. The curves give average values for several individual
netting yarns, and therefore allow a direct comparison of the extensibility
of different materials and kinds of netting yarn even with different fineness.
The curve of PP netting yarn would lie between that of PES (No. 1) and
that of PE (No. 2). Vegetable net materials are represented by cotton netting
yarn which has a high elongation in wet condition, particularly at low loads.
As regards the amount of elongation the load-elongation curves of wet
manila netting yarns are similar to those of PE but they have a "parabolic"
form with relatively high elongation at low load.
2.3.7.3 Toughness
Since the load represents a force and the elongation a movement caused
by this force, the product of load and elongation is the amount of work
NETTING YARNS 123
R
fi
>fiM U| pDOl \i-

qo > * <N O OD (O s <N
100
:5
-
90
1 Polyester cont. fil
2 Polyethylene monot
3 Polyamide cont. fil.
4 Polyvinyt alcohol staple
5 Cotton
6 Polyamide staple
2 4 6 6 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 *2 44 46 4* 50
FIGURE 48. Load-elongation curves of wet netting yarns made of different kinds
of fibres. The curves arc average curves and reach up to the breaking strength of
the wet straight netting yarns.
NETTING YARNS 125
involved in stretching the material. With reference to netting yarns this

work is commonly called "toughness". If both factors, strength and elonga-
tion, are high the material has a respectively high capability of doing work,
e.g. in terms of absorbing energy and to withstand shock loads. Such netting
material would therefore be particularly suitable for fishing gear which is
subjected to this type of mechanical stress or pressure. As already mentioned
(section 2.3.1.21), toughness may be quantitatively measured by plani-
metering the area under the load-elongation diagram. Examples are given
in Figure 49 for three main types of toughness with netting yarns of approxi-
mately the same fineness (about R 1300 tex). The PA netting yarn represents
a type of netting material with great strength and great elongation, the
PP netting yarn a type with great strength and small elongation, and the
PVA(A) netting yarn a type with small strength and great elongation. If the
amounts of strength and elongation are known, toughness can be calculated
by the formula :
Toughness =
load x elongation x Q
For designating the toughness of netting yarns the elongation at half
20 K~B o o
FIGURE 49. Characteristic examples for the toughness of wet netting yarns,
represented by the hatched area under the load-elongation curves
which are
drawn up to a force (F*) corresponding to the half wet knot breaking strength. All
three netting yarns have approximately the same fineness of about R
1 300 tex. If
for these netting yarns the area of PA is taken as 100 percent, that of PP is 57 per-
cent and that of PVA(A) 37 percent.
(a) PA contin. fil. netting yarn with high strength and high elongation.
(b) PP contin. fil. netting yarn with high strength and low elongation.
(c) PVA(A) staple fibre netting yarn with low strength and high elongation.
the wet knot breaking strength should be chosen. Q is the quotient of the area
of OF BO
k divided by the area of the rectangle OAFk BO (see Figure 49).
The following numerical values of Q can be applied to wet netting yarns:
PA continuous filaments 0.33

PA staple fibres 0.36
PES continuous filaments 0.48
PP continuous filaments 0.47
PE monofilaments 0.54
PVA staple fibres 0.35
It must be stressed that these values for Q refer to wet netting yarns with
normal twist and to load-elongation curves reaching up to the half wet
knot breaking strength. This applies also to the following values of average
relative toughness which are based on the load-elongation curves of Figures
38 to 45 (for reference PA continuous filament netting yarn is set at 100
percent).
PAcontin. fil. 100%
PA staple fibre 110%
PES contin. fil. 46%
PPcontin. fil. 76%
PEmonofil. 106%
PVA(A) staple fibre 35%
The elongation features discussed so far are not sufficient to fully char-
acterize this complicated property, and they may even be misleading if not
supplemented by information on and the influence of sustained
elasticity
and repeated loading. This refers especially to polyethylene.
2.3.7.4 Elasticity
This the property of a netting yarn to recover its original length after
is
the removal of a stretching force. Of the different possibilities of applying

stress to a material for actuating this property, the tensile stress only is
discussed here. for instance, a netting yarn has a high elasticity, i.e. it
If,
regains length completely or with only a small remaining portion

its initial
of irreversible elongation, it guarantees not only a constant meshsize but

also the conservation of its toughness. The more the elasticity decreases
by the first or by repeated applications of load, the more also the capacity
to perform work decreases. Netting yarns in which high elongation is coupled
with high elasticity can absorb severe shock loads like a spring. In returning
to original length such highly elastic netting material is capable of doing
its
as much work
as was done in stretching it. This energy stored in the material
should be taken into account when handling stretched heavy nettings or
ropes.
The values of elasticity listed in Table 30 and illustrated in Figures 50
to 53 have been obtained by using the following simple testing method:
NETTING YARNS 127
<v c
O)
"~*o
c >sC
7^ O
d
/t
ui uoijoS uojg
0,15mm -16-8
medium braid (220/m)
5 per cent
[Netting yarns
10 per cent
made
20 per cent
of
30 per cent
PE monofilamentsl
J
50 per cent
28 -------------------- - _ - - __ . .
26
24 .
B . . _ . . . . . . . . ...
0,15 mm 16 "
8
hard braid ( 315/m )
5 per cent 10 per cent 20 per cent 30 per cent 50 per cent
FIGURE 51. Elasticity of braided PE netting yarns made of equal kind and
number of monofilaments but with different tightness of braid (A with 220
picks per 1 m, B with 315 picks per 1 m). Both types loaded for one hour with 5,
10, 20, 30 or 50 percent, respectively, of their breaking strength, wet, unknotted.
Elongation (percentage) measured :
a = immediately after loading;

b loaded for one hour;
c = immediately after removal of load;
d = one hour after removal of load ;
e = permanent elongation.
Note the different amount and percentage of permanent elongation with regard
to the tightness of braid and the amount of load.
NETTING YARNS 129
5 6 7 8 9 10
Wet elongation m per cent
FIGURE 52. Load-elongation curves of braided PA and PP continuous filament

netting yarns, wet, with approximately the same wet knot breaking strength and
construction. The retrograde curves (with arrows) do not quite return to the
starting point after removal of the load.
A piece of wet netting yarn, about 100 cm in length, is hung up and loaded
with a pre-tension of 0.25 g per tex at the lower end. A length of exactly
50 cm is marked and the specimen is then stressed by a certain load for a
certain period. Care should be taken that the twist cannot
change. The
specimen is kept wet by spraying it frequently with water. The length is
measured under pre-tension before application of the test load, immediately
after loading, when loaded for one hour (or more) and immediately after
removal of the load. The measurements after removal of the load are repeated
periodically under pre-tension until the readings are constant. During the
intervals between these measurements the specimen is kept in water. These
tests, which can be carried out by anybody without complicated equipment,
give a reasonably good idea of the elongation and elasticity properties.
In most tests discussed here, the test load was equal to 30 percent of
the wet breaking strength of the straight netting yarn. This test load was
chosen at random. It is smaller than the half wet knot breaking strength
recommended for elongation tests, but well within the range frequently
occurring in fishing operations. The usual period of loading was one hour
which allows drawing of some conclusions on the influence of sustained
loadings.
For the evaluation of extensibility properties it must be distinguished
between the total elongation at the end of the loading period, the permanent
or irreversible elongation which is measured when the specimen has relaxed
after removal of load and has regained equilibrium, and the elastic elongation
which is the calculated difference between total elongation and permanent

elongation. If permanent elongation is nil which means that the specimen
has regained its original length the netting yarn is completely elastic and
its degree of elasticity (Table 30) is 100 percent.
Normally twisted or braided netting yarns made of high tenacity PA and
PES continuous filaments have a high degree of elasticity and frequently
may be completely elastic, even when loaded for one hour with the relatively
heavy load of 30 percent of the breaking strength. However, due to the
differences in the amount of elongation, PA has greater values of actual
elastic elongation than PES. Compared to PA and PES, PP continuous fila-
FIGURE 53. Elasticity of dry PA and PP continuous filament netting yarns

loaded for 24 hours with 30 percent of tteir breaking strength, dry, unknotted.
Elongation in percentage:
a = immediately after loading;
b loaded for one
c = loaded for threehour;
hours;
d ~ loaded for 24 hours;
e = immediately after removal of load;
f = one hour after removal of load;
g permanent elongation, measured four days after removal of load.
NETTING YARNS 131
ment netting yarns have a significantly smaller degree of elasticity. PP split

fibre netting yarn may reach similar values as PA netting yarn (e.g. No. 17 in
Table 30) but because of the great variations in the quality of split fibre
products this statement cannot be generalized. The degree of elasticity of PE is
relatively low and similar to that of netting yarns of vegetable fibres. Com-
parison with the examples for manila (Figure 50) and for manila, hemp and
cotton (Table 30) demonstrate the superiority of synthetic over vegetable
fibres also with regard to elasticity. The extremely high total elongation and
permanent elongation of wet cotton netting yarn (No. 25 in Table 30) should
be noted.
None of the materials available for fishing nets is truly elastic in the
sense that it completely regains its orginal length immediately after the
removal of a load. This does not occur even when the load is removed
immediately after a certain amount of loading is reached. The load-elon-
gation curves in Figure 52, drawn by the tensile tester, show that even then
a permanent elongation remains which is higher with PP than with PA,
though the latter had been much more extended. Elastic elongation com-
prises a share of immediate recovery and of delayed recovery so that the
time factor has to be taken into account. In Figures 50 and 51 the immediate
recovery is illustrated by the straight lines from b to c, and the delayed
recovery by the distances from c to d to e. In spite of the high total elongation
of PA, the extent of its immediate recovery is very great thus demonstrating
the good elastic property of this material. With netting yarns made of PP and,
above all, of PE and manila, the relationship between total elongation and
immediate recovery is much less favourable than with PA (see Figure 50).
In general, to attain the definite final length after removal of a load which
usually does not correspond to the initial length, a longer recovery period
of mostly some days is required. The duration of this period depends on
the kind of fibre, the construction of the netting yarn and the amount of load.
The magnitude of the load applied to a netting yarn has naturally the
same effect on the degree of elasticity as on the extent of elongation. This is
demonstrated by the example of two PE netting yarns in Figure 51 where
different loading (5, 10, 20, 30 or 50 percent of the breaking strength) causes
different total and permanent elongations. The calculated degrees of elasticity
for both netting yarns at the different levels of loading are as follows:
Load in percent Degree of elasticity ( %)

of breaking strength A (medium) B (hard)
of netting yarns, hard

As regards the influence of the construction
.
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ill
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NETTING YARNS 133
q<sr-
rn XSO
00 SO SO
cs oo
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fSON
SO 00
en rn
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so
fS fN O
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braiding and also hard twisting result in an increase of permanent elongation

which is not desirable for fishing nets. The amount of this increase depends
on the level of twist or tightness of braid respectively (see Figure 51 and
Table 30, No. 4, as compared with Nos 1-6). If high elongation is attempted
through very hard twisting or braiding, it must be considered that the
permanent elongation will increase and the toughness decrease more and
more with extended use.
Medium twisted or braided netting yarns made of PA continuous filaments
obtain their final total elongation approximately 15 minutes after application
of load. Prolonged loading up to 24 hours does usually not change the
amount of elongation of PA any more (see Figure 53). In this regard PA
and PES continuous filaments differ favourably from PP and PE which
undergo a considerably higher additional stretching called "creep" or "cold
flow" when subjected to a comparatively heavy load for a longer period of
time. This is already noticeable within a loading period of only one hour,
as is clearly demonstrated by the steepness of the lines a to b in Figures 50
and 53, as compared to PA. In the latter figure it will be noted that, different
from PA, the creep of PP netting yarn increases with increasing period of
loading. PE netting yarns have a still greater creep than PP netting yarns.
The creep of PE material increases with load (see Figure 51) and also with
increasing temperature. It is of practical interest that the creep is a permanent
elongation which is not reversible after the release of stress. It is mainly for
this reason that PE netting yarns have a low degree of elasticity, as well as a
poor dimensional stability.
2.3.8 ABRASION RESISTANCE
Although abrasion resistance is certainly an important property of

netting materials, before the introduction of synthetic fibre fishermen did not
pay much attention to this property because fishing nets of vegetable fibres
were mostly destroyed by rotting rather than by abrasive wear.
Synthetic netting materials do not rot. Consequently the gradual decay
of synthetic fishing nets is mainly due to abrasion and the resistance to
abrasion is an important measure for the durability of this material and
thus for its operational and economic value. In general the smaller the fishery
the more significant is the investment in nets for its profitability and the more
essential therefore the use of nets with strong resistance against wear and
tear.
Among the great variety of fishing gears there are, of course, also types
such as fyke nets or trap nets used in stagnant water of lakes which are not
'
subject to considerable abrasive wear nor to strong stress. If made of syn-

thetic fibres and protected against sunlight these nets may have a durability
lasting over decades. On the other hand there are others such as trawls
which are exposed to particularly intensive wear and tear. With knotted
netting the knots are primarily exposed to damage and trawler fishermen
know very well the symptoms of damage as demonstrated in Figure 54.
NETTING YARNS 135
FIGURE 54. Knots damaged by abrasion in the netting of a large midwater

trawl operated by a stern trawler with chute.
During fishing and during handling on land and on board the nets come
into contact with abrasing surfaces of different kinds, ranging from polished
metal or wood, over unpolished or rusty metal, hauling rollers, mechanically
driven blocks, sharp edges, nails, bolt heads, rivets and others ashore or on
the vessel, to sand, gravel, shells, sponges, rocks and other obstacles in the
water. For instance the damage to the knots in the netting of a midwater
trawl (Figure 54) is mainly attributed to the chafing of the full net when
it ishauled up over the ramp of a stern trawler,
Internal abrasion, caused by the friction of fibres against each other as
can be observed with ropes, rarely occurs with the comparatively thin netting
yarns. Also the rubbing of netting yarns against one another in a netting is
of hardly any practical interest.
2.3.8. 1 Criticism of testing methods
In view of the great practical importance of the abrasion resistance of

to which a net is
netting materials, it is very unfortunate that the abrasion
subjected in fishing operations cannot be simulated adequately for laboratory
tests. It has already been mentioned (section 2.3.2.7) that the present testing
methods differ not only in minor details but also in important features of the
testing machine and technique which have a significant influence on the

results such as different types and shape of abrasive material against which
the specimen is abraded and different movements, pressure or stress during
abrasion testing. The result of abrasion resistance tests is mostly expressed
by the number of frictions the specimen is subjected to. One method is to
chafe the netting yarn to the breaking point, and another to apply a certain
number of frictions and subsequently determine the remaining breaking
strength with a tensile strength tester.
Naturally testing methods differing to such a degree do not give comparable
results and consequently data or statements found in technical literature
may even be contradictory. This refers not only to the qualities of netting
yarn materials but also to the influence of netting yarn construction, i.e.
amount of twist or tightness of braid.
It is a further drawback that the results of abrasion resistance tests cannot
be specified by absolute numerical values as is possible for other properties

such as breaking strength, elongation, diameter, or fineness. The effect of the
number of frictions is dependent on the testing apparatus used and cannot
serve as direct absolute measure for the abrasion resistance of materials.
Therefore, relative values are commonly quoted, which refer to the qualities
of one sample or specimen with which the others are compared. Such
comparative tests are feasible only for groups of netting yarns of either the
same diameter, the same fineness, or the same breaking strength.
It has to be accepted that results of laboratory tests cannot be taken as
conclusive for judging the abrasion resistance of net materials and that the
FIGURE 55. Netting yarns made of manila (M) and of PA continuous h'laments
(P) after the same number of frictions in wet condition. The test of the breaking
strength showed a 62 percent loss for the manila netting yarn compared with only
19 percent loss for thePA braided netting yarn.
NETTING YARNS 137
test of this important property is actual endurance in commercial

only reliable
However, in spite of these reservations certain general conclusions
fishing.
can and have been drawn from laboratory tests which are confirmed by
practical experience.
2.3.8.2 Vegetable fibre netting materials
Netting yarns made of vegetable fibres such as cotton, flax, hemp,

manila, sisal, have in wet condition a considerably lower resistance to abrasion
than netting yarns made of synthetic continuous filaments or monofilaments.
Furthermore, the abrasion resistance decreases along with the loss in breaking
strength caused by rotting in water. The following table gives examples for
netting yarns made of hemp and manila in wet condition:
At the beginning of the fifties there was a large difference in price between
PA and the conventional vegetable fibre materials. In spite of this, PA
material was very quickly adopted by the commerical fisheries because of its
superiority in two important properties, i.e. rot-proofness and abrasion
resistance.Both properties together are the reason why, for instance, PA
bottom trawlnets have about ten times (or more) longer useful lifespan than
manila trawlnets. Figure 55 demonstrates the large difference in resistance
to abrasion of these two net materials.
2.3.8.3 Synthetic netting materials

For the same kind of synthetic fibre material, netting yarns made of
to those made of continuous filaments and the
staple fibre are inferior
latter are inferior to folded monofilament netting yarns. In general it can be
stated that the coarser the fibre the higher the resistance to abrasion.
PA monofilaments or netting yarns made of monofilaments have a higher
abrasion resistance than comparable monofilaments (of the same diameter)
or monofilament netting yarns made of PP, PE or PVD, and the same applies
also to continuous filament netting yarns. According to some laboratory
investigations PP netting yarns were supposed to have similar or even better
abrasion resistance than PA netting yarns, but this could not be confirmed in
commercial fishing. The useful life of PA (cont. fil.) trawlnets is considerably
longer than that of PP (cont. fil.) trawlnets.
With PE netting yarns the abrasion resistance varies due to the diversity
of this material. Netting yarns of the same fineness made of PE monofilaments
of different flexibility or brittleness may have a different abrasion resistance.
Tests with straight PE netting yarn may give much higher values than for
PA continuous filament netting yarn. However, when the firmly tightened
FIGURE 56. PA codline of a large bottom trawl.

A: New condition; B to D: Different degrees of abrasion.
Sample D seems to be completely destroyed, but testing showed that it still had
40 percent of its initial breaking strength.
NETTING YARNS 139
FIGURE 57. Section of a river stow net with distorted meshes. The loose bars are
roughened by the water flow and their resistance to abrasion is diminished.
knots are tested (see Figure 25) usually PE will not be found superior and
thiscorresponds with the experiences in trawl fishing.
12. 3 8 .4
.
Influence of treatment and construction
Treatment with tar or tar products increases the abrasion resistance

considerably and this effect can also be obtained by treatment with synthetic
resins. The amount of protection against abrasion is dependent on the
thickness of the coating and on the solubility of the agent in water. On the
influence of the construction of netting yarns on the abrasion resistance there
is no uniformity of opinions yet. It may, however, be stated here that in the
knots the resistance to abrasion increases with increasing twist up to a certain

limit afterwhich it decreases again. Braided netting yarn is in general more
resistant than twisted netting yarn. As regards knotless netting reference is
made to section 2.1.4.4.
2.3.8.5 Roughening of netting material

The gradual decay of the surface due to abrasion is illustrated by Fig.
56, an example of PA codline of a trawlnet. The more the fibres of the rope
are chafed, the more the surface becomes roughened. The outside appearance
FIGURE 58. Section of the codend of a large

bottom trawl which was caught in the propeller of
the vessel and overstretched. On release, part of
the single yarns and filaments sprang from the
netting yarn causing a considerable reduction of
the original mesh opening of 100 mm to the values
shown in each mesh.
(ace. to v. Brandt)
NETTING YARNS 141
of a badly chafed rope or netting yarn may be misleading. For example, the
rope sample D (Figure 56) seems to be completely destroyed but it actually
still has 40 percent of the initial breaking strength.
The surface or structure of netting yarn may also be roughened by other

causes than abrasion. For instance, in river stow nets or trawls the distortion
of meshes leads to unequal length of bars. The loose bars flutter in the water
current and by this movement the structure of braided netting yarns is
loosened (Figure 57). The loops of single yarns and single filaments which
protrude from the netting yarns are much more subject to abrasion, and the
abrasion resistance and the breaking strength of the netting yarn is affected.
Another example is the section of a trawl codend which was caught in the
propeller of the vessel and suddenly stretched to such an extent that a con-
siderable part of the fibres "sprang" from the netting yarn (Figure 58). This
damage caused a remarkable reduction in meshsize and had naturally also

other adverse effects, e.g. on the breaking strength and the abrasion resistance
of the netting.
CHAPTER 3
CHOICE OF NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING GEAR
Because of the great variety of types of fishing gear and fishing conditions
and their interrelation with geographic, nationalistic, economic, sociological
and other aspects, it is virtually impossible to give detailed and compre-
hensive instructions for the selection of netting materials. In general the
choice depends on the type and size of the fishing gear to be made, the species
of fish to be caught, the fishing ground and the fishing conditions under
which the gear is to be operated, the type, size and engine power of the
vessel, the type of operation and the auxiliaries employed as well as on the
habits and traditions of the fishermen and the local availability and price
of netting materials. The following guidelines on the selection of netting
materials, their proper specification for purchase and the more detailed
advice with regard to some important types of fishing gear are meant to
assist in taking best advantage of given conditions.
3.1 General remarks
3.1.1
Natural (vegetable) fibre material is not considered here because it rots

in water and is therefore considered unfit for fishing gear. Because of their
superiority in this and also other respects, synthetic fibres are considered
the only suitable textile raw materials for fishing nets.
3.1.2
Though some of the synthetic net materials have already reached a high
degree of perfection, the ideal material with properties satisfying all the
diverse and partly contradictory requirements of fishing does not exist.
The problem is therefore to select the best available material for a specific
purpose. The precondition for this is adequate knowledge of the properties
of the available materials and the essential requirements of the fishing gear
and method in question. Information on the properties of netting materials
is given in Chapter 2 of this Manual. The requirements of the gear and
method have to be determined on the basis of practical experience, preferably
CHOICE OF NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING GEAR 143
complemented by rational experimentation of fishing technologists, fishermen

and netmakers.
3.1.3
When new synthetic fibres are put on the market, manufacturers almost
always claim that these fibres are exceptionally well qualified for fishing
nets. This can safely be accepted in comparison with natural fibres for the
reason of rot-proofness alone. With the widespread availability of synthetic
materials, this is not sufficient and the question for the customer should
be whether the new material is techno/economically more efficient for the
gear to be made than other already existing synthetic materials and in
particular the most widely used and best known synthetic material in
fisheries, i.e. PA continuous filament (nylon). The arguments of manu-
facturers are not always based on exact testing and controlled experiments,
but are sometimes somewhat speculative. Some groups of synthetic fibres
have been introduced into fishery by means of energetic publicity campaigns
but, after some time of unfavourable practical experience, application has
decreased after the first boom or they have even disappeared. Manufacturers
advertising claims should be considered with caution.
3.1.4
The actual selection of netting material will sometimes depend not so

much on technical suitability as on local availability and comparative price.
The price is particularly important for small fisheries where the expenses for
the nets often represent the major part of the total investment for fishing
equipment. The price of the netting material has also seriously to be con-
sidered for fisheries with a high wear and tear and/or a high risk of total
loss of gear, e.g. bottom trawling on rough grounds, and when the absolute
cost of the fishing gear is very high, e.g. large purse seines.
For such reasons the material actually used in fishing nets is not always
that which ought to be used from a technical point of view. This is probably
true also for some of the examples listed in Tables 31 to 33.
3.1.5
If at all possible the choice of material should not be based on one

property only which may be of particular importance for the fishing gear
under consideration (e.g. sinking speed for purse seines) but other important
properties should also duly be taken into account, such as high breaking
strength which is desirable for most fishing gear. As rarely one
material will
meet all main requirements, the best compromise must be sought.
3.2 Specification of netting yarn

and netting for purchase
When net-trader or manufacturer netting yarn or

placing an order to a
netting must be clearly specified. Some of the specifications discussed below

can be expressed in different ways. Here the terms and definitions recom-
mended by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) are
preferred (54, 61). Comprehensive designations as recommended here may
not be always necessary but, if widely adopted, will facilitate exchange of
information between purchasers and suppliers of different nationalities and
avoid misunderstandings and inquiries.
3.2.1 NETTING YARN
3.2.1.1 Fibre
Kind and type of fibre
Examples:
Netting yarn made of PA continuous filaments (nylon multifilaments),

Netting yarn made of PVAA staple fibres,
Netting yarn made of PE folded monofilaments (wires),
Netting yarn made of PP split (film) fibres,
Single PA monofilament (not netting twine consisting of a number
of fibres or monofilaments).
Trade names of fibres may be used if there is no possibility of a misunder-

standing (see Table 1).
3.2.1.2 Size
Size (fineness, number) of netting yarn, according to the tex system as

defined in section 2.2.2, either as complete designation or, if this is not
known, in a simplified manner but so that the fineness is unequivocally
specified:
Examples:
23 tex x 4 x 3, R 310 tex; or
23 tex x 12; or
R 3 10 tex.
It must be emphasized that the Rtex values in Tables 10 to 20 refer to

medium twisted netting yarns; they are higher for hard twisted netting yarns.
Deviating from this standard, single monofilaments may also be designated
by the diameter in millimetres. Examples :
0.15 mm (for finest gillnets)

0.60 mm (for small fyke nets).
Nominal diameters of the most usual PA monofilaments and the respective
tex values are listed in Table 13.
3.2. 1 .3 Twisted or braided netting yarn
Braided construction is more frequently used for heavy netting yarns.
3.2. 1 .4 Degree of twist or of tightness of braid
Degree of twist or of tightness of braid soft, medium, hard, very (extra)

:
hard. For example, soft twist is used for certain types of gillnets, medium
twist for bottom trawls, purse seines and most other gear
types, and hard
twist (or even very hard) for midwater trawls. By these terms the
degree of
twist is not exactly defined but they are sufficient for practical fishing purposes.
(For exact designation of the level of twist or the tightness of braid see
2.1.1.9, 2.1.2.5, and 2.1.3.3.)
3.2.1.5 Direction offinal t wist
S or Z, as shown in Figure 8a. In most cases this item can be neglected.
3.2.1.6 Core
For braided netting yarn it should be stated whether it should have a core
or not.
3.2.1.7 Weight
The weight (mass) of the required quantities of netting yarn should be
stated in kilograms.
3.2.2 NETTING
As already mentioned, the term "netting" is defined by ISO as "a
meshed structure of indefinite shape and size" (54). Netting is also called
"webbing" or "web." The three terms are used to refer to the fabric knotted
into meshes only, without cordage and other accessories. If the netting has
been connected to ropes (hanging, mounting) and fitted with floats (corks),
sinkers (leads) and other accessories, it has become a complete fishing gear
and this finished product is customarily called "net", "fishing net" or
"fishing gear".
netting the netting yarn must also be specified according
For ordering to
3.1.2. In addition the following specifications should be given.
3.2.2. 1 Knotted or knotless
If knotted netting is required, and the purchaser has a preference for a
particular type of knot, he should state this in his order.
Examples of the principle types of knots:

Weaver's knot, also called English knot or sheet bend (see 2.3.3.3
and Figure 26b);
Double weaver's knot (see 2.3.3.4 and Figure 26d);
Reef knot or square knot (see Figure 26c).
The single and double weaver's knots are made by most manufacturers,
while the reef knot is much less common and mechanically manufactured
only by few suppliers.
If knotless netting is required, the type should be stated (see 2.1.4), i.e. :
Japanese twisted netting;

Raschel netting;
braided knotless netting.
Sometimes the additional specification of the joints may be desirable.
a
a
b
:
:
Length of
Length of mesh
be mesh side
c :
Opening of mesh
FIGURE 59. Designation of size of mesh (54) :
(a) length of mesh side the distance between

two sequential knots or joints, measured from
centre to centre when the netting yarn between
those points is fully extended.
(b) length of mesh = the distance between the
centres of two opposite knots in the same mesh
when fully extended in the N-direction (see
Figure 27).
(c) opening of mesh = the inside distance be-
tween two opposite knots in the same mesh
when fully extended in the N-direction.
3.2.2.2 Size of mesh
This should be indicated in millimetres according to one of the three

methods of measuring meshsize (Figure 59).
Examples:
length ofmesh side 25 mm (bar)
length ofmesh 50 mm (extended mesh)
opening of mesh 48 mm (inside distance of the extended mesh).
Buyer and seller should make sure that they are specifying the meshsize
the same way.
Where high accuracy of meshsize is required, e.g. for gillnets or for
trawls used on fishing grounds for which strict meshsize regulations apply,
the meshsize should be indicated as opening of mesh (inside distance),
measured in wet condition and under a specific low pressure or tension in
relation to the fineness of the netting yarn of which the netting is made,
e.g. corresponding to its weight per 100 m. For knotless netting "the opening
of mesh is the inside distance between the opposite joints in the same mesh
when fully extended along its longest possible axis" (54).
3.2.2.3 Size of netting
Size of netting (length and depth) should preferably be specified by the

number of meshes in both the T- and N-directions (see Figure 27). The values
are joined by the multiplication sign x If the size of netting is indicated in
.
a unit of length (e.g. metre) in one or both directions, length must naturally
refer to fully extended netting.
Examples:
1000 T x 100 N
1000 T x 5m
10m X200N.
3.2.2.4 Selvedges
If special edge meshes are required for joining or mounting purposes or

for reinforcement, this must separately be stated giving:
fineness of the netting yarns to be used for selvedges,
single or double netting yarn,

side or sides of the netting which are to be furnished with selvedges,
meshsize according to 3.2.2.2,
width of the selvedges in number of meshes.

3.2.2.5 Direction of stretching
Direction of stretching N
or T in which the netting is to be stretched
and stabilized to be stated. Stretching and stabilizing are the
may need
processes for tightening the knots and for conferring a permanent shape to
the netting by thermal and/or other means.
3 .2.2.6 After-treatment
If any special finishing process is required it should be specified, e.g.

dyeing with or without impregnation or other treatment.
Examples :
Dyed green, blue, red or any other colour (to diminish the visibility
of gillnets);
dyed black or brown or any other colour (to increase the resistance
against light, 1.2.5.2);
treatment with tar or other coal-derivatives (to increase sinking speed,
abrasion resistance and stiffness of purse seines, 2.3.5.7).
3.2.2.7 Type of gear

In order to enable the manufacturer to offer the most suitable netting,
the ultimate use of the netting, i.e. type and size of fishing gear and in
some cases also size and/or power of vessel, should be indicated, e.g.
Anchoveta purse seine, 330 fm long, 45 fm deep, 80 ft vessel

Tuna purse seine, 900 m long, 80 m deep, 38 m vessel
Cod bottom trawl, 1800 hp vessel

Two-boat herring bottom trawl, 2 x 1 50 hp
Sprat mid water trawl, 300 hp vessel
Two-boat mackerel mid water trawl, 2 X 600 hp
Salmon drift net, 100 GT vessel
Perch gillnet, 6 m row boat
Eel fyke net.
3.3 Choice of netting material for bottom trawlnets
Bottom trawls have particularly high demands on the netting material which
should primarily have high wet knot breaking strength, high extensibility,
small diameter and high abrasion resistance. The larger the nets and the
rougher the fishing conditions, the more care is needed for choosing the
material. The requirements for handling and operation on board must also
be taken into account. The following discussion of breaking strength,
extensibilityand diameter is not restricted to bottom trawls but can

analogously be applied to other types of fishing gear.
3.3.1. HIGH BREAKING STRENGTH

Fibres of high quality provide reliability of operation. They enable a
and that means a reduction in the total mass
lighter netting yarn to be used
of net. Lower mass facilitates handling during shooting and hauling
operations, may reduce the bulk (storing), and eventually also the price.
For the same breaking strength netting yarn made of strong fibres can be
thinner than those made of weaker fibres. The thinner the netting yarn, the
lower the resistance to water flow. For trawlnets lower towing resistance
allows either a reduction of towing power with consequent savings in fuel,
or increased towing speed, or the use of a larger net by which the catching
may be increased. Low water resistance usually means also reduced
efficiency
water stow and turbulence which makes the net less perceptible to fish. In
general lighter nets fish better.
For comparison of the wet knot breaking strength of the various kinds of
netting yarn in relation to the Rtex, reference is made to Table 23a and b,
and to Figure 35. PA continuous filament netting yarns have the highest
wet knot breaking strength, followed by PP, PE and PES, while PVAA, PVC
and PVD are too poor in this respect to be eligible for bottom trawls.
3.3.2 HIGH EXTENSIBILITY AND TOUGHNESS

The extensibility of the netting yarns used for trawl nets should be
relatively high.High elongation combined with high elasticity and high wet
knot breaking strength result in a high toughness, which enables the net to
withstand rough treatment during fishing and to safely haul in larger catches.
For comparison of the elongation of various kinds of netting yarns Table 28
and Figure 48 refer. For netting yarns of soft and medium twist (not hard
order:
twist) wet elongation decreases in the following
PA staple fibre (highest elongation)

PVAA staple fibre (similar to wet cotton netting yarn)
PA continuous filament (nylon multifilament)
PE monofilament, folded
PP continuous filament
PP split (film) fibre
PES continuous filament (lowest elongation).
In general the elongation of PA staple fibre netting yarns is considered

too high and that of medium twisted PP and PES netting yarns too low for
in Table 29 and
trawls. Examples for elasticity and for toughness are given
Figures 49 to 53.
3.3.3 SMALL DIAMETER

The significance of the wet knot breaking strength for the diameter of
netting yarns has already been discussed (see 3.3.1). The second factor
determining the diameter of netting yarns is the fibre density (specific gravity).
High density and high breaking strength both favour thin netting yarns. The
relationship for different materials (with different density) between diameter
and wet knot breaking strength is shown in Figure 34 and in the small table
in section 2.3.4.1 (page 93).
With the same wet knot breaking strength, PES continuous filament
netting yarns have the smallest diameter, immediately followed by those
made of PA continuous filament. Netting yarns made of PP continuous
filament, PE folded monofilament and PP split fibre are significantly thicker
but they are surpassed in thickness by netting yarns made of PA staple fibre
and even more by those made of PVAA staple fibre.
3 3.4 HIGH ABRASION RESISTANCE

This property is of particular importance for bottom trawls because of
allfishing gears they suffer the most wear and tear on the bottom during
towing as well as on board when being dragged over the rail or the ramp
of the trawler. With some reservation (section 2.3.8) it can be stated that
PA is superior to all other fibre materials. As
regards the form of fibre,
netting yarns made of monofilaments are superior to those made of con-
tinuous filaments, and netting yarns made of staple fibres have the poorest
abrasion resistance. The influence of the form of the fibre is thus that certain
netting yarns made of PE monofilaments may have a better resistance to

wear and tear than netting yarns made of PA continuous filaments.
3.3.5 POLYAMIDE AND POLYETHYLENE
Netting yarns made of these two fibres, PA in the form of continuous

filaments and PE in the form of monofilaments (wires), are at present most
common for bottom trawls because, although not ideal, they have technical
and economic advantages when compared with the other available netting
materials.
3.3.5.1 Arguments in favour of polyamide
Netting yarns made of PA continuous filaments have all physical

properties required for trawls, certainly not in perfection, but still in a com-
bination and to an extent as no other available material: highest wet knot
breaking strength, very favourable degree of extensibility coupled with high
small diameter and high abrasion resistance.
elasticity,
The columns "PAcf" and "PE mon." in Table 23a enable a comparison
of the Rtex (mass of 1000 m) of the two kinds of netting yarn. With the same
wet knot breaking strength and the same length, netting yarns made of
PE folded monofilaments are about 20 percent heavier than PA cont. filament

netting yarns. PE netting yarns are also about 25 percent thicker than PA
netting yarns of the same wet knot breaking strength. For the thickness of the
knots the difference becomes even greater. In the case of the braided netting
yarns of Figure 33 the area covered by the knot of PE is about 130 percent
larger than that of the PA knot.
The mass of the and the thickness of the netting yarns are of great
net
importance for the handling of the trawl and for its towing resistance. In
both respects PA is superior to PE. Nets made of PA cont. filaments are
also less bulky than PE nets and therefore need less room for storage.
3.3.5.2 Arguments in favour of polyethylene

The lower price is the main argument in favour of netting yarns made of
PE folded monofilaments and probably the main reason for the widely spread
use of this material for trawlnets. In most countries it belongs to the cheapest
of all synthetic fibre products. It has the additional advantage that it can be
manufactured by relatively simple and inexpensive processing techniques
suitable also for non-industrialized countries. In contrast to this, and PA
PES continuous filaments belong to the most expensive fibres, and their
production is restricted to highly developed chemical industries.
PE trawls are said to be easier to handle or to clean from rubbish

and
spiny do
fish not become entangled so much primarily because they are
stiffer than PA trawls. This is also the reason why PE trawlnets do not
tend so much to catch on small obstructions on deck and to make turns
during hauling as soft nylon trawls do. Treatment by stiffening agents (see
2.3.5.7) can reduce this drawback of PA but requires additional work and
costs. PE netting yarns do not change their length in water as PA netting
yarns do (see Tables 25 and 26). On rough ground the PE net may be less
subject to damage because of the low specific gravity of the PE fibre which
favours floating. The buoyancy of PE may also allow a reduction in the
number of floats and thus a respective reduction in drag.
3.3.6 SIZE OF NETTING YARNS
The size (fineness) of the netting yarn should be selected with particular
regard to the fishing conditions, the type of operation (e.g. side, stern or
fish to be caught, the mesh-
pair trawling), the size of net and vessel, the
size and the position and function of the net section under consideration.
The relation between meshsize and strength of netting is not necessarily
directly proportional because the strength of the netting yarn
is often in
excess of the stress during towing in order to meet the higher strength
requirements for the handling on board. As regards the
function and position
in trawlnets, codends, in spite of having the smallest meshsize, often are
made of the strongest netting yarn in the trawlnets to better withstand the
wear and tear on the bottom and on board under rough working conditions
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wings, square, belly, tunnel, flapper, codend) are naturally subjected to
different stress during fishing and have different meshsize. The
requirements
for netting yarn strength differ accordingly. The more the
strength of the
netting yarns is adjusted to these different requirements the more the number
of different sizes of netting yarns in a trawl will increase. A perfect
adjustment
of netting yarn sizes would result in the lightest net possible. For a number
of obvious practical reasons, most trawlnets are actually composed of
only
one to three sizes of netting yarn, particularly if constructed from machine-
made netting. Table 31 gives examples of existing bottom trawlnets of
different type, size and construction which were selected from the technical
literature. It has to be cautioned that not all of the examples listed are
worthy
of imitation. The selection is also not representative for the extent to which
the materials are actually used in the fisheries of the world. Doubtless the
share of PE is actually much greater than shown. There are countries, like
Canada, Iceland, Japan, where PE monofilament netting yarn is the most
common material for trawlnets. In some other countries PES, PP or PVAA
(the latter for small trawls only, and treated by tar) are preferred. PP should be
used in the form of split fibres (film tapes) or folded monofilaments. These
materials are low-priced and they have a higher breaking strength and lower
creep (higher elasticity) than PE.
3.4 Choice of netting material for midwater trawlnets
The midwater trawl is the most important gear for bulk fishing pelagic
species in the large free water area between the near bottom range of
the bottom trawl and the near surface range of gillnets and encircling nets
(e.g.purse seines). The success of this modern gear depends to a large extent
on the high quality synthetic net material.
3.4.1 REQUIREMENTS
Most of the properties required for bottom trawls (3.3) are also needed
for midwater trawls (also called "pelagic trawls" or "floating trawls"), but
midwater trawls have additional requirements which are basically due to
the reaction of the fish to be caught. From a bottom trawl fish can escape
only to the sides and upward, while with midwater trawls escape downwards,
which is for most fish the main direction of flight, is also possible. The
chances for the fish to escape a midwater trawl are therefore considerably
better than with bottom trawls. This feature of midwater trawling is, of
course, particularly serious with active fish schools, such as non-spawning
herring, sardinella or mackerels. The problem is to prevent the fish getting
before are
deep enough
seriously frightened by the approaching gear they
in the net. This may be achieved by increasing the size of the net and by
providing best possible filtering efficiency to reduce water stow and dis-
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turbance. For a given towing power and towing speed, these measures
require largest possible meshsize and material for the netting yarns
of highest
possible breaking strength and toughness to obtain smallest possible diameter
for minimum towing resistance.
3.4.2 KIND AND SIZE OF NETTING YARNS
For the above reasons the best material for mid water trawls is PA
continuous filaments. Compared to the material for bottom trawls the
netting yarns for midwater trawls, in spite of their larger dimensions and
partly larger meshsize, have to be finer. The inevitably lower breaking
strength has to be counter-balanced by selecting netting yarns with high
extensibility for absorbing shock loads due to movements of trawl and trawler
in heavy sea and for better distributions of unequal loads on the netting.
Extensibility can be increased by hard twist instead of medium twist for
the netting yarns. Some characteristics of such netting yarns are discussed
below. Examples for the actual choice of netting yarns are listed in Table 32.
The fine netting yarns needed for satisfactory catching efficiency of midwater
trawls are usually not able to withstand excessive forces on the net occurring
under rough weather conditions, sharp course changes, or during hauling
of large catches on board. This is particularly true for large stern trawlers
with a ramp which have to haul up the total catch in one go. Therefore such
a net, and particularly its codend part, must be strengthened by a framework
of strengthening ropes which takes part of the load. Most of these strengthen-
ing ropes must have similar elongation characteristics as the netting material
and should therefore also be made of PA. Usually the codend is covered
by one or two hauling bags with large meshes made of heavy netting yarns
which for large stern trawler nets reach R 18000 tex (double taken) or even
more. This material is not included in Table 32.
3.4.3 HARD TWISTED PA NETTING YARNS
The information on the properties of netting yarns (Chapter 2) refer
mainly to netting yarns of medium twist. The values in Table 10 and
Figures 38 and 39 are therefore not directly applicable to hard twisted PA
material. When considering hard twisted netting yarns made of PA continuous
filaments, it should be kept in mind that the level of twist has a strong
influence not only on the extensibility but also on other important properties.
The following changes of properties occur if the twist level is increased :
The mass per unit length (Rtex) is increased and the runnage is
decreased;
The price for a given area of netting is increased;
The stiffness or hardness is increased;
The diameter is increased ;
The breaking strength (unknotted and knotted) is decreased;

The abrasion resistance may be increased to a certain degree;
The total elongation is increased, particularly at low loads.
The permanent elongation is increased and the degree of elasticity is

decreased. Decrease in breaking strength and elasticity and increase in mass
are disadvantages which have to be accepted if high extensibility is required.
The actual amount of the changes in these properties depends on the
degree of the coefficient of twist (see 2.1.1.9 and 2.1.2.5). There are no
standards for normal or hard twist. If the purchaser does not clearly state
600 I 800 I 1000 I 1200 '

KOO I
1600 I 1500 I 2000 l
ft
700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100

R tex
of
FIGURE 60. Influence of the level of twist on the wet knot breaking strength
netting yarns made ot PA continuous filaments. With
the same Rtex, hard
twisted netting yarns have lower breaking strength than medium twisted netting
yams.
the exact coefficient of twist desired, the decision is left to the manufacturer.
For hard twisted netting yarns made of PA continuous filaments it should
be higher than 200. (See 2.1.2.5).
3.4.3.1
Examples showing the influence of the level of twist on the fineness

(Rtex) are given in Tables 5 and 8. As already mentioned the Rtex values
of Table 10 are not applicable to hard twisted PA material.
3.4.3.2
Figure 60 illustrates the remarkable differences in the wet knot breaking

strength of medium and hard twisted PA netting yarn. With the same Rtex,
hard twisted netting yarns are weaker than medium twisted; with the same
wet knot breaking strength hard twisted netting yarns are heavier than
medium twisted.
3.4.3.3
The increase of extensibility by hard twisting can be seen from the load-
elongation curves of Figure 61. Similar comparisons, but for low loads only,
are given in Figure 46.
12 U 16 10 20 22 24 2 28 30 32 34 3ft 3 40 42 i4 46
Wt alongotion in pr etnt
FIGURE 61. Load-elongation curves of PA netting yarns showing the great

influence of the level of twist on the extensibility.
Specimens (a) and (b) are cabled netting twines made of the same number of
single yarns with the same fineness, (a) is medium twisted and used for bottom
trawls; (b) is hard twisted and used for midwater trawls.
Specimen (c) is not only very hard twisted but has also the construction of a
cabled netting twine of second order.
CHOICE OF NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING OEAR 161
Whilst the elongation of medium twisted netting yarns at a tension corre-

sponding to the half wet knot breaking strength reaches on average approxi-
mately 22 percent, the elongation of hard twisted netting yarns will mostly
exceed 30 percent. Much higher elongation values may be obtained by further
increase of twist and/or by using complicated constructions (specimen c in
Figure 61 refers to the very hard twisted cabled netting twine of second
order, listed as number 16 in Table 5). However, it is doubtful whether such
excessive extensibility has technical advantages for midwater trawls. It should
also be recalled that hard twist and complicated construction reduce the
degree of elasticity (2.3.7.4).
3.5 Choice of netting material for purse seine nets
In terms of amount of catch the purse seine is the most important fishing
gear. Purse seines are particularly efficient for bulk fishing of schooling
pelagic fish such as anchoveta, capelin, sardine, sardinella, sprat, herring,
mackerel, horse mackerel, salmon, bonito, tuna. The fishing range extends
from the surface down to about 1 50 m depth depending on size and con-
struction of the net. Large purse seines may have a length of about 2000 m
and contain more than 10 tons of netting. They are the largest and most
expensive fishing gear.
3.5.1. REQUIREMENTS
The requirements regarding the netting material are determined by the
operational characteristics of the gear as a surrounding net and by its com-
paratively enormous size. The main demands are great sinking speed, high
:
breaking strength, low resistance to water flow and, finally, low price. The
catching efficiency largely depends on the speed by which the fish school
can be encircled, the long net wall sinks down and the net can be closed
by pursing. For all three highest possible speed is desired to prevent active
fish schools from escaping and to reduce the influences of wind drift and
water current on the operation.
The sinking speed is influenced by the kind of netting material as well as
by the construction of the gear, including meshsize, hanging ratio of netting,
weight of leadline and also net impregnation. With regard to netting material,
high density (specific gravity) of fibre, smooth surface and small diam'eter
of netting yarn accelerate the sinking speed of the net and the latter two reduce
resistance to water flow.
3.5.2 KIND AND SIZE OF NETTING YARN
It is impossible to find an optimum combination of all characteristics
required for purse seines in one kind of netting material.

As regards sinking
reference is made to section 1.2.5.3. PVD (Saran) has the highest
speed,
specific gravity and therefore the highest sinking speed, but the lowest
breaking strength and is therefore not suitable for larger purse seines.
Cheap materials, like PE monofilament or PP split fibre have sufficient
breaking strength but low specific gravity so that they float in water and
cannot contribute to the sinking speed at all. Combination netting yarns
made of Saran +nylon ("Kyokurin", "Livlon") are produced in Japan
particularly for the use in purse seines and deep-sea gillnets. They are meant
to combine the high density of saran with the high breaking strength of
nylon, but they are not easily available in most countries outside Japan.
Netting yarns made of PVAA staple fibre are relatively cheap but, due to
their rough surface, have a low sinking speed and, above all, a low breaking
strength.
Considering the whole, the most suitable materials for purse seines are
probably netting yarns made of PA continuous filaments and of PES con-
tinuous filaments. PES has a reasonably high specific gravity and accordingly
a favourable sinking speed. PA has a lower specific gravity and sinking
speed but a higher breaking strength and therefore the smallest netting yarn
diameter. The sinking speed may be increased by dipping the net into tar
or similar products. The originally soft netting is stiffened by this process
which improves the handling characteristics and protection against light is
provided as well.
Table 33 gives examples of the sizes of (mainly PA) netting yarns used in
different types and sizes of purse seines. As with other fishing gear, the fine-
ness of netting yarns in purse seines depends on the size of the gear, on the
position and function of the netting in the gear, on the meshsize and on the
species offish to be caught. Purse seines consist of a number of netting panels
or strips which may have different meshsize and are subjected to different
stress. Accordingly, several sizes of netting yarn are used. The main body of
the net is usually made of fine netting yarns. The landing bags or bunts,
in which the fish is concentrated ("dried up") after pursing and hauling
most of the net, are subject to much more stress and are therefore made of
heavier netting yarn. The same applies to the border strips or the selvedges
which at the same time usually are made of larger meshsize. A recommend-
able way to reduce mass, water resistance and cost of a purse seine is to
have the main body of the net with the exception of the bunt and eventually
the selvedges made of knotless netting (see 2.1.4).
3*6 Choice of netting material for gillnets
This simple type of fishing gear is widely used in several types, such as
bottom set net, anchored floating and also encircling net.
gillnet, drift net
As regards netting material, the loosely hung entangling nets may also be
included in this group of gear. The introduction of high quality synthetic
netting materials has very much promoted the extended use of this gear
type. This is due mainly to the considerably better catching efficiency which
is two to twelve times higher in particular for transparent PA
monofila-
ment as compared with the natural fibre material (e.g. cotton, flax, ramie)
used before.
3.6.1 REQUIREMENTS
Gillnets belong to the passive fishing gears which are placed in the way
of the moving fish or fish schools. Good catching efficiency requires low
perceptibility of the gear by sight or the organ of the fish before
lateral line
being gilled or entangled in the netting. Gillnets must be adjusted to the

behaviour of fish even better than trawls and purse seines.
Materials of gillnets should have lowest possible visibility in water,
particularly for daytime fishing in clear water. The netting yarns should also
be as fine and soft as possible to reduce the perceptibility by the side line
organ. Thinner netting yarn is also less visible. On the other hand, the
material should be strong enough to withstand the forces of the caught fish
in its fight for freedom. The material should, furthermore, have appropriate
extensibility and elasticity to hold the gilled or entangled fish securely while
the gear is in catching position and during hauling, but not so strongly that
the fish cannot easily be shaken or taken out of the net. Material with high
low-load elongation cannot meet this demand. As the size of the fish to be
caught by gilling depends on the meshsize, the netting should have good
knot stability and the meshsize should not be affected by water. The original
meshsize should be recovered after removal of loads or after the fish has
been taken out of the mesh.
3.6.2 KIND AND SIZE OF NETTING YARNS
Some of the requirements listed above are contradictory. For instance,

due to their transparency and to the similarity of their light refractive index,
uncoloured PA single monofilaments are almost invisible in water but they
are reasonably soft only up to a diameter of about 0.20 to 0.25 mm. Such
fine monofilaments have naturally a rather low breaking strength which is
not sufficient for heavy duty gillnets. With increasing diameter the stiffness
increases considerably and the net becomes more and more bulky (see
Table 24 and 2.3.5), which is an operational disadvantage.
In order to combine the transparency and softness of the thin PA mono-
filaments with a higher strength, three to five very fine PA monofilaments are
twisted together by a very loose twist with only a few turns per metre (see
2.1.2.2) (ace. to Institut f. Fangtechnik, Hamburg, 1981).
Example: four PA monofilaments of a diameter of 0.17 mm
each, form a
very loosely twisted twine of R 158 tex with a breaking strength of about
10 kgf, a diameter of 0.38 mm
and a knot breaking elongation of 13 percent.
This folded PA monofilament yarn, corresponding to the construction shown
in Figure 8c, is much softer than a single monofilament of 0.4 or 0.45 mm
diameter which would have approximately the same breaking strength.
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PA continuous filamentis the softest of all synthetic materials in wet
condition, but natural shiny white colour is far too visible in clear water.
its
It should be dyed just as other kinds of white material made of continuous

filaments or staple fibres (e.g. PES, PP, PVAA). Since there is no uniformity
of opinion and since the efficiency depends on the fishing conditions, the
sought and eventually even on the time of the day and the year,
fish species
no recommendations on the selection of colour can be offered. Green, blue,
grey and brownish colours appear to be most common in present commercial
fisheries.
Netting yarns made of the very strong PA continuous filaments should
have soft twist. Hard and even medium twisted PA netting yarns are not
recommended because of their high elongation at low loads which is
undesirable for the function of gillnetting.
Because of the large variety of gillnets with regard to size, meshsize,
fish sought, operational patterns, fishing conditions, etc., it is not possible
to offer comprehensive recommendations for the selection of net materials.
Therefore only several characteristic examples are given. All Rtex values are
nominal and refer to non-dyed and non-treated netting yarns. By dyeing
and/or stiffening the Rtex values increase. The stronger netting yarns often
used for selvedges are not included.
3.6.2.1 Salmon gillnets
Opening of mesh: 120 mm to 160 mm

(a) Netting yarns made of PES continuous filaments:
28tex x 12; R 370 tex

28 tex x 15; R 460 tex
(b) Netting yarns made of PA continuous filaments:
23 tex x 12; R 290 tex to R 310 tex

23 tex x 15; R 370 tex to R 390 tex
(c) Single PA monofilaments (transparent) :
0.6 mm diameter; 330 tex

0.7 mm diameter; 480 tex
(d) Netting yarns made of PP continuous filaments :
21 tex x 12; R 285 tex

21 tex x 15; R 355 tex
21 tex x 18; R 420 tex
3.6.2.2 Codgillnets
Opening of mesh: 180mm to 200mm. The same sizes of netting yarn

may be used as for salmon.
For small cod, with mesh opening of 110mm to 120mm, finer netting
yarns may be used, for instance :
PA continuous filament: 23 tex x 4; R 100 tex

PA single monofilament: 0.3 mm diameter, 90 tex.
PA folded monofilaments, loosely twisted: 0.17 mm x 3 or 0.17 mm
X 4 (sec 3.6.2).
3.6.2.3 Mackerel gillnets
Opening of mesh: 50 mm to 80 mm (and more)

PES continuous filament: 28 tex x 6; R 180 tex
PA continuous filament: 23 tex x 6; R 155 tex
PA single monofilament 0.4 : mm to 0.45 mm diameter
PP continuous filament: 21 tex x 6; R 140 tex
3.6.2.4 Gill (drift) nets for herring and sardine
Opening of mesh for herring: 55 mm to 65 mm

sardine: 30 mm to 50 mm
With regard to breaking strength very fine netting yarns would be
sufficient, such as :
PA continuous filament: 23 tex x 2, or 23 tex x 3, or 23 tex x 4;

PES continuous filament: 28 tex x 3
PP continuous filament: 21 tex x 3, or 21 tex x 4.
These fine and smooth netting yarns are, however, not fully suitable for
these "soft" fishes because they are too "sharp" or cutting and can damage
the gilled fish so that it may be decapitated when shaken out. For this reason
netting yarns for soft fish gillnets should have a larger diameter than required
for the breaking strength. The cotton netting yarns previously used for
herring drift nets had a diameter of 0.6 to 0.8 mm. This approximately
corresponds to :
PA continuous filament: 23 tex x 12 (or x 15)

PES continuous filament: 28 tex x 12 (or x 15)
PP continuous filament: 21 tex x 9 (or x 12)
The degree of not decisive for herring and sardine because
visibility is
fishing mainly during

is the night and these species of fish do not rely so
much on their visual sense as do the fishes mentioned below. Because of
these specific requirements, netting material of low breaking strength and
greater diameter such as PVAA
staple fibre is well suited for herring or sardine
gillnets. Examples for suitable netting yarn size made of staple are: PVAA
Sardine gillnet PVAA 30 tex x 4
Herring gillnet PVAA 30 tex x 15
Herring gillnet PVAA 50 tex x 9
A preparation with stiffening agents is recommended for gillnets and

driftnets made of continuous filament or staple fibre material if the nets
are used for catching soft fish (see 2.3.5.7).
There is also a gillnet fishery for small herring (opening of mesh about
40mm) with nets made of transparent PA single monofilaments with
diameters from 0.15 mm to 0.30 mm.
3.6.2.5 Very fine gillnets

Gillnets made of very fine netting materials are required for fish which
mainly rely on their visual sense, such as trout, coregones (Coregonus spp.),
brock, smelt (Osmerus spp.), roach (Rutilus sp.), bleak (Alburnus sp.), perch
(Perca spp.), ruff (Acerina sp.). Such gears are predominantly used in lakes
and coastal waters. Transparent single PA monofilaments are the most suitable
for such gillnets, for which low visibility is the main requirement.
Examples:
Coregone gillnets, opening of mesh between 36 mm and 100 mm (the
smaller the mesh, the thinner the netting yarn):
PA single monofilament: 0.10mm, 11 tex

PA single monofilament: 0.12 mm, 16 tex
PA continuous filament netting yarn 8 tex x: 3 R25 tex
;
PA continuous filament netting yarn: 23 tex x 2; R50 tex

PA continuous filament netting yarn: 23 tex x 3; R75 tex.
Roach gillnets, opening of mesh 52 mm to 90 mm.

PA continuous filament netting yarn 23 tex x 2; R50 tex
PA continuous filament netting yarn 23 tex x 3; R75 tex
PES continuous filament netting yarn 14 tex x 3; R45 tex
Perch gillnets, opening of mesh 40 mm to 90 mm.

For gillnets for pike (Esox spp.), pike-perch (Lucioperca sp.), perch,
trout,and char (Salvelinus spp.) in Swedish lakes the following relations
between meshsize and diameter of the single PA monofilaments are
recommended:
With regard to the netting material, the inner walls of trammel nets have
similar requirements. The inner netting of a trammel net for flatfish may
consist ofPA single monofilament of 0.20 to 0.25 mm PA
diameter or of
continuous filament 23 tex x 3. The two outer walls with wide meshes may,
for instance, be made of PA continuous filament netting yarn 23 tex x 9.
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103. NEDELEC, C. et LIBERT, L.: Etude du chalut. Revue des travaux de ri.S.T.P.M., 23
Paris, 1959.
104. Du chalut de fond & grande ouverture verticale au chalut flottant.
NEDELEC, C.:
Science et Peche, Nr. 95, 1961.
105. NEDELEC, C.: Un chalut de fond & grande ouverture pour la peche c6tiere. Mod.
106. NOMURA, M.: Studies on gillnets, I/I1. Bull. Tokai Reg. Fish. Res. Labor., No. 30,
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107. K., OSAWA, Y. and HAYAMA, Y.: Study on behaviour of purse
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108. PORTIER, M.: Choix du chalut semi-pelagique et de son gr6ement selon la puissance
du navire, le comportement des especes recherchees et la nature du fond. Mod.
109. PRESS, J.J.: Man-made Textile Encyclopedia. New York, 1959.
110. RICHARDSON, J.D.: Synthetic drift nets. World Fishing, 8, No. 4, 1959.
111. SCHARFE, J.: Uber Messungen an Schleppnetzen. Arch. Fischereiwiss., 6, 1955.
112. SCHARFE, J.: Mediterranean Trawling (II-IV). FAO, Stud. Rev. GFCM 6/10,
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113. SCHARFE, J.: A new method for aimed one-boat trawling in midwater and on the
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114. SCHARFE, J. Improvements and trends of developments in marine fishing methods and
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gear. Instit. of Biology, London, 1963.

115. SCHARFE, J.: One-boat midwater trawling from Germany. Mod. Fishing Gear of the
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116. SCHARFE, J.: The German one-boat midwater trawl. Protok. z. Fischereitechnik, XII,
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117. SCHARFE, J.: The German one-boat midwater trawl. Fishing News Internal., 1969.
118. SCOFIELD, W.L.: Purse seines and other roundhaul nets in California. Calif. Fish.
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119. SHIMOZAKI, J.: Characteristics of synthetic twines used for fishing nets and ropes in
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120. SHIMOZAKI, J.: Production and characteristics of synthetic nets and ropes in Japan.
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134. Ura, E. and Mori, J. Forecasting purse seine fishing conditions in the East
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35. Verhoest, J, :
of the World II, 209-217, London, 1964

136. van Wijngaarden, J.K. Testing methods for net twines and nets especially those
:
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137. "World Fishing" Course for apprentice fishermen. London, 1964
:
138. ZAUCHA, J.: New synthetic herring drift nets used in the North Sea. Mod. Fishing
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Other books published by Freezing and irradiation of fish
Fishing News Books Ltd Glossary of United Kingdom
fishing gear teams
Free catalogue available on request
Handbook of trout and salmon
diseases
Advances in aquaculture
Handy medical guide for seafarers
Advances in fish science and How to make and set nets
technology Inshore fishing: its skills, risks,
Aquaculture practices in Taiwan rewards
Atlantic salmon its future
:
Introduction to fishery by-products
Better angling with simple science The lemon sole
British freshwater fishes A living from lobsters
Commercial fishing methods Marine fisheries ecosystem:
Control of fish quality its and
quantitative evaluation
Culture of bivalve molluscs management
Echo sounding and sonar for Marine pollution and sea life
fishing The marketing of shellfish
The edible crab and its fishery in Mending of fishing nets
British waters Modern deep sea trawling gear
Eel capture, culture, processing and Modern fishing gear of the world 1
marketing Modern fishing gear of the world 2

Eel culture Modern fishing gear of the world 3
European inland water fish: More Scottish fishing craft and
a multilingual catalogue their work
FAO catalogue of fishing gear Multilingual dictionary of fish and
designs fish products
FAO catalogue of small scale Navigation primer for fishermen
fishing gear Pair trawling and pair seining: the
FAO investigates ferro-cement technology of two boat fishing
fishing craft Pelagic and semi-pelagic trawling
Farming the edge of the sea gear
Fish and shellfish farming in Planning of aquaculture
coastal waters development: an introductory
Fish catching methods of the world guide
Fisheries oceanography and ecology Power transmission and
Fisheries of Australia automation for ships and
Fishermen's handbook submersibles
Fishery products Refrigeration on fishing vessels
Fishing boats and their equipment Salmon and trout farming in
Fishing boats of the world 1 Norway
Fishing boats of the world 2 Salmon fisheries of Scotland
Fishing boats of the world 3 Scallops and the diver-fisherman
The fishing cadet's handbook Seafood fishing for amateur and
Fishing ports and markets professional
Fishing with electricity Seine fishing
Fishing with light Stability and trim of fishing vessels
The stern trawler Trends in fish utilization
Study of the sea Trout farming manual
Textbook offish culture: breeding Tuna: distribution and migration
and cultivation of fish Tuna fishing with pole and line
Training fishermen at sea

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FAO Fishing Manuals

Published by arrangement with the

First published 1973

The copyright in this book is vested in the Food and Agriculture

British Library CIP data

1.1 Vegetable fibres 1

1.2 Synthetic fibres 6

1 .2.1 Remarks on the manufacture 6

1.2.4.1 Continuous filaments (multifilament yarn) 16

1 .2.5 Main characteristics of synthetic fibres 19

1.2.5.1 Endurance in water 19

1.2.6.1 General remarks 25

2.1 Construction of netting yarn 31

2.1.1 Terms and definitions 31

2.1.1.1 Netting yarn 31

2.1 .2 Construction of twisted netting yarn 33

2.1.2.1 Single yarn 33

2.1.3 Construction of braided netting yarns 42

2.1.4 Netting yarn from knotless netting 46

2.1.4.1 Japanese twisted netting 47

2.2 Designation of netting yarns 52

The tex system 53

2.2.3.2 Metric number 58

2.3 Properties of netting yarns 59

2.3. 1 Terms and definitions 60

2.3.1.1 Standard atmosphere 60

2.3.2 Testing of netting yarns 63

2.3.2.1 Breaking strength 64

2.3.3 Breaking strength and knot breaking strength of netting yarn 71

2.3.3.3 Weaver's knot breaking strength 81

2.3.4 Diameter, Rtex, and knot breaking strength 88

2.3.4.1 Diameter and knot breaking strength 90

2.3.5 Flexural stiffness 96

2.3.5.1 PA single monofilaments 96

2.3.6 Change in length in water 104

2.3.6.1 Netting yarns made of PES, PE and PP 105

2.3.8 Abrasion resistance 134

2.3.8.1 Criticism of testing methods 135

3. CHOICE OF NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING GEAR 142

&i General remarks 142

34 Specification of netting yarn and netting for purchase 143

,.+*. -,... ,,..,, 144

3.2.1.1 Fibre 144

3.2.2 Netting 145

3.2.2.1 Knotted or knotless 146

3.3 Choice of netting material for bottom trawlnets 148

3.3.1 High breaking strength 149

3.3.5.1 Arguments in favour of polyamide 150

3.3.6 Size of netting yarns 151

3.4 Choice of netting material for midwater trawlnets 155

3.4.1 Requirements 155

3.5 Choice of netting material for purse seine nets 161

3.5.1 Requirements 161

3.6 Choice of netting material for gillnets 162

3.6.1 Requirements 163

3.6.2.1 Salman gillnets 166

3.6.2.4 Gill (drift) nets for herring and sardine 167

BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES 171