ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Civil and Geomatics Department of Pashchimanchal campus has been offering
various project works to Bachelor Level students. This system is the great adventures and
practical oriented job inserted works to achieve the goal.
This report has been prepared based on teacher guidance along with the help of
different books. The main aim of the project is to make the students of bachelor level familiar
with the problems during the surveying. Besides, this is very important and helpful for the
knowledge and skill development of students for field works.
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to BGE SURVEY CAMP-2075
coordinator “Er. Niraj K.C” for his excellent coordination, guidance and support and to our
respected teachers, Er. Hareram Timilsina, Er. Kishor Kumar Bhandari, Er. Saurav Gautam
and Er. Kiran Neupane for their devotion and instructions in bringing survey camp successful.
We would never forget their valuable suggestions and instructions about working ideas in the
field as well as theoretical knowledge about their subject.
Besides of hard efforts, there might be various mistakes and errors in our works so, we
would like to request teachers and all the readers to help in pointing the mistakes for the
improvement of the report preparing skills as well as for the completion of the project works.

Lastly, we would like to thank everyone who helped us directly or indirectly in the
duration of survey camp and in preparation of this report.

GROUP (D)

Sachin Dhami (074BGE5324)

Sandeep Kadel (074BGE536)

Sandip Poudel (074BGE537)

Sandip Kunwar (074BGE538)

Satabdi Lamichhane (074BGE539)

Sankar Neupane (074BGE541)

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 ABSTRACT
This report is the outcome of 10 days Survey camp 2076 organized by the Survey Instruction
Committee, Department of Civil and Geomatics Engineering, IOE, Pashchimanchal Campus
for the students of 074-BGE Batch as per Syllabus of Institute of Engineering for Bachelor of
Geomatics Engineering.
The main theme of survey camp organized is to enhance the theoretical and practical
knowledge of the students in the engineering field. This is a report of BGE survey camp -2076
st
organized by Western Region Campus, Department of Civil andth Geomatics, which was held a
premise. Kali khola and campus area from 25th of Bhadra to 3rd of Ashwin. It is aimed to
be perfect in presentation of theoretical and practical knowledge in engineering survey.
The report reflects the methodology, observations and calculations made by the students in the
camp with the corresponding drawings. The large portions of course covered with elements of
Topographic surveying and those of road alignment and bridge site survey follow it.
In this survey camp we have to prepare the topographical map of the given area, road, bridge
site and R.L transfer fulfilling all the technical requirement. In this regard we have to carry out
necessary fields works in our group so that we will get opportunity to make decision on
planning and execution of the field works for the preparation of topographic map in geographic
information system (GIS), detail of road and bridge are in HECRAS.
This survey helps us to build in our confidence to conduct engineering survey on required
accuracy with some extra knowledge of GIS along with HECRAS. It also helps us to familiar
with teacher and friends.

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Table of Contents

WORKING SHEDULE -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5

INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING --------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8

OBJECTIVES: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
BRIDGE SITE SURVEY ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
Objectives ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 18
Brief Description of the area -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
Hydrology, Geology and Soil ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
Methodology --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
Site Selection -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
Topographic Survey ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 20
Longitudinal Section ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 20
Cross Section -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21
Leveling -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21
Detailing -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22
Computation and Plotting ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 22
Comments and Conclusions --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22

ROAD ALIGNMENT AND GEOMETRIC DESIGN ----------------------------------------------- 23

Brief Description of the Project area ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
Hydrology and Geology -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
Soil -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
Norms (Technical Specifications) -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
Equipment and accessories ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24
Methodology --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24
Horizontal Alignment ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 24

Vertical Alignment ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25

Leveling ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 25

Longitudinal Section ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25

Cross Section ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26

Topographic survey of road corridor ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26
Structures ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26
Comments and Conclusions ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26
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 Concluding Remarks ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)-------------------------------------------------- 28

INTRODUCTION ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28
IMPORTANCE OF GIS --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 29
ArcGIS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 29

Comments and Conclusions--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30

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WORKING SHEDULE

Project title : Survey Camp 2076

Location : Pashchimanchal campus premises, Kali khola.
Duration : From 25th Bhadra to 3rd Ashwin
Working time : 9:00 am to 6:00 pm

S.N Date Day Works

1. 25th Bhadra Orientation,Establishment of Major Station.

2. 26th Bhadra Establishment of Minor station and angular measurement of Majer Station
and Minor Station.

3. 27th Bhadra RL transfer from PBM to BM.

4. 28th Bhadra Detailing by Total station.

5. 29th Bhadra Detailing by Total stationand Computation works.

6. 30th Bhadra Road Survey and Establishment of Station point.

7. 31st Bhadra Levelling of Road Survey.

8. 1st Ashwin Levelling of Road Survey .

9. 2nd Ashwin Fly Levelling and Bridge site survey(upstream).

10. 3rd Ashwin Bridge site survey(downstream),Computation of reduced level of Road

Survey and Bridge Survey.

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 INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

The art of making measurements of relative poition of natural and man made features either on
the earths surface or below the earths surface,and the presentation of this information either
graphically or numerically. Surveying or land surveying is the technique, profession, and
science of determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional position of points and the distances
and angles between them. A land surveying professional is called a land surveyor. These points
are usually on the surface of the Earth, and they are often used to establish maps and boundaries
for ownership, locations, such as building corners or the surface location of subsurface
features, or other purposes required by government or civil law, such as property sales.
Surveyors work with elements of geometry, trigonometry, regression analysis, physics,
engineering, metrology, programming languages, and the law. They use equipment, such as
total stations, robotic total stations, GPS receivers, retroreflectors, 3D scanners, radios,
handheld tablets, digital levels, subsurface locators, drones, GIS, and surveying software.

Surveying has been an element in the development of the human environment since the
beginning of recorded history. The planning and execution of most forms of construction
require it. It is also used in transport, communications, mapping, and the definition of legal
boundaries for land ownership. It is an important tool for research in many other scientific
disciplines.
The B.E. Survey Camp 2076, organized by the Civil and Geomatics Department, I.O.E,
Pashchimanchal Campus is a part of the four-year bachelor’s degree in Geomatics Engineering
course, second year second semester, carrying a total of 100 marks. The total duration of the
survey camp was 10 days, from 23rd Bhadra to 3rd Ashwin,2076.The main purpose of this camp
was to enhance our practicle skills on field.
Surveying is the main roots for the execution of any civil engineering projects. The science of
surveying has been developing since the initial stage of human civilization according to their
requirements. The art of surveying preparation of maps has been practiced from the ancient
times and the further advanced until present. In the absence of the map, it is impossible to
layout the alignments of road, canals tunnels, transmission power line and microwave or
television relaying towers and so on. Detailed map of the sites of engineering projects are
necessary for the precision establishment of sophisticated instruments. Surveying is the first
step for the execution of any project. As the success of any engineering is based upon the
accurate and complete survey work, an engineer must therefore be thoroughly familiar with
the principle and different methods of surveying and mapping.
For the purpose of water supply-sanitary system, irrigation system, highway designing, the
relative altitudes are required, which is ascertained by the process of leveling. The details of
the enclosed area and the ground nature can also be portrayed in the combined form of a
topographic map. Not only this, the whole land can be surveyed as different areas and can be
plotted into a single map, the main thing is not to violate the basic survey principles viz.
working from whole to part, consistency in work, accuracy required according to scale and
independent check. As a basic part of these principles, horizontal and vertical controls are fixed
prior to the work of detailing, while surveying large areas. These necessities are also fulfilled
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while fixing intersection points for the primary survey on road. For the survey on river,
especially for bridge site, the triangulation method is carried over for horizontal control and
fixing control station for further references. In addition, for vertical control fly leveling is run to
form closed circuit. These all are done very precisely and accurately to achieve the good
result. Hence, the work done during the camp duration can be categorized into three main
projects:
a ) Topographical survey
b ) Bridge site survey
c ) Road alignment survey

OBJECTIVE OF SURVEYING
The main objective of this survey camp allocated for Geomatics engineering students is
to consolidate and update their basic knowledge of different surveying techniques relevant
to Geomatics engineering works. Working in actual field conditions enhances their
theoretical and practical knowledge and increases their confidence that is beneficial to their
professional practice in the near future. The duration of this survey camp enabled a single
group of students to perform and prepare reports on:
a ) Detailed survey of the given area
b ) Road alignment survey
c ) Bridge site survey
Besides, the main objective mentioned above some other objectives can be listed as:
I. familiarize individuals with the concept of team work as surveying is not a one-
man game.
II. To familiarize students with the parts, functions and handling of
surveying instruments and their use in surveying.
III. To familiarize students with the problems that are likely to arise during the
fieldwork. For e.g. Weather, ground features etc.
IV. To complete the given project in scheduled time and thus gives students a feel
of facing and completing deadlines.
V. To collect required data in the field in systematic ways.
VI. To compute and manipulate the observed data in the required accuracy and present
it in diagrammatic and tabular form in such a way that it is understood by
other engineers easily and gives the layman an idea of what has been done.
Thus, this Survey Camp was organized to give the students an opportunity to feel the
difference between theoretical knowledge and practical work and hence develop a
quality in them by virtue of which they will be able to make a link between the two
different aspects of engineering education.

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PROJECT AREA
W.R.C., Lamachour, Pokhara, Kaski, Nepal.

LOCATION AND ACCESSIBILITY

(WESTERN REGION CAMPUS, POKHARA, KASKI)
W.R.C., situated at Pokhara, Kaski, Nepal was established for the purpose of providing
technical education so that skilled manpower can use it for nation development. It was established
by the loan provided by World Bank & supported by United Nation Development Program.
It provides BE education in Geomatics, Civil, Mechanical, Electronics, Computer,
Automobiles faculties.
Ward No : 16
Municipality : Pokhara
District : Kaski
Province 4 : Gandaki
Development Region: Western D.R.
Country : Nepal (147, 181 sq. km)

Kali khola lies at the northernmost part of pokhara. It runs through Armala VDC ,Valam
VDC and Batulechaur.Shortest route from paschimanchal campus to Kali Khola takes about
30 minutes .
We Group –‘H’ students collaboratin six members,despite of difficulties, together
have made a complete survey report and explained all the method we followed during our
field work.In addition,we have attached observations , calculations , error adjustment,and final
results of the work herewith.

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TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY:
Topographical surveying is the determining of the positions of natural and artificial features
on both plane and elevation. In other word determining the configuration (relief) of the earth’s
surface and to locate natural and cultural features on it is topographical survey. From the survey
data, topographic maps that depict these natural and cultural features are produced using various
types of lines and conventional symbols. Topographic is simply the graphical representation
of positions of the earth’s surface.

Objectives:
The map is on sufficiently large scale to enable the individual features shown on the map
to be identified on the ground by their shapes and positions is known as topographic map.
The main Objective of topographical survey is to prepare the topographic map of the given
area with horizontal control and vertical control on required accuracy.

Norms (Technical specifications):

1. Conduct reconnaissance survey of the given area. Form a close traverse (major
and minor) around the perimeter of the area by making traverse stations. In the
selection of the traverse station, make sure that the stations are inter visible and
maintain the ratio of maximum traverse leg to minimum traverse leg 3:1 for minor
traverse and 1:2 in the case of major traverse.
2. Measure the traverse legs in the forward and reverse directions by means of a tape
calibrated against the standard length provided in the field, note that discrepancy
between forward and backward measurements should be greater than 1:2000.
3. In case of distance measurement by total station in both forward and backward direction
the precision of 1:5000 in case of major traverse and 1:3000 in case of minor traverse
should be maintained.
4. Measure traverse angle on two sets of reading by total station. Note the
difference between the mean angles of two sets reading should be within 20 seconds.
5. Determine the R.L. of traverse stations by fly leveling from the given arbitrary T.B.M.2
to T.B.M.3. Perform two-peg test before the start of fly leveling. Note that collimation
error should be less than 1:10000. Maintain equal fore sight and back sight distances
to eliminate collimation error. Permissible error for fly leveling is ±25√k mm, where
k is the distance in kilometer.
6. Balance the traverse. The permissible angular error for the sum of interior angles of
the traverse should be less than ±30"√n and ±1°√n for major and minor
traverse respectively. For major and minor traverse, the relative closing error should
be less than 1:5000 and 1:3000 respectively.
7. Plot the major and minor traverse stations by coordinate method in appropriate scale

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 (1:1000, 1:500 respectively).
8. Carry out the detail survey of the given sub area by total station and tachometric
surveying with reference to the major and minor traverse, which have been already
plotted. Use conventional symbols for plotting.

Equipment and accessories:

1. Total station
2. Reflector, prism & prism pole
3. Auto level
4. Plumb bob
5. Staffs and ranging rods
6. Hammer
7. Tapes
8. Nails and pegs

Methodology:
The methodology of surveying is based on the principle of surveying. They are as follows:
I. Working from whole to part
II. Independent check

III. Consistency of work

The different methodologies were used in surveying to solve problems arises in the field.
The methodologies are as follows.

I. Reconnaissance [recce]
Recce means the exploration or scouting of an area. In survey, it involves walking
around the survey area and roughly planning the number of stations and the position of
the traverse stations. Recce is primarily done to get an overall idea of the site. This
helps to make the necessary observations regarding the total area, type of land,
topography, vegetation, climate, geology and inter visibility conditions that help in
detailed planning. The following points must be taken into consideration for fixing
traverse stations:
1.The adjacent stations should be clearly indivisible.
2.The whole area should include the least number of stations possible.
3.The traverse station should maintain the ratio of maximum traverse leg to minimum
traverse leg less than 2:1 for major traverse and 3:1 for minor traverse.
4.The steep slopes and badly broken ground should be avoided as far as possible,
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 which may cause inaccuracy in tapping.
5.The stations should provide minimum level surface required for setting up the
instrument.
6.The traverse line of sight should not be near the ground level to avoid the refraction.
Taking the above given points into consideration, the traverse stations were fixed. Then
two-way taping was done for each traverse leg. Thus, permanent fixing of the control
points completes recce.

II. Traversing
Traverse is a method in the field of surveying to establish control networks. It is also used
in geodesy. Traverse networks involve placing survey stations along a line or path of
travel, and then using the previously surveyed points as a base for observing the next
point. Traverse networks have many advantages, including:
1. Less reconnaissance and organization needed,
2. While in other systems, which may require the survey to be performed along a
rigid polygon shape, the traverse can change to any shape and thus can
accommodate a great deal of different terrains,
3. Only a few observations need to be taken at each station, whereas in other survey
networks a great deal of angular and linear observations need to be made and
considered,
4. Traverse networks are free of the strength of figure considerations that happen in
triangular systems,
5. Scale error does not add up as the traverse is performed. Azimuth swing errors can
also be reduced by increasing the distance between stations.The traverse is more
accurate than triangulation and trilateration practice.

Types of Traverse:
1. Open Traverse

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 2. Closed Traverse

3 . Link Traverse
4 . Loop Traverse

Balancing the traverse:

There are different methods of adjusting a traverse such as Bowditch’s method, Transit
method, Graphical method and Axis method. Among them during the survey camp, Bowditch’s
method was used to adjust the traverse.
The basis of the method of adjusting a traverse

Major Traverse:
Traversing is a type of survey in which a number of connected survey lines form a framework
enclosing the area to be surveyed. Working from whole to part is the principle. So, the whole area
is enclosed by number of control points of which details are necessary. The skeleton of lines

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joining those control points, which covers the whole entire area, is called Major Traverse. Work
on Major traverse must be precise. So, two- set of reading should be taken for Major Traverse.
For convenience, the readings are taken by setting the theodolite at 0°0’0” for one set and
90°00’00” for the second set. In the Survey Camp, two traverses - major and minor had to be
established. The major traverse had 11 control stations including two given control points. The
control stations were named as CP1 and CP2. The leg ratio of maximum traverse leg to minimum
traverse leg was maintained within 1:2. The discrepancy in length between the forward
measurements and the backward measurements of all the traverse legs was within 1:5000. Two
sets of theodolite readings were taken for measuring the horizontal traverse angles. The difference
between the mean angles of two sets of readings was within a minute for all the angles. The
angular error for the sum of interior angles of the traverse was less than ±30"√11. The relative
closing error for the major traverse was 1:1360.213. Finally, the major traverse was plotted by
the coordinate method in a scale of 1:1000 on an A1 size drawing paper with grid lines provided
by the survey instruction committee.

Minor Traverse:
It is not enough to detail the area by enclosing with the help of major traverse. Minor traverse is
that one which runs through the area to make detailing easy. Minor Traverse covers only small
area. Less precise work than that of major traverse is acceptable so that single set reading is
enough for minor traverse. The minor traverse had 4 major stations. The control stations were
named as M1, M2 and so on. The leg ratio of maximum traverse leg to minimum traverse leg was
maintained within 1:3. The discrepancy in length between the forward measurements and the
backward measurements of all the traverse legs was within 1:3000. One set of total station
readings was taken for measuring the horizontal traverse angles. The relative closing error for the
minor traverse was 1: 161.347 in the loop of minor traverse, which was nearly equal to or more
than 1:3000. Finally, the minor traverse was plotted by the coordinate method in a scale of 1:500
on an A1 size drawing paper with grid lines.

III. Leveling:
Leveling is a branch of surveying the objective of which is to
( i ) Find the elevations of given points with respect to a given or assumed datum and
( i i ) Establish points at a given elevation or at different elevations with respect to a given
or assumed datum.
The first operation is required to enable the works to be designed while the second
operation is required in the setting out of all kinds of engineering works. Leveling deals with
measurements in a vertical plane. To provide vertical control in topographic map, the
elevations of the relevant points must be known so that complete topography of the area can
be explored. Leveling was performed to determine the elevation (relative height from a given
datum)
Two types of leveling were performed at the site, namely direct leveling (spirit leveling)
and indirect leveling (trigonometric leveling).

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1. Direct leveling: It is the branch of leveling in which the vertical distances with respect
to a horizontal line (perpendicular to the direction of gravity) may be used to determine the
relative difference in elevation between two adjacent points. A level provides horizontal line
of sight,
i.e. a line tangential to a level surface at the point where the instrument stands. The difference
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in elevation between two points is the vertical distance between two level lines. With a level
set up at any place, the difference in elevation between any two points within proper lengths of
sight is given by the difference between the rod readings taken on these points. By a succession
of instrument stations and related readings, the difference in elevation between widely
separated points is thus obtained.
Following are some special methods of direct (spirit) leveling:

1.1. Differential leveling: It is the method of direct leveling the object of which is solely to
determine the difference in elevation of two points regardless of the horizontal positions of the
points with respect of each other. This type of leveling is also known as fly leveling.

1.2. Profile leveling: It is the method of direct leveling the object of which is to determine
the elevations of points at measured intervals along a given line in order to obtain a profile
of the surface along that line.
1.3. Cross-sectioning: Cross-sectioning or cross leveling is the process of taking levels on
each side of main line at right angles to that line, in order to determine a vertical cross-section
of the surface of the ground, or of underlying strata, or of both.
1.4. Reciprocal leveling: It is the method of leveling in which the difference in elevation
between two points is accurately determined by two sets of reciprocal observations when it
is not possible to set up the level between the two points.

1. Indirect leveling : Indirect method or trigonometric leveling is the process of leveling in

which the elevations of points are computed from the vertical angles and horizontal distances
measured in the field, just as the length of any side in any triangle can be computed from
proper trigonometric relations.

Temporary adjustments of Level:

The temporary adjustment for a level consists of the following:

1. Setting up the level: The operation of setting up includes fixing the instrument on the
stand and leveling the instrument approximately.
2. Leveling up: Accurate leveling is done with the help of foot screws and with reference to
the plate levels. The purpose of leveling is to make the vertical axis truly vertical. It can be
done by adjusting the screws.
2. Removal of parallax: Parallax is a condition when the image formed by the objective is
not in the plane of the cross hairs. Parallax is eliminated by focusing the eyepiece for distinct
vision of the cross hairs and by focusing the objective to bring the image of the object in the
plane of cross hairs.

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Permanent adjustments of Level:
To check for the permanent adjustments of level two-peg test method should be performed.
Two staffs were placed at A and B of known length (about 40 m). First, the instrument was setup
at the middle point C and both staff readings were taken. Then the machine was held near A and
both staff readings (Top, Middle, and Bottom) were taken.
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The precision obtained in both sets were greater than that of required precision of 1 in 10000.
Therefore, the permanent adjustment was not required.
There are two methods of booking and reducing the elevation of points from the observed staff
reading:
1. Height of the instrument method:
Arithmetic Check:
∑BS – ∑F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L

2. Rise and fall method:

Arithmetic Check:
∑B.S. – ∑F.S. = ∑Rise –∑Fall = Last R.L. – First R.L.

Among the two Methods Height of instrument, method is widely used. After checking the
accuracy of the level by two-peg test, fly leveling was performed between temporary
benchmark 2 (TBM2) and temporary benchmark3(TBM3). The closing error was found to be
mm which was within the permissible error of ±25 Ok = 21.064 mm.
The R. L of TBM3 was then transferred to the control stations of the minor traverse. The
closing error was found within the permissible limits. Then the linear and angular adjustments
were made in each leg.

All the necessary data and calculations are presented in the following pages in this report.

IV. Detailing:
Detailing means locating and plotting relief in a topographic map. Detailing can be
done by either plane table surveying or tachometric surveying. Plane tabling needs less
office work than tachometric survey. Nevertheless, during our camp, we used the
tachometric method, tangential method and total station method.

* Detailing by total station:

On the process of detailing by total station we used reflector prism and hence total station gave
the horizontal angle and horizontal distance and vertical distance directly.

* Tachometry:
Tachometry is a branch of angular surveying in which the horizontal and vertical distances of
points are obtained by optical means. Though it only has accuracy about 1/300 to 1/500, it is
faster and convenient than the measurements by tape or chain. It is very suitable for steep or
broken ground, deep ravines, and stretches of water or swamp where taping is impossible and
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unreliable.
The objective of the tachometric survey is to prepare contour maps or plans with both
horizontal and vertical controls. For the survey of high accuracy, it provides a check on the
distances measured by tape.
The formula for the horizontal distance is
H=100 x S x Cos2ϴ
The formula for the vertical distance is
V = 100 x S x (Sin2ϴ)/2
Vhere, S = staff intercept;
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 ϴ = Vertical Angle
If the angle used is zenithal angle, then
H=100 x S x sin2ϴ
V = 100 x S x (Sin2ϴ)/2
Vhere, ϴ=zenithal angle

* Detailing by tangential method:

In this method we have to take two middle staff reading, with 2 different vertical angle along
with horizontal angle with any traverse leg. We use the formula:
S=difference in staff reading
H=S/(tan(90-θ1)-tan(90-θ2))
V=Htan(90-θ2)
where, θ1 is smaller zenithal angle and
Θ2 is bigger zenithal angle.

V. Contouring:
A contour is an imaginary line, which passes through the points of equal elevation. It is
a line in which the surface of ground is intersected by a level surface. A contour line is a
line on the map representing a contour. It represents the elevation and is one of the ways of
representing relief. While drawing the contour lines, the characteristics of the contours
should be considered. The characteristics are as follows:
• Two contours of different elevations do not cross each other except in the case of an
overhanging cliff.
• Contours of different elevations do not unite to form one contour except in the case of
a vertical cliff.
• Contours drawn closer depict a steep slope and if drawn apart, represent a gentle slope.
• Contours equally spaced depict a uniform slope. When contours are parallel, equidistant
and straight, these represent an inclined plane surface.
• Contour at any point is perpendicular to the line of the steepest slope at the point.
• A contour line must close itself but need not be necessarily within the limits of the map
itself.
• A set ring contours with higher values inside depict a hill whereas a set of ring contours
with lower values inside depict a pond or a depression without an outlet.
• When contours cross a ridge or V-shaped valley, they form sharp V-shapes across them.
Contours represent a ridge line, if the concavity of higher value contour lies towards
the next lower value contour and on the other hand these represent a valley if the
concavity of the lower value contour, lies towards the higher value contours.

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 • The same contour must appear on both the sides of a ridge or a valley.
• Contours do not have sharp turnings.
Taking the reading at the change point on the ground is the indirect method of locating
contours. The interpolation method is used to draw the contour lines. Interpolation of contours
is done by estimation, by arithmetic calculations or by graphical method. The eye estimation
method is extremely rough and is used for small-scale work only. Generally, arithmetic
calculation method of interpolation is used to draw the contour lines and it is performed as
follows:
Distance of contour point from the lower elevation point = (H/V) x v
where, H = Horizontal distance between two guide points
V = vertical distance between two guide points

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 v = vertical distance between lower elevation point and the point to be
located
The following steps were followed in tachometric survey:
I. The instrument was set up over the station and centering/leveling was done accurately. II.
The vertical distance from the top of the station peg to the center of trunnion axis of
tachometer was measured.
I I I . The instrument was oriented with reference to a fixed station whose distance and bearing
was predetermined.
I V . The staff was held vertically at the nearest available benchmark and it was sighted by the
tachometer to determine the reduced level of the starting point.
V . The staff was held at point of feature to be detailed.
V I . Horizontal angle between the reference station and the object point was measured. The
vertical angle to the central horizontal wire was observed.
V I I . The staff readings of the stadia hair were observed.
Same procedures were repeated for all the stations.

Resection:
Resection is the determination of the observer’s position by means of observations taken to
previously fixed points. There are several methods of resection and they include:
1. Observing horizontal angles from the unknown point to three known points.
2. Observing horizontal angles from two unknown points to two known points.
3. Observing horizontal angles from one unknown point to two known points when the
Azimuth of one of them is known.
In the camp we had adopt first method i.e. resection by observing horizontal angles from the
unknown point to three known points.

Intersection:
A minimum of two control stations is required for this operation, with the unknown point
visible from each of them. It is not essential that the control stations are inter-visible, but it makes
it easier if they are. Clearly, the co-ordinates of the control stations will be known (otherwise they
would not be control stations!) so that the distance between them can be calculated.
The theodolite is set up at each of the stations (control points) A and B in turn. At station A, the
telescope is first sighted on B and then transited round to P, measuring the angle a.
Similarly, at B the angle b between line BA and line BP. Note that the theodolite is not set up at the
unknown point P. For this reason, intersection is used for the positioning of points over which it is
2 2
difficult or impossible to set up the theodolite, for example,
-1

23
 · surveying points high up on buildings, perhaps for later use as reference objects,
measurement of the deflection of large structures (e.g. dams, bridges)
·
setting out of curves.
·

Because we know the co-ordinates of stations A and B, and because we know that the sum of
the internal angles in the triangle must equal 180°, we can calculate the following:

Length of line AB = √(ΔE + ΔN )

Bearing of line AB = tan (ΔE / ΔN)
15

24
Angle p = 180° - a – b
Further calculation allows us to find the length and bearing of each of the lines AP and BP:

Sine Rule:
AB/sinp = AP/sinb = BP/sina
bearing AP = bearing AB + a
bearing BP = bearing BA – b
Note that angle b is anticlockwise from BA to BP, hence the negative sign in the above
equation.
Once we have the bearing and length of lines AP and BP then the co-ordinates of P can be
calculated from each line. These two sets of co-ordinates should correspond within the
expected degree of accuracy.

VI. Computations and Plotting:

For the calculations as well as plotting, we applied the coordinate method (latitude and
departure method). In this method, two terms latitude and departure are used for calculation.
Latitude of a survey line may be defined as its coordinate lengths measured parallel to an
assumed meridian direction. The latitude (L) of a line is positive when measured towards north,
and termed Northing and it is negative when measured towards south, and termed Southing.
The departure (D) of a line is positive when measured towards east, and termed Easting and
it is negative when measured towards west, and termed Westing. The latitude and departures
of each control station can be calculated using the relation:
Latitude = l*Cosϴ

Departure = l*Sinϴ
Where, l = distance of the traverse legs

ϴ = Whole circle bearing

If a closed traverse is plotted according to the field measurements, the end of the traverse will
not coincide exactly with the starting point. Such and error are known as closing error.
Mathematically,

Closing error (e) = √ {(ΣL)2 + (ΣD)2} and

Direction, tan θ = ΣD/ΣL

The sign of Σ L and ΣD will thus define the quadrant in which the closing error lies.
The relative error of closure = Error of Closure / Perimeter of the traverse

=e / p

= 1 / (p / e)

In a closed traverse, by geometry, the sum of the interior angles should be equal to (2n-4) *90˚
25
where n is the number of traverse sides. If the angles are measured with the same degree of
precision, the error in the sum of the angles may be distributed equally among each angle of
the traverse.
The Bowditch’s method or the compass rule is mostly used to balance a traverse where linear
and angular measurements are of equal precision. The total error in latitude and in the departure
is distributed in proportion to the lengths of the sides.

16

26
 Mathematically,

a) Correction in departure of a side of traverse

= (Total departure misclosure / traverse perimeter) x length of that side
b) Correction in latitude of a side of traverse
= (Total latitude misclosure / traverse perimeter) x length of that side
In order to measure the lengths of the sides of the traverse, two way taping (forward and
backward) was done. The difference in values obtained by forward and backward taping is
called discrepancy. In addition, the reciprocal of the discrepancy divided by the mean of the
two measurements is called precision. Both the discrepancy and the precision for each traverse
leg should be within the given limits.
Mathematically,
Discrepancy = | Forward length - Backward length|
Linear precision = 1 / (Mean length / Discrepancy)
The coordinates of traverse stations were found out by resection.

VII. COMMENTS AND CONCLUSION:

COMMENTS:

The site for the survey camping was the campus area of WRC. The site was very
much suitable for performing various type of surveying.
The arrangements of the survey instruments were not satisfactory as there were many faulty
instruments which hampered us from running our survey works smoothly and correctly in
less
time.

We hope that above mentioned problems will be solved, and the upcoming camps will run
smoothly without any problems.

CONCLUSION:

The work of the survey camp was finished within the allotted period of 10 days. Surveying
is a subject which is based on not only theory but a lot of practical. Thus, this camp helped us
a lot in understanding the principles and techniques of surveying. The camp also helped us to
work in group. This camp will help us in our future.
The whole area of WRC was divided into two number of plots. A group had to complete a
27
single plot following the routine provided. The topographic maps of several plots such prepared
can be then mosaics to form a single map of the whole area.

Thus, we completed our project by following given norms and technical specifications
within the time allocated.

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28
BRIDGE SITE SURVEY
Bridges are the structures that are constructed with the purpose of connecting two places
separated by deep valleys or gorges or rivers and streams. Bridges are usually a part of road,
making them shorter and hence economical. In countries like Nepal, where the land is
undulated and where there are plenty of rivers, bridges are the most economic and efficient
way to join two places. It is a very convenient way. That is why the task of bridge site
surveying has been included in the curriculum of Bachelor's degree in Geomatics Engineering
at WRC Campus, IOE.
This part of the Survey Camp dealt with the bridge site survey done at Kali khola. It was done
at a place where a small stream flowed. It was located in the woods where two hill slopes
formed a deep ravine. The duration of the survey was 2 days.

Objectives

Bridge construction is an important aspect in the development of transportation network.

For the construction of bridge, surveying is required for topographical mapping; while the
knowledge of longitudinal section of the river and cross- sections at both the upstream and
downstream is essential. The river flow level in different seasons should also be taken into
consideration before designing a bridge.
Bridge surveying is necessary to locate a site, obtain information for design, and furnish lines
and grades for construction. A reconnaissance survey is made at all possible sites. A
preliminary survey is made at the best site to establish horizontal and vertical control and to
obtain information for the bridge design and construction planning.
The main objective of the bridge site survey is to give the students the preliminary knowledge
on selection and planning of possible bridge site for the future construction of bridge. The
purpose of the bridge site survey was not only to prepare plan and layout of the bridge site but
also to collect the preliminary data about the site. The data should include normal water flow,
high flood level, and geological features of the ground for planning and designing of the bridge
from the details taken during the surveying. The details must be taken from an engineering
point of view.
The other objectives of Bridge site survey are:
• To find the best location for a bridge over the river considering factors like convenience,
economic and geological stability.

• To use triangulation method for the calculation of the bridge axis length.
• To take sufficient data of the details including the spot heights, around the bridge in order
to prepare a topographical map of the area, cross section of the river at certain intervals
and longitudinal section of the river.
• To determine the physical properties of the river like its discharge, velocity of water, bed
slope, etc.
29
Brief Description of the area
Bridge site survey was conducted over a small stream. The stream flows through a ravine
formed by two hill slopes. Our site was near the pig farming area. The site was mossy and swampy
with few huge boulders near the site. It was damp and hilly.
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30
Hydrology, Geology and Soil
The site was surrounded by trees and bushes. There were few rocks. The ground was
damp and swampy. The soil was soft and clayey. It was brown in color. The hill slopes on both
sides are not very steep and are thus geologically stable. There is not much water to be found
on the bridge site.

Norms (Technical Specifications)

The following norms were followed while performing the bridge site survey:
• Control point fixing as well as determining the length of the bridge axis had to be done
by the method of triangulation. While forming triangles, proper care had to be taken such
that the triangles were well conditioned, i.e. none of the angles of the triangle were greater
than 120° or less than 30°.
• The triangulation angle had to be measured on two sets of readings by theodolite and the
difference between the mean angles of two sets of readings had to be within a minute.
• Transferring the level from one bank to another bank had to be done by the method of
reciprocal leveling.
• The scale for plotting the topographical map was given to be 1:500
• In order to plot the longitudinal section of the river, data had to be taken along the
riverbed 150 m upstream and at least 100 m downstream. The plot for the longitudinal
section along the flow line had to be done in a scale of 1:100 for vertical and 1:500 for
horizontal.
• For the cross-section profile, data had to be taken at 25 m intervals both upstream and
downstream, and one at the bridge axis. Observation had to cover about 20 m beyond the
bank of river on either side. The scale being 1:100 for both vertical and horizontal
directions.

Equipment and accessories

1. Theodolite or total station

2. Staffs, reflector prism and pole

3. Ranging rods

4. Tapes

5. Plumb bob

6. Level

7. Compass
31
8. Hammer

9. Nails and pegs

10. Abney level

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32
Methodology
The various methods performed during the bridge site survey were triangulation,
Leveling, tachometry, cross section, and L-section. The brief descriptions of these
methodologies are given below:

Site Selection
Tentative bridge sites are selected by reconnaissance and the more promising ones are
reconnoitered in detail. The selection of a bridge site is governed by both tactical and technical
considerations. Tactical requirements fix the general area for the bridge site. Technical
requirements fix the exact location and may sometimes eliminate sites that have been tactically
acceptable. For permanent construction, technical considerations govern the bridge location.
There were various factors for the selection of bridge site such as geological condition,
economical aspect etc. Therefore, the site was chosen such that it should be formed on very
stable hill slope. The bridge should be located at the straight path of river and at the same time,
the river width should not be narrow from the economical point of view. In our case, it was
assumed that the approximate alignment of bridge axis has already been established with regard
to geo-technical site investigation. For the purpose of the shortest span the stations were set
perpendicular to the river flows direction. The riverbanks are not eroded and are suitable for
bridge construction. The site for the proposed bridge was selected at a location where a bend
in the road continued smoothly into the bridge. The location of the bridge was selected in such
a way that the heights of the roads joined by the proposed bridge were almost the same. This
prevented a lot of cutting and filling to maintain a gentle gradient.

Topographic Survey
For the topographic survey of bridge site, triangulation was done. The main purpose of the
triangulation was to determine the length of the bridge axis. The triangulation also serves the
control points for detailing. First, the bridge axis was set and horizontal control stations were
fixed on either side. Distances between stations on the same sides of river i.e. base lines were
measured with tape precisely. Then the interconnecting triangles were formed and angles were
measured with a theodolite with two sets. The bridge axis length or span was calculated by solving
the triangles using the sine rule. Thus, the horizontal control was set out.
For vertical control, the level was transferred from the arbitrary benchmark and RL was
transferred to the stations on the next bank by reciprocal leveling while direct level transfer
method was used for the same bank.

Longitudinal Section
The L-Section of the river is required to give an idea about the bed slope, nature of the
riverbed, and the variation in the elevations of the different points along the length of the river.
Keeping the instrument at the control (traverse) stations on the river banks, the staff readings
were taken at different points along the center line of the river at an interval of about 25 m up to
150 meters upstream and 100 m downstream. The R.L.s of the traverse stations being known
previously, the levels of the different points on the river were calculated. Then the L-Section of
the riverbed was plotted on a graph paper on scale for vertical and horizontal.
33
20

34
Cross Section
Cross-section of a river at a point is the profile of the lateral sides from the centerline of the
river cut transverse to the L-Section at that point. The cross section can be used to calculate the
volume and discharge of water at the section if the velocity at the cross section is known. Cross
sections were taken at an interval of about 25 m extending 150 m upstream and 100 m
downstream of the river. Staff readings of points along a line perpendicular to the flow of river
were taken from the station’s points and the elevations of the points were calculated using
tachometric methods. At some places where tachometric methods were not suitable or feasible,
the "danda" method was also applied. With all the calculations done and the required data in
hand, the cross section was plotted on a graph paper on required scale.

Leveling
Level transfer was done in two steps - firstly to transfer the R.L. from the given B.M. to any
traverse station, and secondly to transfer the R.L. from that traverse station to all other stations
as well as all the detailed objects (detailing). The R.L. of TBM3= 1312.924 m. The R.L. was
transferred by fly leveling from the B.M. to a station using a level, forming a closed loop and
making the necessary adjustments. Then fly leveling was done in order to transfer the level from
that station to all the other stations of the traverse.
The principal of differential leveling is when the instrument is kept equidistant from the back
and forward staff stations, the difference in elevation of the two stations is equal to the
difference of the staff readings. In addition, it can be achieved by placing the machine midway
of the staffs. When it is not possible to set up the level midway between two points as in the
case of leveling across large water bodies, the reciprocal leveling is employed to carry forward
the level on the other side of the obstruction.
When it is necessary to carry leveling across a river, ravine or any obstacle requiring a long
sight between two points so situated that no place for the level can be found from which the
lengths of foresight and back sight will be even approximately equal, reciprocal leveling is
done.
Reciprocal leveling helps to eliminate errors such as error in instrument adjustment, combined
effect of earth's curvature and the refraction of the atmosphere and variations in the average
refraction.

35
 Fig.: Reciprocal Leveling
When the level instrument is kept near
21

36
staff held at A;
a1 = staff reading at station A
b1 = staff reading at station B

When level instrument is kept near staff held at B;

a2 = staff reading at station A
b2 = staff reading at station B

Then, the true difference in elevation between the two stations A and B is given
by H=½ *[(a1 – b1) + (a2- b2)]

Detailing
Detailing of the entire bridge site was done by tachometric method, the readings being taken
with a theodolite stationed at the different traverse stations. The detailing was done with respect
to the skeleton formed by triangulation. The vertices of triangles serve as a control point. With
the help of tachometer, the details were booked, up to 150m upstream and 100m downstream.
The important details not included in the cross-section data, were taken.
Trigonometric Leveling was also done to find out the RL of the inaccessible points. Abney
level was used to find out the slope of cliff. The data and the calculations have been tabulated
in a systematic way.

Computation and Plotting

The following tachometric formulas were used for the calculation of the horizontal distance
and

R.L. of different points:

Horizontal distance of any point from the traverse station,
H = 100*S*Cos2θ
Where, S = Staff intercept = Top - Bottom stadia
reading θ = Vertical Angle
The topographic map, the longitudinal section and the cross section were plotted on the
respective scales after the completion of calculations. Control stations were plotted accurately
in the grid paper. Then all hard details as well as contours were plotted with reference to the
control stations by the method of angle and distances.

Comments and Conclusions

The bridge site survey was performed to gain idea for selecting the bridge axis.
Triangulation was performed to get the length of the proposed bridge. For triangulation, we
chose two stations in one bank and two stations on the next bank. The distance between the
two stations was calculated by taping. Similarly, the cross-section and longitudinal section
37
were performed. The X-section was performed at the interval of 25m.The longitudinal section
was about 150m upstream and 100m downstream. In addition, details were taken from the
respective stations. The details of existing structures like walls, cliff, bridge, boulders etc were
taken. The cross- section was taken at the banks of river and at the middle of the river to get
the profile of the flowing river. In addition, we marked the high flood level and low flood level.
Similarly, we transferred the reduced levels of the stations from the known benchmark.

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38
Road Alignment and Geometric Design
Roads are specially prepared ways connecting different places for the transportation of
vehicles, people and animals. In countries like Nepal, where there are less chances of
airways and almost negligible chances of waterway, roads form a major part of the
transportation system. Therefore, it would not be an exaggeration in saying that the roads
have an utmost importance.
This part of the Survey Camp dealt with the road alignment survey done at Pokhara that
runs along Khali Khola. The duration of the survey was three days, bridge site alignment
being done simultaneously.

Brief Description of the Project area

Road alignment is an important aspect in the development of the transportation network
of the country. Road alignment is important part of the survey. Road alignment and bridge site
survey goes side by side to run a road between two terminals and to carry a survey for the
bridge construction along the route. This specific job is essential for an engineer combating
with the mountainous topography of Nepal.

Hydrology and Geology

The road had to go along a damp route that was much undulated. The place was damp.
There were no large boulders or rocks of any kind along the proposed site.

Soil
When the soil surface is inclined, there is a component of gravity that tends to move the soil
downward. If along the potential slip surface in the soil the stress produced by gravity exceeds
the shear strength of the soil along the potential failure surface, the slope will become unstable.
Obviously, the shear strength of soil is largely depends upon the type of soil. Cohesive soil has
more shear strength than others do. The hard and dense soil is best for slopes.
We found soft clayey soil that was very damp. Other kinds of soils were not found along our
proposed route.

Norms (Technical Specifications)

Recce alignment selection was carried out of the road corridor considering permissible
gradient (12%), obligatory points, bridge site and geometry of tentative horizontal and vertical
curves.

The road setting horizontal curve, cross sectional detail in 20m interval and longitudinal
39
profile were prepared.

The topographic map (scale 1:1000) of road corridor was prepared. Geometric curves, road
formation width, right of way, crossings and other details were shown in the map.

While performing the road alignment survey, the following norms were strictly followed:

23

40
 • The road had to be designed starting at base point of the bridge and ending at the electrical
tower (middle one) located in the North West.

If the external deflection angle at the I.P. of the road is less than 3°, curves need not be fitted.
•
Simple horizontal curves had to be laid out where the road changed its direction, determining
•
and pegging three points on the curve - the beginning of the curve, the middle point of the
curve and the end of the curve along the centerline of the road.

The radius of the curve had to be chosen such that it was convenient and safe.
•
The gradient of the road had to be maintained below 12 %.
•
Cross sections had to be taken at 15 m intervals and at the beginning, middle and ends of
• the curve, along the centerline of the road - observations being taken for at least 10 m on
either side of the centerline.

Plan of the road had to be prepared on a scale of 1:1000

• L-Section of the road had to be plotted on a scale of 1:1000 horizontally and 1:100 vertically.
• The cross section of the road had to be plotted on a scale of 1:100 (both vertical and
• horizontal).
The amount of cutting and filling required for the road construction had to be determined
from the L-Section and the cross sections. However, the volume of cutting had to be roughly
• equal to the volume of filling.

Equipment and accessories

1. Theodolite
2. staff
3. Ranging rods
4. Abney level
5. Tapes
6. Plumb bob
7. Level
8. Compass
9. Hammer
41
 10. Sickle
11. Nails and peg

Methodology

Horizontal Alignment
Horizontal alignment is done for fixing the road direction in horizontal plane. For this,
the bearing of initial line connecting two initial stations was measured using compass. The
interior angles were observed using theodolite at each IP and then deflection angles were
calculated.

24

42
 Deflection angle, D = 180 - interior angle

If +ve, the survey line deflects right (clockwise) with the prolongation of preceding line and
deflects left if –ve (anti-clockwise). The radius was assumed according to the deflection
angle. Then the tangent length, EC, BC, apex distance along with their chainage were found
by using following formulae,
Tangent length (T.L.) = R*tan (D/2)

Length of curve (L.C.)

=3.142*R*D/180
Apex distance = R*1/(Cos(D/2)-1)
Chainage of BC = Chainage of IP –
TL Chainage of MC = Chainage of
BC +LC/2
Chainage of EC = Chainage of MC +
LC / 2

The BC and EC points were located along the line by measuring the tangent length from the
apex and the points were marked distinctly. The radius was chosen such that the tangent does
not overlap. The apex was fixed at the length of apex distance from IP along the line bisecting
the interior angle.

Vertical Alignment
Vertical profile of the Road alignment is known by the vertical alignment. In the L-section of the
Road alignment, vertical alignment was plotted with maximum gradient of 12 %. According to
Nepal Road Standard, Gradient of the Road cannot be taken more than 12 %. In the vertical
alignment, we set the vertical curve with proper design. Vertical curve may be either summit
curve or valley curve. While setting the vertical alignment, it should keep in mind whether cutting
and filling were balanced or not.

Leveling
The R.L. of the T.B.M. was given to be 800 m. The method of fly leveling was applied in
transferring the level from the given B.M. to all the I.P.s, beginnings, mid points and ends of the
curves as well as to the points along the center line of the road where the cross sections were
taken. After completing the work of one way leveling on the entire length of the road, fly leveling
was continued back to the B.M. making a closed loop for check and adjustment. The difference
in the R.L. of the B.M. before and after forming the loops should be less than 25√ k mm, where
k is the total distance in km. In our case, the value of k was within the permissible limit.

Longitudinal Section
43
 The L-Section of the road is required to give the road engineer an idea about the nature
of the ground and the variation in the elevations of the different points along the length of the
road and also to determine the amount of cutting and filling required at the road site for
maintaining a gentle slope. In order to obtain the data for L-Section, staff readings were taken at
points at 20m intervals along the centerline of the road with the help of a level by the method of
fly leveling. Thus, after performing the necessary calculations, the level was transferred to all
those points with respect to the R.L. of the given B.M. Then finally the L- Section of the road
25

44
was plotted on a graph paper on a vertical scale of 1:100 and a horizontal scale of 1:1000. The
staff readings at BC, EC and apex were also taken. The RL of each point were calculated.

Cross Section
Cross sections at different points are drawn perpendicular to the longitudinal section of
the road on either side of its centerline in order to present the lateral outline of the ground.
Cross sections are also equally useful in determining the amount of cut and fill required for the
road construction. Cross sections were taken at 20m intervals along the centerline of the road
and at points where there was a sharp change in the elevation. While doing so, the horizontal
distances of the different points from the centerline were measured with the help of a tape and
the vertical heights with a measuring staff. The R.L. was transferred to all the points by
performing the necessary calculations and finally, the cross sections at different sections were
plotted on a graph paper on a scale of 1:100 - both vertical and horizontal.
Cross section was run at right angles to the longitudinal profile on either side up to 6m
distances and the change in the slope was directly measured using the staff. The method is
locally named as Danda method.

Topographic survey of road corridor

Topographic survey of road corridor was done by taking the deflection angle at each
point where two straight roads meet. The chainage of intersection point, tangent point and
middle points were also taken by taping and applying formula. The staff readings of each of
these points were also taken. The R.L was also transferred to find out the elevation and plot
it in a map.

Structures
The main structures provided for road constructions are retaining structures, cross drain,
side drain, bio-engineering structures etc. retaining structures are provided where the slope is
critical. Gabion structure, dry masonry structures are the example. The cross drainage is
provided at the interval of 150 to 200m of road mostly at the valley and where ever necessary.
Causeways, culverts and bridges are the example of cross drainage. The side drain is the
channel by which the pavement can be protected from the surface water. It is usually
constructed along the road just below the cut slope. The collected water is drained off by the
means of cross drainage.

Comments and Conclusions

In spite of the different kinds of obstacles in the field, our group was successful in
completing the fieldwork as well as the office work in time. In the field, we had spent

45
quite some time discussing the route of the road and in designing the curves, which led to
good results. The road had to be designed on a sloping ground, so our group members felt
the restrictions during the cutting and filling and for the construction of different retaining
structures.
Moreover, after performing this road alignment survey, we were able to gain confidence
in designing roads at difficult terrain taking factors like economy, convenience and its use
into consideration.
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46
Concluding Remarks
Hence, we completed the three projects assigned to us in time although we faced minor
difficulties. All results we obtained were within the limits given to us. This camp really helped
us with the practical parts of survey fieldwork as we were working in conditions we will surely
have to face in the future. It increased our confidence in handling instruments as well as
completing projects within given deadlines. This trip also offered us relief from the monotony
of performing all survey practical within the college compound. It was also a chance to get to
know our friends from other sections, work closely, and interact with them. This trip is a good
experience in dealing with locals and other people who were interested in our work. We also
learned to explain what we were doing to laymen in simple terms. We think I.O.E should
organize such trips frequently and for all possible subjects, as practical knowledge is better. In
these trips, we gain first hand concept of the subject matter that makes it easier for us to grasp
the concept. All in this entire trip was very informative, effective and enjoyable.

47
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48
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)

INTRODUCTION
A geographic information system (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate,
analyze, manage, and present spatial or geographic data. The acronym GIS is sometimes used
for geographic information science (GIS Science) to refer to the academic discipline that
studies geographic information systems and is a large domain within the broader academic
discipline of geoinformatics. What goes beyond a GIS is a spatial data infrastructure, a concept
that has no such restrictive boundaries.
In general, the term describes any information system that integrates, stores, edits, analyzes,
shares, and displays geographic information. GIS applications are tools that allow users to
create interactive queries (user-created searches), analyze spatial information, edit data in
maps, and present the results of all these operations. Geographic information science is the
science underlying geographic concepts, applications, and systems.
GIS can refer to a number of different technologies, processes, and methods. It is attached
to many operations and has many applications related to engineering, planning,
management, transport/logistics, insurance, telecommunications, and business. For that
reason, GIS and location intelligence applications can be the foundation for many location-
enabled services that rely on analysis and visualization.
GIS can relate unrelated information by using location as the key index variable. Locations
or extents in the Earth space–time may be recorded as dates/times of occurrence, and x, y,
and z coordinates representing, longitude, latitude, and elevation, respectively. All Earth-
based spatial–temporal location and extent references should be relatable to one another and
ultimately to a "real" physical location or extent. This key characteristic of GIS has begun to
open new avenues of scientific inquiry.
49
28

50
 IMPORTANCE OF GIS
• “GIS technology is to geographical analysis what the microscope, the telescope,
and computers have been to others science. It could therefore be the catalyst needed
to desolve the regional –systematic and human-physical dichotomies that have long
plagued geography” and other disciplines which use spatial information.
GIS integrate spatial and other kind of information within a single system-it offers
•
a sonsistance framework for analyzing geographical data.
By putting maps and other kinds of spatial information into digital form, GIS allows
• us to manipulate and display geographical knowledge in new exciting ways.
GIS makes connection between activities based on geographic proximity
• o Looking at data geographically can often new insights, explanations
o These connections are often unrecognized without GIS, but can be vital
to understanding and managing activities and resources
o e.g. we can link toxic wastes records with school locations through
geographic proximity.
• GIS allows access to administrative records –property ownership, text files, utility
cables and pipes-via there geographical positions.

ArcGIS
ArcGIS is a geographic information system (GIS) for working with maps and geographic
information. It is used for creating and using maps, compiling geographic data, analyzing mapped
information, sharing and discovering geographic information, using maps and geographic
information in a range of applications, and managing geographic information in a database.
The system provides an infrastructure for making maps and geographic information
available throughout an organization, across a community, and openly on the Web.
ArcGIS includes the following Windows desktop software:
• ArcReader, which allows one to view and query maps created with the other ArcGIS
products;
• ArcGIS for Desktop, which is licensed under three functionality levels:
• ArcGIS for Desktop Basic (formerly known as ArcView), which allows one to view spatial
data, create layered maps, and perform basic spatial analysis;
• ArcGIS for Desktop Standard (formerly known as ArcEditor), which in addition to the
functionality of ArcView, includes more advanced tools for manipulation of shapefiles and
geodatabases;
• ArcGIS for Desktop Advanced (formerly known as ArcInfo), which includes capabilities
for data manipulation, editing, and analysis.
• There are also server-based ArcGIS products, as well as ArcGIS products for PDAs.
Extensions can be purchased separately to increase the functionality of ArcGIS.
51
Comments and Conclusions:
This software enables us to collect, organize, manage, analyze, communicate and
distribute geographic information. It helps in creating and sharing geographic information,
compiling them and solve problem with spatial analysis leading us to make better decision and
plan.

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