A RATIONAL EXPRESSION FOR THE CRITICAL COLLAPSING PRESSURE OF PIPE 383 A Rational Expression for the Critical Collapsing Pressure of Pipe under External Pressure t ‘W. 0. CLINEDINST * ABSTRACT ‘This paper examines the assumptions impli eral widely-used formulas for the elastic failure of pipe funder external presture. ‘The departures of the at sumptions from actual conditions existing are noted. It is pointed out that the elastic equation can be ex- tended into the plastiz range by we of a “reduced modulus.” Assumptions more nearly in accord with the facts throughout the plastic, as well as the elastic, range are made, and an expression derived therefrom. ‘This expression is compared with the widely-used formulas. Oil-field engineers ave interested in methods of de- termining safe setting depths for pipe subjected to ex- ternal pressure, The conditions under which pipe is used in oll and gas wells generally are such as to cause the collapsing pressure to utress the material in the plastic range. For this reason, expressions in general use for the elastic failure of pire under external pressure hav bbeen accepted without critical review. However, the elastic equation can be used to determine the eritical collapsing pressure in che plastic range by replacing “Young’s modulus” by a modulus termed “reduced modulus,” by Timoshenko." In 1889 Engesser* showed that stability problems for structures of materials hav- ing non-linear stress-strain curves can be handled in this fashion, The reduced modulus is a function of the stress-strain curve of the material and of the cross- section. For a rectangular cross-section, the reduced modu- las a) Where: Eis the slope of the stress-strain curve of the material at the stress + and strain 6 caused by the critical load; and E is Young's modulus. It will be Before employing the “reduced modulus,” it is necea- ‘sary to examine the assumptions made in the derivation of the elastic-collapse aquation, because errors which ‘are small and immsterial for the relatively-large values of 2 encountered in the elastic range may Secon portant whan 2 becamen smaller nthe aie raes The punt ie cnn tach an ivetiation ‘ely ba 108M Lavy" developed Foal % ational abe Ca, Pitabares, Pe {Brcentea™ at Gweatisih"Maiual” Meeting, Chiego, m2, Te 1688, ‘gives refer to bibtlography on p. 881. pression for the collapse of long cylinders under ex- oo) In deriving this equation, external pressure could be considered as acting on the mean diameter of the tube instead of the outside ameter. It also was asrumed that a linear distribution fof stress occurred in bending according to the simple bending theory. Stewart‘ developed a purely-empirical equation for ‘elastic collapse in connection with his experiments on Inpwelded steel tubes: - ECON P=1,000 cVve ( ey) t Jt will be noted that this equation becomes seioay tor Bo than 40 oor exprmon aed By Start fr heel pesca po ttaan, @) stewact sated tat tia exprenin came t haat er et nasal hs ene ution ate eet ee Sctea sens The mat Sod) Stet bandon hn experimental date ose cen (nay ans +8) a) po XE 0) @ Where: C is an experimental constant, and has the ‘value of 0.761 for Stewart's lapweld data.384 MaTERIALS ‘The effect of the length to $ lapse was investigeted by Sturm.’ His investigation resulted"in an expression which can be reduced to: veel SB) 40 (By'ew-n iameter ratio Zon eol- length of tube. number of lobes in which the tube collapaes, taken as 2 for long tubes. ‘a= parameter for end conditions, taken as 1 for Tong. tubes. factor may be given the value of unity, making equa- tion (6) ar) Apart from the fundamental ‘assumptions made by ‘the general theory of elasticity, equation (2) assumes: 1, ‘That the externa! pressure acts on the mean diameter of the pipe. 2. That a linear distribution of stress occurs with the neutral axis located at the mean diameter ac- cording to the simple theory of bending. Equations (5) and (6) require as assumptions: 1. That the external pressure acts on the outside di- ameter of the pipe. 2 That a linear distribution of stress occurs with the neutral axis located at the outside diameter of the pipe. It is perfectly obvious that the external pressure acts on the outside diameter, and that the neutral axis is at the mean diameter for linear stress distribution. The assumption of linear stress distribution may result in critical collapsing pressures differing in an important degree from those based upon an hyperbolic stress distribution. ‘The derivation of the critical collapsing pressures for long tubes on the basis of the elastic theory and both linear and hyperbolis distributions of stress, and on the assumption that the pressure acts upon the external surface of the pipe, is given in detail in the appendix. ‘The analysis gives the following expression for critical collapsing pressure: Assuming an hyperbolic stress distribution: (8) Where: (9) 7 ‘\ 4 fo i = 3 ee ie Ew : om [1-1 (-R)] coon 0 Fig. 1 ‘Table 1 shows values for the critical collapsing pres- sores calculating by the several formulas forthe elastic range (2 spproximately 25 and greater). 1 ie noted that there is no practical diference befween the ferulls with formulas (8) and (9). Tt la concluded, Geretore, that Se linear datibution may be saramed safely. Any one of equations (2), (7), of (9) ay te used without serious ervor forthe slastie range Fig. 1 presents the several equations graphically. ‘Table 2 thows the relative collapring presrares #&- cording tothe vasious equations for values of 2 of 10 to 45, Equation (8) hasbeen taken es te basa for com- parison, because the assumptions made in its derivation Eis the mor logia! ofthe group. Aa can be seen equa. fiona (8) and (0) result in practically dential roralts; whereas equations (2) and (7) deviate considerably at‘A RATIONAL EXPRESSION FOR THE CRITICAL COLLAPSING PRESSURE OF PIPE 385 the low values of 2. So litle diference exists between the formula based on & linear stress distribution (9) and that based on a hyperbolic stress distribution (8) ‘that the simpler expression: ‘would be the logical selection for use in the plastic range with the “reduced modulus.” Replacing Young’s modulus by the “reduced modulus,” equation (9) be- comes: --(10) TABLE 1 Collapsing Pressures (Pounds Per Square Inch) assuming B=20(0) Equation @) @) @ 20 Gy t ) » eas FA oa % wi % tin tim Toss Test ° fe ssl 2 ieee 2 2 uo 6 "2 ‘38 ‘8 TABLE 2 Relative Collapsing Pressures Equation (8) Based on Hyperbolic Stress Equation _ (@) @) (8) D aeeee mt 2B at t Seay Ere FD G tlt t 0 ve 0902 2 ry 06 gor i 2 060 0.908 i 28 Xo2o 0.908 i 20 L032 ose i 35 1008 ose i 0 oes 0909 1 “6 0309 i APPENDIX DERIVATION OF EQUATIONS ‘The external pressure which will cause a long tube to collapse elastically can be determined by considering fan ideal uniformly-compressed tube, and by assuming some slight deflection from the circular form of equi- librium. The external pressure causing collapse is then the value, which is necessary to keep the tube in equilibrium in the assumed slightly-detormed shape. ‘Fig. 2 shows a quarter of the cross-section of the386 ‘MATERIALS tube. The dotted Hines represent the initial circular shape, and the full Hines the slightly-deformed shape, ‘on which an external pressure is acting. It is assumed that AO and OD are axes of symmetry for the col- lapsed tube, The action of the removed lower portion of the tube on the upper portion can be represented by & force S and a bending moment Mo. Let P be the ex- a ternal pressure, and we the slight initial deflection of ‘A. The bending moment M at any section C is: M=m.4P KO AF— EAC XG - a) Considering the triangles ACO and A.C.0: eat KG= BO xe. KO Substituting this in equation (a), we obtain: Fic. 2 Considering the triangle ACO: 2K KF-AC'=—(OC'-K0) Substituting this expression into equation (b): EKO (G'_X0)-- and neglecting the squares of the small deflections w fand we as well as the small quantities 28% compared to unity, the benéing moment becomes: ee MPP (we—w) (a) ‘The differential equation of the deflection curve of @ tong tube (6), sssuming linear distribution in bend~ ing, is: ste) Substituting the expression for bending moment (d) into gp nls AE) the diferentat equation of th deletion curve (e) we samc oer LL ing elape now is obtained on ‘The external pressure by integrating this equation. Rearranging equat and using the notation: D(D 3) aaa 3B(2-1) a) TE the general solution of (g) becomes: w=A sin ke-+B cos ké-+ (some funetion not ‘containing #). ‘Taking the derivative with respect to ¢ 8 <4 k cos ke—B kin ke, wo From symmetry at sections A and D, it is concluded on (a From the first condition, it follows that A= from the second we obtain: 1+ ) a aw in ke sin KE =0 ‘The smallest root of this equation different from aero is k=2, Substituting k=2 into (h), the value of the collapsing pressure is obtaine 25 T= 0) : Fey ‘Assuming a hyperbolic stress distribution in the bend- ing of the tube, the differential equation for collapse Asnit Integrating this di expression for collapsing presture is obtained: 25 3 =e D t Equations (1) and (0) were developed for materials having a linear strese-atrain relationship. Tt has been pointed out already that these same equations become perfectly applicable to stresses beyond the elastic range oF to materials not having a linear stress-strain rela- Ps[A RATIONAL EXPRESSION FOR THE CRITICAL COLLAPSING PRESSURE OF PIPE 387 tionship by replacing “'Young’s modulus” by a “reduced modulus.” ‘Replacing “Young's modulus” in equations (1) and (0) by the “reduced raodulus”— For linear stress distribution 2E, 1 ® ms y@apo tle For hyperbolic straxs distribution: (@) there: srotiocRAPay “E Ripmtate aya Mette BY LPR, ‘pare ot appt, (Llourilie) 181 10, § (38 ee a i ou Eagees Univ- 1. (PES). sete ° DISCUSSION * J. 1. Holmquist (Spang Chalfant Di Tt is gratifying to note that Mr. Clinedinst, in his paper on collapse of tubes, arrived at conclusions and ‘at results eoncerning the eritfcal collapse pressure wi fare essentially the same as the ones which were ‘vanced by the writers. A comparison of the correspond- ing expressions in teth papers will show that some of the equations, however, differ in quantities of second order. Because of the applications which might be made of these expressions for the design of deep-well casings, it was thought that perhaps it may be of interest to add fan independent derivation of certain equations which ‘were utilized in both papers for obtaining the expres- sion for the collapre pressure. This remark refers particularly to the tending-moment expression, as given in equations (c) and (@) of the appendix to Mr. CClinedinst’s paper. ‘The oil industry uses, in deep-well casings, ratios ein. Yor 2 att the mean tbe ca Det - is only 5h tes Ch hoes of wal Sch ne i si ied ae neal ees, Se ce etn of madera hcl 1a doe Gatenions of he eel sae elapn nde, may eugene ale tak 5st eylinder is thin-walled, and that the outaide pressure p is distributed along a circle the radius of which is equal to the mean tube radius a=2=!, Actually the pres- gure p acts slong # rele with the radios =2s fas Mr. Clinedinst has assumed in his derivation (see the appendix of his paper). ‘We wish to compare the expression for the bending moment M for both kinds of tubes. Starting first with the case of a thin-walled eylinder, and using the desig- nations introduced in our paper t making reference to our Fig. 4 and 6, and to Fig. 1 and 2 (Holmquist and (Holmquist and Nedai) FIG. 1 Fig. 2 Nadai), we have to note that a point P situated on the cirele APQ (Fig. §)—the radius of which is a=" —in general is displaced both in the tangential and in the radial directions, Let u and v be these two com- ponents of the displacement as indicated in Fig. 5. The small angle of rotation @ of the normal to the mean circle ‘constant in point P due to the bending ‘of the tube wall is expressed by: sree w Equilibrium of the forces is expressed for the portion of tube A’C' in the distorted state (Fig. 1 and 2 (Holm- ‘quist and Nadai)] by the three equations: Moments; M4Mo= [pr'ade’+p(a—v.)'+M, (b) Horizontal components: H=p(a—v)sine+pu cose © ‘Vertical components: Ve=xp(a—v) cos «—pu sine @ ‘Moments were taken around the center 0 of the tube. M, designates the moment around O of the reactions H ‘and V acting in the point C’. On account of:388 [Fig. 1 (Holmquist and Nadai) ] we see that the inte in equation (b) expressing the moments of the. di tributed pressure p around the point O is equal to: al ae [oxads=pe |S de'=paiv—w) and equations (c) and (4) show that the reaction at point C” consists of « force p(a—v) and another force pu acting in the dirsetions of the tangent and of the Tadius to point C. Hence the moment ofthese two forces ‘round O is equal 20: M,s=—pla—v)'—put Cy After introducing (£) in (b), and after neglecting ‘second-order terms in u of v, we obtain for the bending moment the expression: Mes—Mo¢pa(v—v) which was used by the writers in their paper. For s moderately-thick-walled cylinder it must be taken into account that the external pressure p does rot act along the circle AC of Fig. 1 (Holmquist and ® Nadai) but is distrizuted along the outside surface of t Instead the abe having a raius eu oa of equation (b), we now obtain: M+M.- [ow (+) arte and instead of equation (f) we have t Mo=—p(a+f—r) (we) ‘After substituting this last expression in the former one, and after neglecting again the second-order terms in'w and v, we obtain for the bending moment of & moderately-thick-walled cylinder: = Met pa(ve—¥) ro) xactiy the sine expremsion as found in'eaation (g) hereinbefore. ‘This Inter, therefore, expresses the bend- ing moments also fo: s moderately-tick-walled cylinder fs well as for a thin-walled eylinder. Consequently, the formula derived for the collapse pressure p is {eee equation (20) of our paper] for a moderately- thiekcwalled cylinder: 25+ @ and the mean colapse stress ¢ for a moderately- thick-walled cylinder is given by: 3D Pant one) wo (e) ‘MATERIALS whereas the corresponding expression [equation (g) of Mr. Clinedinst’s paper], when developed in a series ot powers of, red o T. McLean Jasper (A. 0, Smith Corporation) (written): I have read with considerable interest the paper by Mr. Clinedinst. Fig. 1 (Jasper)* is the result of tests and the application of equation (7), as repre- inted by Clinedinst’s paper, and reduced to the form of stress on collapsed tubes. In Fig. 1 (Jasper), the value of E has been taken a8 30,000,000 Ib. per sq. in., and the value of » a8 0.25, The values for E and» are from care- fully-made experiments using steels in the range of com- position normally used for casing.t ‘The test results in Fig. 1 (Jasper) would seem to indicate a very close correlation with the equation selected. It would jem that rationalizing by experimental checking carries ‘with it a certain amount of assurance in the application of results, It might be stated that in Fig. 1 (Jasper) the results in the lower part of the curve were made many years ago using the nominal dimensions of the long tube, whereas in the upper part of the curve the actual dimensions were used in which the long tube walls were very uniform in thickness and the tubes were quite round. (++) wy )+M. a s 8 i 8 3 i i MAKIMUM COMPRESSIVE STRESS: AT COLLAPSING PRESSURE -LB. PER SQ. IN. os so 60 orenmiolo 1 20 30 ‘The Sturm Curve for Collapse of Long Tubes, with Number of Actual Test Results Plotted to Show Com mercial Accuracy of the Formals. FIG. 1 (JASPER) Drilling and Produetion Practice 18, 23. "of Poles Ratiog” am: Seer Teating Ae ‘tn 8 ab).A RATIONAL EXPRESSION FOR THE CRITICAL COLLAPSING PRESSURE OF PIPE 389 Donald E. Babcock (Mellon Institute of Industrial Research) (written) : Mr. Clinedinst is to be commended for his efforts toward the clarification of a very complex: subject. Tt is by comparative studies such as these that from the main mass of theorization some fairly-accurate approach to the solution of the “casing-collapse” prob- lem may be attained. "No doubt the field engineers of both off and steel pro- ducers will be interested in the solution to this problem, fas well as those of us interested in research and devel- Opment work; but while engaged in this very demo- cratic controversy, let us critically examine the ma- terial presented to us in the form of a solution to our problems. ‘The true reture of the material in our hands Sell determine its action under service conditions or hile being tested—which, if adequately described in the language and cold logic of mathematical physics, ‘vill give a true solution to the casing-collapse problem. ‘The labor involved in the practical applications of this solution to commere'el products may make such theo retical treatment of I ttle practical utility. ‘A Best approach toward the removal of those doubts vegarding the exceasively-high values obtained from ‘some of the theoreticel solutions of the problems of col- Tapse was introduced by Timoshenko in the form of “Yeduced-modulus” values. These are mentioned in equa- tion (1), and are brought into consideration by Ma Clinedinst as an in:egral part of the concept for all subsequent solutions. To introduce this concept is to point out clearly the effect of the stresses beyond, the proportional limit, ard the necessity of considering the fifect of the plastic stress-strain characteristics in- herent in the tubular structure being tested. If such a consideration of a reduced-modulus func- tion has been founc imperative, then it should be im- perative also that avther of these variable elastic con- Etants, whose limited magnitude is known, must be given similar attention, This variable is Poisson's Fatio «. It is present n every equation mentioned. What fffect it may have depends on its possible range of Sarlation. ‘The answers to this can be found in a paper presented before the Fifth International Con- gress for Applied Mechanics.* It was observed that, hen specimens urcer pure tension testing were ex: ‘amined, the value 9: Poisson's ratio varied from 0.25 ‘Or 0.28 to 0.50. Such a large variation, by no stretch of the imagination, would be unworthy of consideration, nor without significance in calculated collapse values, and is fully as necessary to these interpretations as are the other stress-strain characteristics of any material considered. ‘To check the effect of such a variation, the value of 1 + alone need be examined; for values of 0.28 1 =e and 0.50, lep], that of plastic buckling. ‘Karman,’ Engesser,' Westergaard,‘ et al. have shown how the theory of elaatie buckling of a straight bar can be extended to cover also the case of plastic buckling. “Although the knowledge of the shape of the stress-strain ccurve is needed for developing this theory fully, we may state here that, in first approximation, equation (1) for the elastic buckling is applicable to the case of plascie buckling if the so-called “reduced” modulus E* is substituted for the ordinary modulus of elasticity. STRESS 7 STRAN E ‘COMPRESSION ‘Type of StreseStrain Diagram Assumed for Sta Tnvestigatios FIG. 2 ‘The quantity B* assumes various values as the deforma- tion proceeds into the plastic range, and is defined by the equation: er ee 2) VE VERA 2 Where: B" is Young's modulus of elasticity, and ” sept te dope of th steesoatein care =f) at a given value of the strean¢ or ateain« For plastic buckling equation (1) has to be replaced by @ ‘and this plastic-buckling condition permits the construc- tion of the curve BD (Fig. 1) «=Fi(i) and, thus, to ‘complete the buckling diagram according to Fig. 1. It should be noted that numerous tests have been made verifying the essential assumptions of the theory of plastic buckling. ‘As an illustration of the method of computing buck- ling stresses in the plastic range and of the effect of the394 MATERIALS shape of the stress-strain diagram on the buckling ‘stress, a special stress-utrain curve is chosen by using the following function: to represent Here e=ttrai 20 8 . 70) zk Bo £ 4 59) 34 FL STRESS~STRAIN = DIAGRAMS. & 30 FIRST YIELOING AT . ‘30000 L8.PER 5O.IN. a oF 1 0.2 YYIELD POINT AT e J 60000 8. PER’ 50. 1. F 20] 7— E'+30000000 LOPER S0.1N- L| I f 10] ~ i L 1 1 L O00 6.004 0.008 6.008 0.010 STRAINE StreteStrain Diagrams. FIG. 3 constant. (ay en on m) E” are given constants.) Using det equation (4), the derivative Jf can be computed and, therefore, the reduced modulus E* according to equation (2) becomes Inown now as a function of the stress ¢. Fig. 3 shows a family of stress-strain curves constructed from equation (4) for 9=40,000 Ib. per sq. {n,, ¢y=60,000 Ib. per sq. in., E’=3(10") Tb. pe . and for the values of n:=2, 3, 9, and oo. We shall make use of these curves hereinafter when discussing the col- lapsing pressures of tubes in the plastic range. 3. ELASTIC COLLAPSE OF TUBES UNDER EXTERNAL PRESSURE Although the stability problem of a circular ring has been investigated previously in the engineering litera- ture, it is believed to be of sufficient general interest to include in this paper at least a brief derivation of the formula for the external pressure at which an elastic tube must collapse. It was felt that it would be desirable to base conclusions on the rigorous derivation of the case of elastic collapse of a perfectly-round tube, and to extend the investigation to the case of an initially oval tube for the purpose of showing that a tube with 4 non-cizeular cross-section collapses elastically at the Sections through Tube. FIG. 4 same pressure that a perfectly-round tube collapses ‘lastically. Also it will be shown that an axial stress thas no influence on the collapse pressure in the elastic ease. In the following discussion we use the mean radius PEt of the tube, designate by « the position of « point P situated in the cylinder of mean radius a (Fig. 4), and designate by « and v the small displacements ‘of ‘the point P in the tangential and radial directions, respectively. Positive directions of displacement are as indicated in Fig. 5. The angle of rotation of the normal to the amall element of are PQ=< This angle is given and the strains « and in the eylinder of mean radiusA THEORETICAL APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM OF COLLAPSE OF DEEP-WELL CASING 395 ‘2 and in the cylinder at the distance s=PP, from it, respectively, are expressed by: (6) om P¢q’ after distortion. The length of the arc P’Q’ pressed also by: is ex- ‘Tube Element. FIG. $ After combining equations (5), (6), and (9) we obtain also: a+a(4-4)=4 (f+) (a0) expressing the change in curvature of the tube wall due to bending. The bending moment M= { eadz serves in conjunction with the elasticity law to establish the dif- ferential equation for the deflection v of the tube walls for elastic collapse: av a ay ‘Some care is required in finding the expression for the bending moment M: Ma Metpa(ve—v) az) Where: the constant bending moment My tion t refer to the symmetry axis OA of t tube wall obtained for «=0 in Fig. 5. “After the expression of equation (12) for M is in- troduced in equation (11), this latter can be integrated and the constants determined. A distortion of the cir- cular center line of the tube obtained, provided the of elastic collapse: as) and in this ease the equation of the elastic center line results as: ay Tube During Collapse. FIG. 6 In whic: wt the dation at th point P. We note ato that 2 appesng in xen (14) sceoding t ccurtin (18) noel ack as) which shows that ether of these later formulas ex- Dresses the uniform radial elastic compression of the ibe radius a due to the preure p before cllapee has farted. When the tibe cllapes, ft becomes oval—ea Indicted by equation (4) and Fig. 6, In practice fs trual {0 introduce the ovtalde diameter D'of the tube. ‘This is done. by replacing the mean radius o. by = Det. We have to note, furthermore, that in Tong! tube with open ends, axial bending stresnes Ener; must act daring callapse, (x=Poison's ratio {or tube material) ‘The modulus E" in the collapee formula, therefore, must be replaced by: es m=396 MATERIALS ‘We wish now to combine the formula for elastic eol- lapse, equation (13), with the one expressing the mean tangential stress «: pD Be as) ‘After making the adjustroents just mentioned, we ob- tain for the pressure at which the tube collapses elastically: oe (ty v= gen (wee) ow and for the average collapse stress in the peripheral ection: EDt mao (8) ‘these formulas are approximated For large ratios o closely by: t BE ty wes (b) By comparing equation (19) for the average com: pression stress in the vvall of the tube just when Freollapees with equation (1) for the average com- pression stress in a column at the buckling load, equa- Tone (1) and (19) are seen to be completely analogous. The quantity E” in equation (1) becomes 2 quantity equation (1) wees in equation (19); whereas the slenderness ratio ¢ for ‘the column becomes the 4+ ratio for the tube. p= ey (G) at 4. PLASTIC COLLAPSE OF TUBES ‘As the equation of elastic buckling, equation (1), can be generalized to include the case of plastic buckling, equations (19), therefore, similarly can be extended to the ease of plastic collapse of tubes by substituting the reduced modulus E* for E’. The analogy applies equally well if the more accurate expressions, equations (21) and (18), are used for collapse. The validity of ‘equation (3) for plastic buckling has been confirmed by teats, and in this investigation some tests are re- ported confirming the validity of equations (17) and (18) for plastic collapse: Collapse pressure p=:———?E—,3 (20) a(R) D t Collapse stress 79° (B sy t (ay or the snp formals for these quantin val for the tanger rato: = Et (ty, Bt. (ty. aan (S)) eae) esas (it) ny be ston ao tow eee apgroe ee (+8) ve Et (4) as \b In the preceding formulas, equations (20) to (23), ‘valid for plastic collapse, the reduced modulus E* has to be computed from: pe" Ets (a) ~WE+VEY de In which again: BY curve of the material, ‘The procedare in using equation (24) now will be inustrated in various applications. If, for example, the strese-strain curve ia known only by a graphical plot, the topes B= Se may be obtained by dang tangents to the curve. If the dingram can be expresséd by a fune- tion e=f(«) for ¢ > en the slopes JE may be computed directly for different values of the strains «or stresses Tn both cases the reduced modulus E* is obtained nally as a fanction of the mean compression stress ¢ Acting in the tube wall and, therefore, the corresponding in the slope of the stress-strain Bato for plas claps occuring at the stress ¢ can be found from euation (19) D_ jE toVer and the corresponding collapse pressure p is given by equation (16) jown function of ¢ (25) Be % (26) In case the more exact formulas in equations (20) and (21) are used instead of the approximate ones (22), we can write: en the vihtnand ade of equation (21) is an easy-cm- puted funtion ot -2 which can be repreeted grap caty by rotng againt-2 an abaieee, The left-hand side in the same plot is a family of horizontal lines, the D ptt inact eh wih hee p= ae 7 therefore, determine the ratio for plastic collapse corre- ponding to the assumed values of the mean compres tion etre ¢; or, in other words, permit the plotting of «ror p as functions of the -P- ratio for the plastic range of strain Some question may be raised concerning the factor (1—s") depending on Poisson's ratio » in the case of Plastic collapse, ‘For elastic trains in steel, whereas for purely plastic trains p=05. ‘The value Of the reciprocal of 1—#' In 110, and 1.83 for a=03 tnd 17065, respectively. A mean value of 1.20 might be twed for the elantico-plastic case of collapse.A THEORETICAL APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM OF COLLAPSE OF DEEP-WELL CASING 897 Equation (24) for the reduced modulus E* predicts that the shape of the stress-strain curve has a con- siderable effect on the collapse resistance. Inasmuch as the collapse resistance depends on the shape of the stress-strain curve, tubes made from materials having for example, the same conventional “‘yield strength, ‘as defined by the sarie arbitrarily-selected 0.2-per-cent permanent set, can have considerably different collapse pressures if the curves have different shapes ‘The effect of the shape of the stress-strain curve beyond the proportional limit on the collapse resistance stress-strain curves accounts for much ofthe irreducible Scatter of actual collapee-test data when plotted as in Fig. 8 for steels having closely the same yield strength. tis the common experience of those engaged in col- lapse testing that variations are encountered. that cannot be accounted for on the basis of yield stress, outof-roundness, eccentricity, or internal stress—which factors have been recognized previously as influencing plasticcollapse resistance. ‘The effect of the shape of the stress-strain curve of the material on coll tance provides a key to the understanding of the previously-unexplained variations. Fig. 9 shows a family of stress-strain curves con- “ structed from equation (4) for ¢9=50,000 Ib. per sq. in. " H z puastic’ z 4, — & aE z cousose mt ey TI | i , | preckores ron 3 f i Puaste conan, a _ | z FOR TUBES CORR 5 *) Coarse STRESSES TOR] sh | strancuves S| SteteSEacrer anos” | 3 | Steese-sian cares |S 3 GWEN BY FIG 3 _ E | Gessukong seni mu 3 i #L Pititititi tifa oh 4 7 : Premures p for Platte Callapee for Tubes Correspond- of ing to Stress-Strain Curves Given by Fig. 3. Collapse Stresses for Steals Having Varios Strese-Srain ic. 8 Carven mae 122, and various values of en, The corresponding ot fof tubes may be revealed by using equation (4) in Sect. 2 for the stress-strain curves. Fig. 3 shows = Family of stress-strain curves all having a proportional mit op=40,000 Ib. per and a yield strength <1=60,000 Tb. per si 9 eo. Fig. 7 and 3 show the corresponding collapse ttsers ¢ and preamre p 2: ratio carve foro collapse, Te wil be noted that thev curves, although si Ppreentng e_ 60.000 Io-perg-n-ymtiatength eek'pvecoerably dierent alee sretst + nd reason p Tels bleved tet the cmadersble depen: Anes ofthe colapoe preaars onthe slopes Eat the Tove rte and pasar Dra res re owe in Fig, 10 and 11. ‘When the strese-etrain curve has the shape shown in Fig. 12, which sometimes is found in steels for an ‘elongation of as much as 1 per cent or more beyond the properina Timi hep and x - alo carves ce Sit of two dating ranches corresponding 12 tha Suste and plate ease of callie, The ¢ 2: rato ‘curve for such cases consists of a horizontal straight line. A set of auch lines appears in Fig. 13, correspond ing to various values of the “yield point” «., The eol- ape prssrep Deval carves for the sme valae of398 ‘MATERIALS ‘ss are shown in Fig. 14. It is to be noted that these ‘curves have the equation: strain curve is association of well-defined yield point with the phe- straight bars has the effect of somewhat lowering the Toads under which appreciable deflections precede the Duckling. ‘The value of the elastic buckling load, how- ‘ever, is not changed. Similar conditions are to be ex- pected during the elastic collapse of tubes having an initial out-of-roundness. We have seen that the bend- ing distortion ot: a section of a tube is defined by two ‘quantities, for which we can select either the tangential ‘and radial components of displacement u and v, or we ‘may choose the strain « along the center line of the tube ‘wall and the angle of rotation ¢ of the normal planes to it, The four quantities u, v, «, and @ are related to each other by the equations (5) and (6), and any pair PARABOLIC STRESS~ STRAIN CURVES, STRESS 'N THOUSAND LB. PER SO.IN Nop -80000 L.8 PER $0.1. HOP CB.PER SO.IK “ Ll’ |? 7 on en a Ta Finan & Parabolic Sirere-Strain Curves. FIG. 9 nomenon of an “upper” and “lower” yield point in such materials, It is well known that steels manifesting an ‘upper and lower yield point in the tensile test do not yield homogeneously, but that yielding occurs frst {oeally and spreads in a discontinuous manner. The hori- zontal portion of such curves, therefore, representas'the range of strain over which’ non-homogeneous plastic deformation is occurring in the absence of noticeable atrainchardening. Tt it probable, therefore, that the collapse of tubes made from such materials will follow some law more complex than the simple Barlow formula [equation (28)] would lead us to expect. 5, ELASTIC COLLAPSE OF TUBES HAVING INITIALLY A SLIGHTLY-OVAL SHAPE It is well known that an initial distortion or an eccentricity of the load in the case of the buckling of HAY SLL Nl EWR TN wt Lpijit FIG. 10 of them, therefore, must define a distortion in a tube. Tt is also easy to find a system of external pressures ‘p=fa) which, according to equation (11), will deform {he tube elastically ao that it will take the eorrespond- ing shape given by u=fs(e) and vixfa(s). One such shape may be chosen, for example, by assuming that the tube has an initial distortion given by: (29) which evidently makes the tube slightly oval. ’ and 9 ‘were chosen s0 that «=0; it was assumed that the Tength of the center line of the tube section was not changed, This initial distortion is accompanied by a change in curvature [see equation (10)]= Suppose now that a moment Mf’ would produce the eur-A THEORETICAL APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM OF COLLAPSE OF DEEP-WELL CASING 399 i \ Foiactena wesc Sraceecstram Cove Collapse Stresses. Fic. 13, COLLAPSE PRESSURE p M1 THOUSANDS LB. 9ER SO. oft Collapse Prestuces p for Parabolic SiressStrain ‘Carres. FIG, 11 |_| MIELO POINT IN TENSION ay \ & OF STRAIN E: ory é YERVIELD POINT IN COMPRESSION StressStrain Diagram Showing Welldefined ‘Yield Points. Fic. 12400 ‘MATERIALS vature p', and another moment M” would produce the curvature p'. If we cal. M=M"—M’ and vi, then v would measure the deflections from the originally Gisplaced positions of the center line of the are. Also wwe would have the equation: ay (a ave If now the initial distortion v' is fx ‘ment M' is eliminated by assuming M’ ‘ind there must be in the tube, when about to collapse, & fending-moment distribution MM” similar to the one in ‘equation (12), oF: M=M’=—Me+pa(v—v") (32) Where: the substitution v"=v'+v can be made. After making use of vas given by equation (29), there is ‘obtained for the bending moment: Mc—Metpafn—v-tve(1—cos2=)] (38) ‘After some calculations ‘which will not be given here, we find as the equation for ‘he elastic line of the tube wall: 6, EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF THE PLASTIC-COLLAPSE FORMULA ‘Arnumber of tests were made to verify the validity of the reduced-modulus-plastic-collapse formula. Collapse tests were made on brass and steel tubes 25 in. and 3 in. fa outside diameter, respectively, in a small collapse shamben* Arrangements were provided for observing the deformation of the tubes by the displacement of fluid from the inside of the tubes as pressure was applied. ‘A. Tests on Brass Tubes For the experimental verification of the reduced-mod- tus-plastic-collapse formula it was considered desirable te include tests on bras tubes, because the stress-strain curve of brass does not contain any discontinuity nor point of inflection which can be i Point.” Pertinent data on the brass tubes tested are given in Table 1. ‘The collapse-test specimens were obtained from com- mercial brass tubing. Specimen No. 1 was cut from 24- (34) | ins standard brass tubing, and specimen No. 2 from 24- ‘TABLE 1 Collapse Teste on Brass Tubes Average Speci- ‘Outside Average Outof- Maximum men ‘Diameter Thickness 1p. _Roundness_ Eeventricity No. Maker (Inches) (Inches) “Fer Cent) (Per Cent) 2 A 2.869 0.185 165 0.09 6.60 2 B 2.872 0.283 102 oat 2.65 3 B 2.862 0.220 180 0.00 1.36 4 B 2.862 0x19 240 In which: v's measures the “Gut-of-roundness” of the tube (1. is the amplitude of the lobe producing the initially elliptically-deformed center line of the tube wall) and the constant pis defined by: valt ae (35) ve +e 38) aoe wy determines the maximum deflection of the oval tube Under the pressure p (to be computed from the initially deformed position). ‘Tt is to be noted that the maximum deflection of an oval tubs increases gradually with increasing Pressure p. When: or an initially out-of-round tube’ collapses elastically Gnder the same presmure as a perfectly-round tube. The Targer the initial out-of-roundness, the less rapidly the ‘pressure p increases, because the deflections of the tube Jnereage more rapidiy with increasing initial out-of- roundness. _Tsliting teste were made on the tubes to investigate ‘for the presence of internal stress. Specimen No. 1 was Stresertree in the “as-received” condition, The alit rings ‘opened for the extra-heavy tube, showing the presence oP detrimental internal stress. Specimens No. 2, 8, and {i therefore, were annealed 2 hours at 600 deg. F., which treatment was found completely to relieve the internal: stress condition. ‘wsts on the brass tubes were open-end tests, The length of the tube inside of the collapse Chamber. was 30 in,, giving a length-diameter ratio of slightly more than 10 for the collapse tests. ‘The stress-strain curves of the brass tubes were made in tension parallel with the axis of the tubes, For speci- men No. 1, Table 1, Fig. 16 shows the at of the stress~ train observations to the following empirical equation: (28a) 18. the author eptee withthe values ofthe constants as given in Fi apraratay are SPURT i Fe cinta lacusA THEORETICAL APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM OF COLLAPSE oF DEEP-WELL CasiNG 401 ‘The slopes £” of the stress-strain curve above the rope nit worn elated from geation 28) From tas values and the vale BY 2154(10) cuaned from the curve, the cllapeepresate 2 ratio curve shown In Fig 16 was constructed, olson rai fr Sale wasafen os O38 ‘The served claps prestre tn aecinen Net plot st sngle pn this rare It wil be oberved tat the cllaye presire proce from escort care iin satiactry Rerseman withthe preatre stalned by st he srnestrain cove for sere No.2, 8, and ¢ son in Fg Tazo otal in tnnon paral to diameter micrometered, It was found that the diameter hhad decreased 0.006 in. The reduction in diameter was uniform along the length of the tube, and the tube hhad not become out-of-round. The tube was replaced in the collapse chamber, and the test completed with col- apse ultimately occurring at §,000 Ib. per sq. in. B. ‘Teats on Machined Tubes In the present investigation a series of collapse tests was made on specimens which were bored and turned to eliminate the influence of the factors of eccentricity and out-of-roundness to the greatest extent possible. [tf z 8 4 3 : be a couuarse Test oe tere SN +| | : i i | SrReSs-gTFan g Mm Stave oon teas 3 SRST ESE 3 3 sgearen E coLLAPse pRessuRE s = 8500 L8.PER $0.1 g JO/t RATIO CURVE i ERA g, leone tnucteD FROM 5 3 ‘STRESS-STRAN i . 8 CURVE FIG.15. L. oar Va apo aT a 2 SueseStrain Carve for Brae Tube No, 1, Tele 1. . shoe Cottpre Pretare 2. Ratio Carve Constructed from the ais of the take, The slopes 5 at varios steses ove th proportional Unit were sland praphialy from the cure. The clapaepreure 2 ratio carve constructed from Fig. 17 shown in Figt 18. The col ithe petoesebaled ty Seton apetnens No.3 MERLE pitts ing Tew be onerved that te Spee preean poised fom the ersten curve tren well with he prasurescland bytes forthe 2 tation of 18 and 26, but a coniderale darepensy txts forte 2 ratio of 102. No stiatactory explana tin ean be advanced for this dlacrepaney at this tne, During th ttt on this tae, internal velumeaplac- nest sharvtieng vere made which ay shows Hetil ImiFig. 10, Marked ying of the tbe cried Sprouse of 600 1b pero in. The test wan ncn tinued the tube revved from the chamber andthe StreseStrain Carve of Fig. 15. FIG. 16 Specimens were made from three types of steel. One of these was a nickel-molybdenum-vanadium steel posses- sing a well-defined yield point of approximately 80,000 1b, per sq. the normalized and drawn condition. Another was a low-carbon steel, and the third was = S-per-cent chromium, i-per-cent molybdenum, low-car- bon steel. ‘The latter two steels were tested in the an- nealed condition, in which condition they possesssed a yield strength of approximately $0,000 Ib. per sq. in. ‘The low-carbon steel possessed a well-defined yield point. ‘The chromium-molybdenum steel was selected as repre- senting a steel not possessing a well-defined yield point which previous experience in routine tensile testing indi- ented was its nature. Carefully-made stress-strain curves obtained during the investigation revealed, how= ever, that this steel did possess @ short horizontal por-402 ‘MATERIALS tion on the stress-strain curve; therefore, no steel not possessing a definite yield point was included in the ‘ests, te pve a range of 2. ration of 12 fo 86, Species swore made for both open: and comand teva a8 8 Further bject of the fst was to provide an accurate setae sateting the diference between open-end ce = closed-end collapse pressures. The length of the tubes Siiedal spreaure inthe opeand ats was 90 TUS ctctan tei 2 | a cotstrorsines af he aes did ot exceed 0.001 pee ser in, and the maximum eccentricity for each tube is a on Z ‘ i. i ate & iw & e 30- 3s ’ { rere i 5 Reape eee i _ i | — eee oon : ‘. 5] ‘Yolume-Displacement-Pressure Carves for Brass Tubes. ie. 19 ‘ 608 G00 900200: °: cr ‘Stress Strain Curve for Extra-heavy Brass Tube, Full- Section Tensile Test. FIG. 17 i i i a — a 4 Gollapse Prentures for Brass Tubes. FIG. 18 ‘The steels were rolled into 8.75-in.outside-diameter by 2.35-in.-inside-diamo-er seamless tubes, heat-treated, and rough-machined. ‘They then were stress-relieved, ‘and finished machined. The finished diameter of all ‘tubes was 3.000 in., and the wall thickness was varied Steel Tuber—Plastie-Collapse Curve ‘Computed from ‘StrearStrain Carve of Fig. 12. Fic. 20 sina Tle 2 Dept fst opens wre mada Becca era eres [orate era rece eases a ra roca maa oe eo Tain sreestran coves ofthe fabs materia tig eatin en Sere orcs ert a esis af tatube A meer of teanrertA THEORETICAL APPROACH T0 THE PROBLEM OF COLLAPSE oF DeeP-WELL CasiNc 403 compression tests was made to check the uniformity of properties in each group of tubes of the same materials, sults are given in Table 2, All tubes of each ma terial were made from the same melt of steel except the chromium-molytdenum steel—where, due to short- plastic curve fits the date for the high-yield-strength steel reasonably well, but is consistently low for the two low-yield-strength steels. As mentioned previously, how- ‘age of material, it was necessary to include two heats of TT Tt closely the same analy All tubes of each type of SSATP A material were heat-treated together in one operation. a“ t + ‘The collapse pressures obtained on the tubes are shown | 3 oak cla stn P| eelertlanhe in Table 2. The presrore gage was recaibrated fre- | me gimon eee | Bae ato quently during the tests, and found to maintain its ali- | Hy bration within 1 per cent. A a 4 as 1 o-U id i i Ld 3 i cr |. Tt ee 5 ‘| f f : : . : é i 7 af “] a : 7 | ; So a a ee TEEPE = StrestStrain Curve for Steel Tubes of Same Grade as StreaeStrsin Carves for Three Stecls. ‘Shown in Fig. 20. Fic. 22 FIG. 21 ‘he cllapn pressure 2 ratio data of Table 2 are plotted in Fg, 2 Te willbe obeerved that, depts the Tien tf aacre unlforaly of properien, round care "AG anconicioy of tobe ‘rae 0 enciderable weet hates exists boat any emosth carve eon be dean to represent the claps peste ato reltoshp. tn the cae othe to low-il- shrengh sels, the data do ot permit a ditnetion to STE ‘Slaven opens and clredend tate In the Sacre igh yietatength stl he ata Inet the cage proms for ceed thn operand eee ce acter af the date foto erent Sr prt Siiate ovtatin of the diference, in Fig 2 the lane branche of the clap res sore 2 rato carves computed from Barlow's formsla tre shown in alton to the latic cure, Tn the SCOANCA ctetnon span clas Temas ated theese mutes which dees not erinharden with ae et tonmation the plunte-ollapes Cherry reduet Bssucow's fmol Tel be noted tet the Barlow imi Collapse Tests on Machined Tubes. FIG. 23, ever, the non-homogeneous character of the deformation at first yielding complicates the matter so that the lack of close agreement is not unexpected.‘TABLE 2 ‘Test Data—Turned and Bored Steel Tubes ‘Tube Type ot No. Steel Test 1 0.15-per-eent-earbon Open end 2 0.15-per-cent-carbon Open end - 3. 0.15-per-cent-carbon ‘Open end - 4 0.15-per-cent-earbon Open end: 5. 0.15-per-cent-carbon ‘Opén end... 8 0.15-per-cent-carbon ‘Open end |. 7 0.45-per-cent-carbon <.. Open end - 8 0.15-per-cent-earbon <1. ‘Open end 9 0.15-per-cent-carbon ... [Open end | 10 0.15-per-cent-earbon ‘Open end « 11 0.16-per-cent-earbon ‘Closed end . 12 0.15-per-cent-carban, Closed end | 18 0.15-per-cent-carbon Closed end 14 0.15-per-cent-carbon ‘Closed end - 15 0.16-per-cent-carbon "Closed end | 16 0.15-per-eent-earbon Closed end | AT 0.16-per-cent-earbon SGlosed end 38 0.16-per-cent-earbon | 1...........-Closed end 39 0.5-per-cent-earbon ..... ++Closed end 20 0.16-per-cent-earbon ... ‘Closed end - 21 Chrome-molybdenam .. Open end « 22 Chrome-molybdenam ..... Open end «| 23. Chromemolybdeasm | Open end | 24 Chrome-molybdenam . Open end 25 Chromemolybdenam .......00.s./,Open end» 26 Chrome-molybdenam sOpen end --- 21 Chrome-molybdenam . s-Open end: 28. Chrome-molybdenam Open end «| 29. Chrome-molybdenam Closed end 30 Chrome-molybdenam *Glosed end - 31 Chrome-molybdenam Closed end 82. Chrome-molybdenam Closed end | 383 Chrome-molybdenam |. Closed end 384° Chrome-molybdenam ...... ‘Closed end 385 Chrome-molybdewam .............-Closed end 386 Chrome-molybdenam . “Closed end 31 Nickel-molybdenum-vanadium ......Open end .. 38 Nickel-molybdenum-vanadium ....:.Open end - 39° Nickel-motybdenum-vanadium |... Open end 40. Nickel-molybdenum-vanadium |... .Open end | 41 Nickel-molybdenum-vanadium,......Open end 42 Nickel-molybdenun-vanadium ......Open end . 43 Niekel-molybdenun-vanadium |.....Open end . 44° Nickel-molybdenum-vanadium ....-.Open end . 45 Nickel-molybdenum-vanadium .....-Open end - 46 Nickel-molybdenam-vanadium .....,Open end 41 Nickel-molybdenum-vanadium .....-Closed end 48 Nickel-molybdenam-vanadium |... Closed end - 49° Nickel-molybdenam-vanadium -.-...Closed end. 50 Nickel-molybdenum-vanadium ......Closed end 51 Nickel-molybdenum-vanadium «. end 52 Nickel-molybdenum-vanadium ......Closed end 83. Nickel-molybdenum-vanadiam - fend | 54 Nickel-molybdenum-vanadiam ...,..Closed 85 Nickel-molybdenwm-vanadium .....,Closed end 56 Nickel-molybdenum-vanadium .....,Closed end Transverse omarion, 0.2 pet cant sat ‘Tabee 2205, Bo, Uoraud'81 afe om oot malt, and the balance of the chrome-molybden end 1 (404) z Ratio 0 120 18.3 183. 244 29.8 302 321 366 Yield Maximum —Strength* Eccentricity (Lb. Per (Per Cent) Sq. In.) os oz 06 06 16 15 15 22 13 13 o4 04 08 09 08 16 42 16 30,200 31,100 31,800 30,100 30,000 Collapse Pressure (Lb. Per Sq. In.) 6,000 6,600 3,950 4,000 3,400 25500 2,250 1,900 1,350 1,350 6,150 6,250 3,850 4,000 3,200 3,100 2,160 1,900 1,380 1,500 7,000 7,660 41130 3,300 2,500 3,000 41,920 2,150 6,450 6,550 4700 tubes are Crom another melt of stealA THEORETICAL APPROACH 10 THE PROBLEM OF COLLAPSE oF DEEP-WELL CASING 405 7. TESTS ON COMMERCIAL CASING In Fig. 20 the results of a number of tests on com- mercial easing made from steel having yield strengths in the range from 60,000 to 62,500 Ib. per sq. in. are plotted from the data given in the paper by W. M. Frame! ‘Tension stress-strain curves obtained by means of an autographie stress-strain recorder are shown in Fig. 21 for a number of tests on steel of the same grade as the casing specimens represented in Fig. 20. The grade of steel has a well-defined yield point. The ft of the col- lapse-test data to the plastic-collapse curve computed from Barlow's formla for the average yield strength of 61,000 Ib, per sq. in. is shown in Fig. 20. 8. YIELDING OF TUBES UNDER COMBINED AXIAL ‘AND FERIPHERAL STRESS It should be noted that similarly, as a slightly-oval shape of a tube has no effect on the elastic lateral col- apse pressure, also an axial stress does not cause a change of this pressure. This is true for long tubes only, in which the lengta is several times larger than the diameter, One ean see that adding or subtracting of a jstribution in a long tube which acts on has no effect on the bending mo- ment expression [see equation (12), Sect. 3] and, there fore, the elastic-collepse pressure is not changed by an ‘axial stress.* For elnstic collapse there should be no dif- ference found between the pressures required for the collapse of long open or of long closed tubes. If, however, under a uniform system of pure axial and peripheral stress the yield point in the tube material is Teached before the 2quilibrium becomes unstable, con- ditions are different, ‘The actual behavior of commereial tubes by no means can be considered as simple, due to the various factors influencing the plastic mode of col- lapse, Some careful experiments, which were made dur- ing the last 10 to 36 years by various investigators on the pure yielding cf the ductile metals under combined stress, allow a few conclusions in this respect. From these tests" it appears probable that a ductile metal starts to flow when: (ean) (ermal (ome constant. (87) ay a, and e, here designate the principal stresses; and is the yield stress :n pure tension. In a hollow cylinder, which carries on one of its cylindrical surfaces a uniform pressure p (an external, fof an internal pressure) and in addition is stressed by fan axial force, the principal stresses are given by the radial, peripheral (hoop), and axial stresses er, ot, and a, respectively. In a moderately thick-walled tube the radial stress or can in first approximation be neglected in this condition [equation (37)], and it can be assumed that for the yielding of a tube equation (37) can be re- written in the simp er form: essere complete thes uation (31) pas bees "nor Hit Setreparded wlan bec Plotting the stresses ot and es as rectangular coordi- nates, this is the equation of an ellipse having Ve and Ese forthe major and minor soniares( 2), Solving for owe obtain EEN ra Ina tube subjected to an external pressure p the tan- ‘gential stress o+ must be a compression ‘There- fore, o <0, and we have here to take the minus sign before the square root: (39) = ie (40) ‘This expression evidently defines for us the yield stre et in the peripheral direction (hoop stress) in compres Ellipse of Plasticity. FIG. 24 sion when an axial stress of the magnitude os is present in the tube wall. It is represented by the vertical ordi- nates of the ellipse in Fig. 24. If the axial stress is = tensile stress and ¢#=OA > O, the ordinate AB=|er|< e+ =0C. Presence of a tensile azial stress ox, therefore, reduces the apparent yield stress ot in the peripheral direction. When es=0 {from equation (40) eter], the tube yields under a hoop stress equal to the yield stress of the material in pure tension Conversely, if « compression stress acts in the axial direction (cr <0) the absolute value of the tangential stress «1 for yielding increases. As can be seen from Fig. 24, however, this latter soon reaches its maximam value (in point D of the ellipse, Fig. 24). In « moder ately thick-walled tbe with cloned end, ens when the tube is atressed by internal or external presture. It is seen readily that this condition is just astisfed in406 ‘MATERIALS point D of the ellipse having a horizontal tangent. One finds that in point D: (a1) A lone tbe yas wnter extra pate under petted ses which sie pr so try the te Reap are for ving fo ope tbe Fi yng When toe posi toond tbe increased gradually, the ste At ile he Imor surface. The pressie'p at which fie srry cane couputd fm te cist fornia, which have bea Sere Tor ls casei Se made ofthe oan of mictcly equation (0). This presurep, when smal Eeneunyan ana ores nets Inthe a, vn By BOS I 4] un (0 diame, hikes of wal of tbe, vale field sires for pure eanpresion). When: this preseure is: 15000815 «ORNS .219 times the peripheral stress er=era/1— 25 —$ —whose expression appears in the bracket (2). ‘We have noted already that in the above-mentioned equation in cold-worked material xre known to be of a more complex nature, particularly if the steel has not a marked yield stress but a stress-strain curve with a gradually-changing slope. It, therefore, scarcely can be expected that the tests on commercial tubes will bring out the deviations in full agreement with predictions. So far as the writers are aware, however, the trend of the deviations which were noticed when the col- lapse pressures for closed and for open tubes were com- pared ** or, for example, the prediction that a tensile ‘axial stress should lower the collapse resistance for plastic lateral collapse, seem to agree well with the laws of yielding which were just mentioned. or ergs 2 ration nent tient tate thatthe peripheral end aval ten onformy we distributed in the interior of the wall. For 2. =12 or ¢ less, ar, ot, and er are functions of the radial distance r of a point from the axis of the tube. In such tubes which still can be considered as raoderately thick-walled cylin- ders, itis sufficient to express the stresses ar, ¢t, and ey by linear functions of the radial distance 7. For ex- ference 3 of bib ample, the radial stress er in a tube stressed by external pressure p is given by: o=-0(¢+2) (4) Where: + is the distance from the middle line of the tube wall, On the outer surface 5 the inner surface 2=— «r= 0, Stes isibtions in moderately thic-walladeyin- ders are shown in four examples in Fig, 25 and 26 The Art to” catea refer wo eylinders ia which the train are prey elie. Pig 8 show the deb tin of the redial and ofthe tangential reste or and tr'tor internal and for external presnre, To these Slase ditebtion of ster may be added #ny con stant axial sree nde he lmbine eect do not pofaceyeding in he elinder all 10 18 20 25 30 0180 0.425 0.0950.07T = (0.065 Fig. 26, on the other hand, refers to fully plastic states of stress in moderately thick-walled cylinders. ‘The upper part of Fig. 26 indicates the case of flow under internal, and the second under external pressure, respectively. The special condition under which these two states of stress were evaluated was that, whereas the cylinders are deformed, their lengths do not change. In other words, the permanent strain in the axial direc- .0, and there is no flow in this direction. pressure, evidently, the tube radius in- trary is true under external pressure. The stresses sr, et and es corresponding to these four cases all are represented by straight lines (Fig. 25 and 26) ; but it is Interesting to note that, for elastic distortion, the slopes of er and of e+ are opposite, whereas for the fully- developed plastic stata of stress the straight lines repre- senting er, ¢t, and ¢s are parallel lines. ‘We note that the third example (Fig. 26) represents the exact stress distribution in a moderately thick-walled evlinder, with both ends closed, for complete yielding under an internal pressure p. The diameter of the tube increases, the wall thickness decreases, and the length of the cylinder does not change. From the condition of equilibrium of the stress components er and et it follows that the mean tangential stress or in the cylinder wall is given by the following expressions: For a tube under internal pressure: pD, mF ‘And for a tube under external presture: 2DA THEORETICAL APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM OF COLLAPSE OF DEEP-WELL CASING 407 If es again designates the yield stress in tenston or com- pression, the plastic state of stress for complete yield- ing in a closed tube subjected to internal pressure p is given by the three following formulas: ‘Mean radial stress ‘Mean hoop stress Mean axial stress STRESSES ne LLL INTERNAL. PRESSURE EXTERNAL ‘Pressune (a=? ElastleStrest Distribution in Casing. FIG, 25 This distribution of stress is shown in Fig. 26 on ths left side, ‘Similarly, wa find in the fourth example for a moder- ately thick-walled cylinder for complete yielding under ‘external pressure p snd subject to the condition that the axial strain « remains zero, that: ‘The mean axial stress ¢.=— ‘These latter formulas express very nearly the state of streae in a closed tube yielding under external pressure, and both groups of equations contain certain correction terms taking into account the finite thickness of wall ¢ ACKNOWLEDGMENT Acknowledgnient is due W. M. Frame, director of re- search, The National Supply Company, Spang Chalfant ssraesses, anes 1 Ly ; INTERNAL, PRESSURE (4-0) exrennal| Plastie-Stress Distribution in Casing. FIG. 26 Division, Ambridge, Pa., for encouraging the continua- tion of the investigation initiated several years ago, snd for his interest in its progress. Acknowledgment is due also L. W. Chubb, director of the Westinghouse Reacarch Laboratories, East Pittsburgh, for help re- ceived during completion of the report. BIBLIOGRAPHY The work of an Bee” Weck408 ‘MareRiats DISCUSSION S. P. Timoshenko (Department of Mechanical En- gineering, Stanford Un versity) (written)*: ‘The prob- Jem of collapse of cylindvienl tubes under external uni- form pressure is similar to that of lateral buckling of ‘compressed bars. A considerable amount of theoretical ‘and experimental wor's has been done on both of these problems, and it seems unnecessary to repeat the deriva- tion of such equations as (19) and (36) of the paper, which can be taken from existing books. After the derivation of these equations, a statement is made that “an initially out-of-round tube collapses elastically under the same pressure as a perfectly round tube.” Such a statement can be misleading. In the case of an out-of-round tube the flattening of the tube begins with the smallest pressure and, strictly speaking, we cannot uso the term “elastic collapse.” If the eccentricities are small, the flattening increases slowly, and remains small up to a pressure approach- ing the critical value zs calculated for a perfectly-cir- cular tube, But if tz eccentricity is not small, the fattening may become considerable at a comparatively small pressure, and che tube collapses at a pressure much lower than that calculated for a round tube. Thus the character of the ceformation depends entirely on ‘the magnitude of the eccentricity. For ealeulating the reduced modulus in the case of plastic buckling, equation (2), derived for straight bars, is used in the paper, end it is shown that the tensile- test curve of the material is required in this calculation, Sometimes this curve can be replaced by an empirical ‘curve, such as given in the paper in equation (4) or equation (28a). In the case of equation (4), it is desirable to state that « is not the total strain at “yield strength,” but only a portion of this strain which is measured from the inclined straight line representing the purely-elastic deformation. In the case of equation (28a), it is desirable to use a dimensionless form. Sev- eral forms of such type of equations are discussed in ‘a recently-published book by Arvo Ylinen, Helsinki (1938). Poisson's ratio, which enters in the formula for the critical lead, and which is varying in the plastic range, {is replaced in the paper by some average value. This procedure simplifies the problem; but if such a refine- ment as the true tersile-test curve of the material fs taken into consideration, it seems very desirable also to have more accarate information regarding the variation of Poisson's ratio. An investigation of Duckling of uniformly-compressed rectangular plates ‘and comparison with buckling of bars may furnish such information, Referring to the experimental part of the paper, it would be very desirable to have a complete description of the equipment usec in the work and also informa tion regarding the procedure of testing and the mea- suring instruments used. Only on the basis of such in- ented by G. M Eaton, Natlonel Supply Co, Spang cuales Divtees, Lae Angeles cane mst SHY formation can a clear iden regarding the accuracy of artes be shail The real ae peered aetna ees and agate ein Bs collepes preame an funeton of rato, But ti note Pinned. ow thin callapas prssre was detained Tent at ont diglconert-yesune arom Hes Fig as af be peter were coud, Bat in eek [Scere be explana how the soympltn of hese se Sting he rial presen, were evan Srey Satine apace, a method of sting teh symp ongiated by Ve Southwell} seer see anes i souns tat ar Poh can'6s uno to wivantage is ihe eae of mee i he principal porpowe ofthe pape ito Ive sate the eect of the shape of the aeaeatrain curve Sr cneeree oe tena vente of foun th ctare mus be caned eal pouile seacy. Suc almaere arbre ty Save nechniel pop: Sues ae tua direction t 8 tbe very aierent Tae foatn ie Seeamferntia deton expely eae tab isnot aneaid ten esa of the Hast tourer Mes From ie can be enced tat Meche core au en in Fg. 16, aod repressing the peopery of materi inthe all ecto, cat SEERA citar one for predicting the Satay’ presare, which depends elspa he Surety Of material in Ue Seumferentel action tn the cue of tea esl ttc materia red we he dngame fe Fig 2, hate very Pronounced ident For' such eater face Rarthe inesigation of tuletet sve ie nt of Prace inportnee andthe knowledge of te Vel Melt‘ alge i suet for satatetny de regalo of the lane prsure This conclnon eee eat te ton rao deteed in De Waoee eth by unng the hypetire! diagram Tet Ws ae chain he sees in Fg, wht ee Me Eaceaaty tvecnmse wih the erpeimenta dts W. 0. Clinedinst (National Tube Company) (writ ten): The authors have demonstrated that the equa- tion for elastic collapsing pressures can be used for the range of inelastie stresses encountered in deep-well easing by replacing “Young's modulus” with a “re- ‘duced modulus.” The elastic equation which has been used in the derivation given was developed first by M. Levy tin 1884, Tt has been pointed out by the writer in a paper read at this symposium § that whereas Levy's equation may be used with the “reduced modu- lus,” it may not be entirely correct. In the derivation of Levy's collapse equation, it was asqumed that the ex- ternal pressure acts on the mean rather than the out- side eizeumference of the pipe. Taking into considera- tion that the external pressure actually acts én theA THEORETICAL APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM OF COLLAPSE OF DEEP-WELL CASING 409 outside circumference of pipe, the writer obtained the following collapse equatior = a5 De O24) It was shown in the writer's paper read at this symposium that ths equation does not give greatly Aire reas tom Laws for the vaies ot 2 crully ecountered i he sete and plane xen ware ieee ecencteeeee te ones fe sas net cater oad ewe tei te port oan tel sate See eer ges cares by eat sre eg ea card tcneaea care Merial pets oe ee es esas rang 008 he + towhich purely-plastic range of stress. The factor. ar ‘the collapse resistance appears to be directly propor- tonal, shows a corresponding change from 1.1 to 1.33. In lieu of any information regarding Poisson’s ratio for the semi-plastic region, the authors have used an aver- age value of 1.2 for ;4. Another method of handling the increase in Poisson's ratio from the elastic to plastic region woul be to assume Poisson's ratio to be {2 straight-line function between the proportional limit ‘and the yield point of the material. This method has been used by the writer, and calculated collapsing pressures were found to be of the order of 4 per cent higher than those cbtained by using Poisson's ratio as 0.3 for the plastic range. The 20-per-cent increase that would be expected in the plastic region at first glance is not realized, az the “reduced modulus” itself is a function of Polson’ al-2, and external prese* ‘he authors preset thatch eonventon] yl pint ag a alae of alien, Saleen Stl ce Mnatarsn carves ant cotaodiag sam gtse edges sane ae shown in Fg 2d Saree Shit have the ane geld stsngih tnd wngratte “ireesteain character, Esper See rien aa aatae eat eeemeialy oi Bitar (ove the contin resco ee aT cats aon corded by the Nu sist 1obe Company, erat danppentrent wat weathtt in sor sbuineg the coups rte © reer toes ca af tae mate is ce peal mies aise cores es Cute ro eacefuly-papaced stentein carer cae ae Soares found te bn wort cee ee eet stu wi ga mach Sree itty Steps seaancs for ren pte Se Se went eae he rece ak Tee also “dleeutsion” om Me, Clinedtast’s pape, p. 387. order to prove that the “reduced modulus” is superior to the yield strength for predicting collapsing pres- sures, the standard deviations of a series of test col- lapsing pressures in terms of the calculated values by both the “reduced-modulus” and yield-point method should be determined and compared. Barlow's formula [equation (28) inthe authors’ paper] has been used in constructing collapse curves corresponding to yield strengths. This expression gives the average stress resulting from an external pressure. Does not Barlow's formula refer to internal pressure land maximum stress rather than external pressure and average stress? In investigating the effects of ovality on collapse, it is concluded that slight ovality does not affect elastic collapse, Does it affect plastic collapse? Fig. 20 (in the authors’ paper), showing the results of a number of tests on commercial easing having yield strengths ranging from 60,000 to 62,500 Ib. per sq. in., must not be understood to represent in any way the range of collapse pressures to be expected from an API grade of material. The curve obtained by the yield Strength and the so-called Barlow's formula does not fit the data particularly well in the transition from the clastic to the plastic range. “Reduced-modulus” caleula- tion may result in a better-ftting curve. ‘Application of the von Mises or Hencky theory of yielding by the authors indicates that the external pres- ‘sure causing yielding of a tube is lowered by axial tension and raised by axial compression. Tt does not follow necessarily that a change in external yielding pressure results in a change in collapsing pressure of the same magnitude. A preliminary study has indicated that the effect of axial tension or compression on col- lapse resistance can be calculated by means of the “reduced modul E. 0, Waters (School of Engineering, Yale Uni- versity) (written)}: For the past quarter-century. Stewart's formulas have been the standard basis of de- sign in this country, and have gained the sanction of handbook and textbook usage to a very wide extent. Rational formulas have been available; but there seems to have been no strong effort to bring them into favor, nor to substitute them for Stewart's formulas—prob- ably because of the elaborate background of experi- mental work from which these latter’ were developed. ‘The authors, therefore, greatly are to be commended for ising forward a renewed emphasis upon rational rather than empirical design, at the same time pointing out by their test results that the theory is deduced from ‘sound premises that are actually realized in practice. ‘The writer believes that at least two beneficial effects ‘may result from a study of this paper. First, the treat iment is entirely general as far as materials and dimen- sions are concerned, so that no reservations need be made with regard to numerical constants in the formulas that impose an arbitrary limitation. Such is not the JEmeented by C. A. Dunlop, Humble Olt and Re 5 Con idntonr Eee410 ‘MATERIALS case with Stewart's formulas, which pertain definitely to bessemer lapwelded tutes having particular physical properties, and eannot be applied to tubing of other ‘materials ‘without involving considerable guess work. Carman’s formulas are subject to the same criticism— although to a lesser dezree—because some of them hhave a close resemblance to the rational expressions. ‘The second feature worth noting is the abandonment of the “thin-walled” and “thick-walled” classification: used by both Stewart and Carman, without sufficient explanation, in favor of the “elastic” and “plastic” regions of collapse. To te sure, much the same result may be obtained either way, but the concept of col- apse here emphasized by the authors gives immediately the reason for the difference in behavior of thin and thick tubes, and shows exactly where the discontinuity With regard to Fig. 20 and 23, it would seem that the moderate disagreement between test and theory is not unreasonable. In Fig. 23 the only disparity occurs for cases of plastic collapse; it is the writer’s understand- ing that plastic propert-es, as a rule, are much less definite than elastic, and it is not surprising that the yield strengths obtained in direct tension (Fig. 22) fare not repeated exactly in bending. In Fig. 20 con- siderable deficiency in stiffness appears in those tubes which theoretically should have collapsed within the clastic limit, which seems inconsistent with the comment just made concerning Fig. 23. However, it must be Temembered that the tubes of Fig. 23 were machined carefully to secure uniform thickness and roundness, whereas Fig. 20 reprosents commercial casing which may have been sufficiently out-of-round to deform ap- preciably prior to collapse; in that case, the yield stress would be reached at a lower pressure than that required for elastic collapse, and any addition of pres- sure would produce effects in accordance, to some extent at least, with the criteria of plastic flow. In conclusion, the writer wishes to voice a minor criticism which in no way detracts from the value of the paper as a whole, It would seem that the mathe- matical treatment of the first few pages could have been replaced by a brief reference to one or two sources in the literature in which these derivations may be found in full. As it stands, it suffers from over- ‘condensation in parts [how are formulas (2) and (12) obtained] and a certaia obscurity in the treatment of the so-called “condition of inextensibility”; I. e,, in equa tion (10) the factor 1-41 is retained; in equation (11) it is omitted and, finally, in equation (14) there is an {implicit elastie contraction of the mean line at radius a. ‘The writer would have been glad to see a little more space devoted to the exrerimental technique and to the practical application of the theory developed in the final section of the payer, “Yielding of Tubes under Combined Axial and Pevipheral Stress.” I, B, MeCorkle* (National Tube Company) (writ ‘The authors state that “yield strength” as a criterion of collapse has limited significance and that, Deceased Jan. 9, 1040 when there is no well-defined yield point, the yield strength is of necessity an arbitrary quantity. I'am in complete accord with the latter statement. There is not ‘even general agreement as to how this point on a con- tinuously-varying line is defined, The authors seem to use the “0.2 per cent set” point, whereas the writer pre~ fers the “0.5 per eent stretch” point as being more co veniently determined. Although both general good agreement, the fact remains that there is a difference. ‘Our experience also is in accord with the authors’, that tubes made from materials having the same con- ‘ventional yield strength as defined by the “0.2 per cent set point (or the “0.5 per cent stretch” point) can have considerably different collapse pressures if the curves (of stress and strain) have different shapes. ‘A method proposed by the authors for attacking this situation consists in devising equations for the stress- strain diagrams in the plastic range below the yield Strength; but the difficulty is not eliminated by this artifice. It should be understood clearly that “propor- tional limit,” which is mentioned s0 frequently in the paper, is easy to define, but the assignment of an ex- perimental value requires just as arbitrary a definition does “yield strength.” Two of several definitions of experimental proportional limit, are the “0.001 per cent” and the “0.01 per cent” permanent set point Hence, the interpretation of collapse values in terms of ‘an equation for the stress-strain curve in itself is handi ‘capped by artificial limitations. Therefore, I think the statement that the effect of the shape of the strese-strain curve is the key to providing an understanding of previously-unexplained variations is somewhat optimis tie. Tt remains to be demonstrated how large a part of these variations will be explained thereby. ‘The objectives of collapse testing are twofold. One objective is to determine basic principles to advance our knowledge of the subject so that empiricism can be ‘minimized or eliminated. The other is to determine collapse resistance of commercial pipe. Inasmuch as js impractical to test every size in every grade, it is necessary to correlate the tests so that the results may cover as wide a range as possible. “This may be done by deriving either rational or empirical equations. ‘The authors have considered the subject from the standpoint of rationalism, and in Fig. 16, 18, 20, and 28 they show test results in comparison with rational ‘expectancy. It cannot be said, when taking the results fas a whole, that the agreement is very good. It is the purpose of this discussion to correct any collapse pressure and, hence, forthwith should be abandoned. ‘Taking into account the variations in collapse values which may be caused by ovality, eccentricity, ete, the use of yield strength incorporated in an empirical ‘equation for a given type or class of pipe has given good results, As an illustration [in Fig. 1 (MeCorkle)] T have replotted Frame’s data shown in the authors’A THEORETICAL APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM OF COLLAPSE oF DEEP-WELL CasING 411 Fig, 20, Fitted to the data are curves determined by two equations: 1, Berlow’s copied from Fig. 20; and, 2 an empirical equation of Tetmajer or Stewart type determined by tenn of lf he teste under sorted ty Frame on zene pipes Taking the Pene'ae wo the data spent tobe better fed by She tmpiica equatin sober thestio ofthe oilty of ytd strength ing aap premanea ie given tlow for 8 ee anata apparenly a sane far Sie, 7m 2b earag 5 tte $i; Ue, ihe rivals are overage) 2 96.04. Yield point: Seam in every ene) cate peer 68 pe in sae preanre aati peri equation (2) eo cotspa tes, 42810 8 per ag 50,190 Tb. per sq. in. (drop-of- - (Barlow's formula). a ; Soe Coe 2 nee rm Ee nn Dnt Od by Dies Comparison of Barlow's and an Empiical Equation Fitted to Collapse-Tost Results on Tubes Having Well- defined Yield P FIG. 1 (MeCORKLE) Proportional limit, 69,200 1b. per sq. in. (0.01 per ‘ent set) Proportional limit, 48,540 Ib. per sq. in. (0.001 per cent set). ‘Why this should be, I do not know; but these results fare no more mystifying than the unexplained high values for the ¢=3:,000 Ib. per sq, in. tests in Fig. 23. R. G, Sturm (Aluminum Company of America) (written) :t ‘This yaper presents in a very direct and lear manner the factors involved in determining and predicting the collapsing pressures of very long tubes. "The problem is not new, however, and has been attacked from many points of view. In this respect a brief résumé of previous work might be in order. ‘As long ago as 1848 Fairbairn™ in England tested tubes to determine their collapsing pressures. Later, in 1906, in this country Carman and Carr’ and Stewart? published the results of tests of small tubes and heavy-walled lapwelded steel pipe. Tests on long seamless tubes of relatively-large diameter were pub- dished by Jasper and Sullivan‘ in 1981. In the last few ‘years tests on short thin tubes have been published by Saunders* and by Windenburg and Trilling* Bryan,’ in 1888, derived a theoretical formula for the collapse of long ‘thin tubes—which is identical with equation (22) of the present paper. In 1913 Southwell * obtained an expression for the collapse of short tubes which indicated that short tubes would collapse in more than two, lobes. His expression contained an unknown parameter for which a value was determined theoreti cally by Cook® the following year. In 1914 R. von Mises™ published an expression for the collapsing strength of thin tubes of all lengths when subjected to lateral pressure only. Later, in 1929, he extended his ‘work to include vessels subjected to hydrostatic pres- sure on both the sides and ends. In 1920 Sanden and Gunther used von Mises formulas in studying the behavior of stiffened thin cylinders under uniform ex- ternal pressure. Westergaard,” in 1922, presented a general conception of the buckling of elastic structures, which included general equations for the gradual buckling of imperfect specimens or those with eccentric loading. W. Fligge’s™ book, published in 1934, pre- sents an excellent general treatment of the behavior of shells under load, in which the general case of Duckling of eylinders is discussed and certain general principles developed. In 1936 in a doctorate thesis™ the writer derived general equations for the buckling of thin-walled cylin- ders which are applicable not only to buckling due to external Iateral pressure, but also to various com- binations of lateral pressure and externally-applied tend loads as well as to buckling in bending and shear. ‘The analysis covers the effects of end restraint, out-of- roundness, and plastic yielding of the material upon the collapsing pressure of cylinders. ‘The results of this analysis have been checked against published data of Stewart, Carman, Saunders, Winden- burg and Trilling, and Jasper and Sullivan, as well ‘as tests by the writer. The results of the writer's investigation in this field indicate that out-of-roundness is not a negligible factor if the out-of-roundness is of appreciable magnitude. ‘In the ASME Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels the ASME Boiler Code Committee has seen fit to in- clude charts of maximum allowable out-of-roundness. In order more clearly to exemplify the effect of out-of- roundness, attention is called to Fig. 1 (Sturm), Which shows the gradual deflection and gradual in- ‘crease in stress in the wall of a relatively-thin tube, (ures refer to bibtogr412 MATERIALS which is out-of-round, as the uniform external pres- sure on that tube is increased gradually. ‘Table 1 (Sturm) shows a comparison between ex- perimental and theoretical values of collapsing pres- BE pts ete ona ated Epenaconn raat been joints] F 1. WE Teiding’seans 238° ch der sein Nemiein. je loi rade aeection Tz ion EXTERNAL PRESSURE, Lb.per 29 sty ceca ose magsetnereon sede a etn womiskedal siesta [ere a fom ‘ ete a east eae seeiatattatas Be ° Ory BIOs OA O50. RADIAL DEFLECTION, A in, Deflection of 20-In. Thin-walled Iron Pi Uniform Jxternal Pressure, FIG. 1 (STURM) under sure of long tubes. The test data in this table were taken from the paper by R. T. Stewart. It is interesting to note that, for those tubes having the greatest out-of- roundness, the computed collapsing pressure (out-of- Foundness considered) agreed fairly well with the test results, but the collapsing pressure computed for per- fect tubes was as much as 70 per cent greater than the actual collapsing pressure. This table also shows that, although the effect of out-of-roundness of the magnitude expected in seamless tubes is not serious for relatively- thin tubes which collapse elastically—as stated by the authors—the effect for heavier-walled tubes which fail by plastic deformation may be serious unless the al- lowable out-of-roundness is limited. In the above-mentioned thesis it ‘Specifications may give limited permis initial distortion and at the same time require that no permanent set should occur, To meet different condi- tions the maximum stress should not exceed the elastic limit for the particular atate of stress existent in the ‘cylinder considered.” Dr. Nadai™ has discussed clesrly the effect of biaxial stress upon the inception of plastic deformation. In recent papers by Lessells and Mac- Gregor" and Marin," the effect of biaxial stresses upon the beginning of yielding of ductile materials has been considered experimentally, and evidence presented which tends to substantiate the maximum strain-energy theory for determining the elastic strength of ductile metals. ‘According to this theory, tubes subjected to pressure ‘on both the sides and ends would exhibit greater elastic strengths and yield strengths than tubes subjected to TABLE 1 (STURM) Comparison between Experimental and Theoretical Values of Colla Ing Présnure ‘of Long Thickowalled Steel Tubes ‘Test Data Taken from Paper by R. T. Stewart * Ends—assumed simply supported. Modulus of elasticity taken as 29,000,000 Ib. per sq. in. Yield set Strength iene ee ae eee Nee (em (FY a0 satay 85 254 184 41,300 “ 65 230 135 sot 321 380 a 8 3.00 210 90 65 aaT 9 “2 156 38 “0060 2.05 38 ne) 286 234 4820 458, 96.0 moc 5381550 iv) auto 195470 507 9 396, 620 sua 9 188 6 * tran, Am: Soe, Mesh. Bngre, 2, 130822 (1998), pe ie a Glinder with Tada! 0 Bes aia Cotapelng preenure of figed bp the abell thickuess, ath " Experimental Collapsing Computed Computed Pressure Wet We§ from Tests (Lb.Per (Lb.Per_ (Lb. Per Sqn) Sqn) = Sq.) 1,050 960 1,060 910 2,100 1,390 1720 1875 2,450 17700 "250 ‘210 560 425, 1,490 360 13,660 2,540 3,840 3375 5,780 5,420 3,010 2,090 480 450 oa sie strength. lng inodslgs of failure equal to 1.18 times yleld strength.A THEO pressure on the side walls only. This arises from the fact that a material subjected to biaxial stresses of ‘the same sign, when one stress is half the other stress, will have an elastic strength approximately 15 per cent greater than indieated by ordinary property tests, ‘This increase in elastic strength corresponds with that of the authors’ Te may be observed here that tests made on identical tubing under slightly-different conditions may yield test results which ave not reconcilable on any other basis than that of the existence or non-existence of end pressure, The existence of tensile stresses of the magnitude of those cften employed in oil-well casings, ‘according to the theory of elastic strength given by the authors or by the maximum strain-distortion theory, may reduce the collapsing strength of the casings to Jess than half of thet determined by the ordinary col- Japee test. In view of auch reductions in strength Jt is ‘well to reemphasize the significance of the authors! consideration of the affects of combined stress. In closing, the weiter wishes to call attention to the fact that, whereas the consideration of very long tubes is only a small part of the general problem of the Duckling of cylinders, it is indeed a very significant one, and the autho:s are to be commended for the clarity in which the essentials of the problem are set forth. Bibliography 2 witlam Falsbaicn, "The Resintance of Tubes to Collapse ral Trans ag, 360015 1348) ome to doukine Este iasia Bap bap Sta Balt So. s, Vase tance io bap Sea Baik No. 6, Suse SAT SN WR PT AE ‘7. MeLenn Jasper | HEELS Bact SEE Predator SAE ane of tle Cra eat aS CE ent Een Fens ane Boe weak Fe eee sn ence Fe tapes oF 0 Ent, TABS guMEREagn terme. Proteure’” Five he cliapning Presmare of 3 ‘walled | Cylinders sig Bai itpots (2880) SOUR al dl ag ie fofan (1 x 432, 60.69, MeGraw Hl Book Co, MacGregor, "Certain, Phases of the SOE initia Bomar A ppted ure of ,Alumiouss Subjected to, Com. retested at"iscctiog of dm. Welding oe gem 1° Stan ort (88 1D. MeLean Jasper (A. 0. Smith Corporation) (writ- In Table 2 of the authors’ paper are given the CAL APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM OF COLLAPSE oF Dger-WeLL CasING 418 vals of compreon yield tenth, May Task how Tong the apeimene were and what the maximum of the specimens were? (I represents the length, and D the minimum thickness.) I might state that the fatigue-of-metals investigation discovered that, when steel was being tested, if the length divided by the diameter exceeded 4 for the compression tests, even with carefully-centered specimens, the values of the apparent Yielding were reduced considerably below the actual Nalue because of buckling. That is the reason why on p. 44 of University of Ilkinais Bulletin No. 124 the com- pression specimen haa the dimensions there given. T do hot know if this has been stated before in connection ‘with the discussion of compression teats, or in conjunc- tion with collapse testing. However, this minimum rel tive dimension ratio has been maintained by the writer in all of his tests T should like to ask if there is an error in Fig, 22. ‘The stress-strain diagram for steel “C” shows it to have an E value of 15,000,000 Ib. per aq. in. whereas carves A and B show E values of about 30,000,000 1b. per sq. in, which more nearly represents that expected from steel. I am also in doubt as to the meaning of the high values of maximum eccentricity shown in ‘Table 2. Does this represent variation in wall thick ness of the tubes tested? Donatd E. Babeock (Mellon Institute of Industri Research) (written): The presentation of this paper by these authors gives a very interesting and useful ap- proach to the problems involved in easing collapse. It fs indeed refreshing to find in these authors an obvious intention of making a serious effort to snalyze all, or at least a major portion, of the factors influencing col- apse which are involved or present in the materials with which the engineer must work. ‘They have suggested that the yield strength as @ verion of collapse has a rather limited significance. ‘This must be true if the numerous investigations now in process are to determine ultimately a satisfactory answer to the nature of this problem. Our own experi- ental data indieate distinctly that this condition ex- ists. It is no more unreasonable to bring in this con- cept of the limited significance of yield strength than {tis to question the value of the elastic modulus for a polycrystalline material such as iron, when it is known Thal in any crystal of iron a different modulus will be found depending on the direction in the crystal over ‘which the modulus is determined. These moduli vary {from 18.9 million along the “00” plane to 31.3 million for the “110” plane and 40 million for the “111” plane, ‘The properties, then, of the commercial material of which casing is made will be an average of these various moduli determined over all possible orientations. Tt Wwould appear likely that the consideration of the true nature of the material wherein these moduli exist must be brought into any consideration of the nature fof the collapse problem. This factor alone would lend fone to doubt the significance of a yield-strength ratio, by ordinary or routine testing procedures.414 MATERIALS Of further interest teward improving the accuracy of collapse calculation, recognition has been given to the variation in Poisson's ratio, This certainly is an important step forward in this work, and marks the second published attempt toward the elucidation of the effect of this variable, which for so many years has been regarded by engineors as being constant. It prob- ably would be better in the end, if it were possible, to express Poisson's ratio us a function of strain. How- fever, this adds a very major degree of complexity to a problem which is already beyond the range of utility ‘of many of us. To combine this effect with the variation in modulus under the effeets of plastic distortion intro- duces for consideration another variable which, in it- self, becomes a fanction of strain. Private communica- tions with Dr. R. G, Sturm, whose previous work seems to be the godfather of all this commotion, has pointed out clearly that the concepts presented herein can bbe made accurately to At the facts of collapse in thin- walled tubes; and his findings, which T am pleased to relate, will be published as a bulletin of the Engineer- ing Experiment Station of the University of Illinois within a month or two of the pretent date. For these authors to point out the importance of the stress-strain characteristics of a material as a factor influencing collapse seems to be o1e which needs little further mention, and to all practical purposes could be accepted as factual as well as demonstrative. ‘Any of these theoretical considerations as presented to us has yet a rather limited application in facilitating the solution to the prodiem of collapse testing. Tt has been indieated by the work of J. M. Lessells and C. W. ‘MacGregor that combined stresses have a distinct effect fon collapse failure, depanding on whether the forces are additive. ‘Their work indicates that, when the ratio of end thrust to hoor stress was in the proportion of one to two, the yielding occurred at a value approxi- mately 16 per cent in excess of that which would have been obtained in the atsence of the second stress. This fact is of major significance, and I was pleased to ob- serve in the paper by Messrs. Holmquist and Nadat that this observation has been included to refer to data ina previous publication by Mr. W. M. Frame. It is especially interesting to note that at least one of the closed-end tests showed ge value which actually approached this rather considers the numerous variables which may creep into cvch a test, it should be expected that probably one would reach the theoretical state of perfection necessary t> give the maximum obtainable value. In line with the data of Lesselle and MacGregor who concluded that the cons:ant-energy-of-distortion theory most closely approached the performance of the ma- terial under testing, the authors have presented the fundamental equation wherein this is involved. This probably will make some of us feel as though we are em- barking on a new and still less understood field of study when the introduction of this somewhat new theoretical approach is made. It is obvious from all the papers presented and arguments given that mately the solution which most accurately describes the nature of the problem of the collapse of deep-well ceasing will be found. Until such time as we find this solution, let us hope that these theoretical attempts will facilitate the production engineers in giving the proper interpretation to test data as they are made available, It is also to be desired that these theoretical considerations will lead us to some form of standar tion of the methods of obtaining data in the very near future in order that the engineer may have at least ‘an empirical aid to the solution of his problem which is immediately applicable and useful pending the attain- ment of the presently illusive theoretical conclusions. I ‘wish to compliment the authors on their very enlighten- ing study of this problem, and it is believed it will mark. in time one of the major milestones in the ultimate ap- proach to the solution of the problem. should like to add, too, that the paper by Dr. R. G. Sturm, which gives the results of approximately 13 years of study of this particular problem, will appear as a bulletin of the Engineering Experiment Station of the University of Illinois. W. L. Schwalbe (University of Illinois): The paper itself and a number of questions raised in the discussion bring up a few items that I hope the authors may con- sider when they reply to the discussions. ‘The first one is the analogy that is used in the col- lapse of what is really a sharply-curved beam to the collapse of a straight bar. I am not quite certain whether elastic or plastic instability is analogous in the two cases and, consequently, I should like to know alittle more about the transfer of the reduced modulus (which fits s0 well, apparently, in the case of straight ‘beams) to the type of member one has ina tube. ‘The second point is the importance of determining the moduli of elasticity and plasticity, including Pois- son's ratio. Some of the newer work on resistance of been done in the last decade in Germany, points out the fact that elastic and plastic constants depend not only upon the state of stress, whether one-, two-, or three-dimen- sional, but also upon the distribution of stress itself within the element. From the point of view expressed in some of that work, considerable experimental work is necessary to determine more precisely the required constants that enter into analytical investigations. Joseph Kaye Wood (Grinnell Company): As chair- ‘man of the Special ASME Research Committee on Me- gs, T became quite well acquainted with in diagram, and I gather from the discus- sion here that the stress-strain diagram has arf im- portant relation to the collapsing stress of tubes. I ‘also gather from Timoshenko and other investigators that the collapsing pressure of the tube is a sort of teger action as regards the ratio, more 0% {2837 ofthe Midetangen See, for ts der Skeeter MateaiprafunatanA THEORETICAL APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM OF COLLAPSE OF DEEP-WELL CASING 415 actly, the out-of-rowsdness, I do not know, but it also may be that the valve of the elastic equation may have fa trigger action as regards the collapsing pressure. By that T mean we found, in our investigation of stress- strain diagrams with regard to the propoftional limit, that actually no prcportional limit exists. As usually plotted, we get a straight line for that portion of the curve within the so-called proportional limit, depend- ing upon the accuracy of our test method. Professor Sayre," of Union College, made a test in which he secured greater accuracy by using a test specimen 50 ft. lerg as against the few inches in length of our usual tensile-test specimen. He found for the snaterials tested. a variation of anywhere from 2 to 4 per cent in the modulus of elasticity for the so-called straight portion of the stress-strain curve. I should ike to know if this fact has any significant bearing on the problem under discussion at this meeting. Messrs. Holmquist and Nadai (closure) (written) ‘The effect of axial stress, particularly tension, on plastic collapse pressure has become of considerable interest recently in connection with the design of composite casing strings. Experimental confirmation of the va- lidity of the theory cleveloped in the paper of the effect of axial stress on plestic collapse pressure is, therefore, desirable, No collapse tests with axial te ‘were included in the investigation reported in the paper. ‘The effect of axial cension and compression stress on collapse pressure has been investigated by Messrs. Ed- wards and Miller at the Standard Oil Company of Cali- fornia Materials Laboratory. Through the courtesy of this company a copy of the report on the investigation made by Edwards and Miller + was obtained. Subsequent to the Chicago meeting, the test results obtained by Edwards and Miller were checked the theory de illustrated by our Fig. 27 which shows the half of the ellipse of plasticity ‘which is of interest in consid the effect of either n compression or tension axial stress on the collapse of casing in the plastic range. In Fig. 21 the tests made under combined axial tension and ex- ternal pressure on che tube are represented by solid circles and crosées. The solid circles represent test specimens which feiled by collapsing, and the crosses represent specimens which failed by axial elongation (stretching). ‘The triangles represent tests made under combined axial compression and external pressure. These test specimens failed by collapsing. The horizontal eccrdinate axis of Fig. 27 represents the ratio of the axial stress gx to the yleld stress The vertical coordinate axis represents the ratio of the hhoop compression stress e+ to the yield stress ve, By and £ rather than the values of the strasses o+ and et, all'of the tests can semble in the same figure, regardless of the fact plotting the stress ratios See that they were made on materials of different yield strengths. ‘The yield stresses of the tubes varied from approximotely $2,000 Ib. per aq. in. to 72,000 Ib. per sq, in. ‘Perfect agreement between the theory and the test results would require that all of the plotted test re- sults fall on the ellipse. The scatter of the test results about the ellipse is not greater than the expected ex- perimental error in collapse testing except in the ease of one of the compression collapse tests. It seems prob- able, however, that this one large deviation could be accounted for on grounds justifying the el ion fof the test from consideration. The remainder of the test results provides substantial confirmation of the validity of the theory as developed in the paper. ‘The very valuable comments which were brought forward in the course of the discussion gratefully acknowledged. In the following an attempt will be SRT [ ALIN { 7| Tz : 7S Fit of Edwards’ and Miller's Tests to Ellipse of Plasticity. FIG. 27 made to reply to the various points and to the questions which were raised. Particular thanks are due to Professor Waters for his encouraging remarks in which he stated that, in the cease of plastic collapse, he favors in general values of the collapse pressures which are based on computa- tion after having investigated the distribution of stress rather than on empirical relations. Thanks are also due Professor Timoshenko for having emphasized sev- eral important points in connection with the actual pressures at which heavy-wall tubes collapse—which perhaps have not been made sufficiently clear in the paper. Both of the above-named discussors have questioned somewhat the necessity of including a derivation of the equations leading to the expression for the elastic collapse pressure, inasmuch as these equations can be found in several books and articles. Reference to some recent publications was made in the paper—although perhaps too briefly—so that the writers cannot claim to have covered the literature of the subject adequately. For this reason particular thanks are due Dr. Sturm416 MATERIALS toc bavng included a or extended Morphy In i ‘ict made rally ont the dren ae sn it, tae for te reed Fa en the egal vento cn 1 a aE wera Te samed de se og the ematns for Ue ee ce sae cea, eterna nua of ee Lett in oie iin ston. sere tenn of fra for te sate Sanne set veteran tte whch wer een re acl at ty wer tue ote earn ee henge on te are Nove oa spans in wy they of ascy oan cay et erie hp comin, cae erate ata atl» component ee teen iesable oben te seriaton om eC fp te tne a he see aetna Se pray cee US scone of he ene ao nial slightly-oval-shaped tube the general distortion of cern tran of teenie ee fund that ung com sa cdo apie deve to etn en cn se ake by meas of te se at ar aad eo) nae cer on, ay ely mata oe ae Ta lgaconent 9 marred BY sate et tc onsgeel pn oe ater fee an er and ir ators mas te ty evel psn of tn ake at eet chenal to nodnc the compote Cee a te etude ea © oa Fae ee ale which eld be spp 9 Ser aaa a toed ite oer 2 ee cet glan eed impact ae ee one el congress aces ee re ites gly tas Tere Fi ie ate dans art ented at tnsgpy te taton i eed (2) wae ‘tained by taking morients about the axis (0) of the tube, sa serra faves weiss ie deformed portion of the tube wall (in its bent position) Setomed pert amc by heen eA aa er re fata compte dc ar oo ee oa shal be mented Fat theater esas snd in dnp wot ato 2 teem sy nl En mut be quonel heer se nun wat as Sestak nt roe eee tana mat te at te a ee cat ivan of te tb Reamer’ 2 he erdacy they i codec to be Tae eater ne of the be ee ee nae eghoa ean Be teen indicated in Fig. 25 and 25 for internal and veer at estore. For example, the mean peripheral cael BE Eabe subjected fo external pressure pis 0 ‘PLD—!), wt 2. thee corrections have a bea tng on efvoral of the expressions needed when the wal theese besmes large Nee aretha aparks made by Profesor Timo- ee aly tyra ab he tae srerke corel by him from the paper saa made in fhe aa ea cu sateente uoveliy are meas 8 Famer rtnen reference ia made tothe correspond fee eae in ooking of a trnight bar having sal ine ie ene word late” sal preclude thet seen aina are present in he bar. Buckling oF saan aie manee refees to indatotey Ineeesing sree ae eihoat appreciable inerase in load or eet she writers entnely agree with Profesor Pressure-Defleetion Curve for Tubes Having an Tnitially Slightly-oval Shape. FIG. 28 ‘Timoshenko that, after partial yielding has set in, a maximum of the pressure results which is smaller than the elastic collapse pressure, and that the maxima pressure becomes smaller as the out-of-roundness in- ‘Creases. The samme is also true for the pressure at which the limit of plasticity first is reached in the material. ‘The statement in the paper refers to the branch ABC of Fig. 28 of the pressure-deflection curve, assuming purely elastie strains, If the material has a pronounced yield stress, this is reached at a certain point in the tube wall at a certain pressure. B may represent this pt jure for a tube with an initial out-of-roundness (OA in Fig. 28). In this case the elastic theory cannot be used ‘beyond point B, and the branch BC has no practical significance. However, if the stress-strain relations are known from an ordinary compression test, further points may be obtained to construct the pressure-deflec- Yon curve BDE, and the maximum pressure on this curve may be identified as the collapse pressure. ‘With regard to several remarks referring to the family of stress-strain curves for compression which were represented in Fig. 3 and 9 of the paper, andA THEORETICAL APPROACH 10 THE PROBLEM OF COLLAPSE OF Desr-WaLL CASING 417 which were constructed from equation (4), all that can be said is that they were chosen because they seemed suitable for explaining some of the characteristic shapes of collapse pressure and stress curves such as were shown in our Fig. 7, 8, 10, and 11. It is to be empha- sized, however, tha: it was not claimed that the eurves shown would fit directly a stress-strain diagram for any actual material. The constant «y appearing in equation (4) represents a permanent strain. Tt could be inter- preted a3 the strain which serves to define the conven- tional “yield strength.” For example, the ASTM standards define tre yield strength as the stress at which 0.2 per cent permanent strain is observed. For this ease ry = 0.002. It has been stated in the paper that. 10 significance i attributed to such conventions as far the collapse problem is concerned—in particular no preference is held or expressed in favor of the "0.2 per cent set” yield-strength convention. Those familiar with the difficulties encountered in determining the stress- strain curves of materials will agree that it frequently is impossible to rerroduce identically the same diagra in several tests on the same material. Shall the gre importance of the stress-strain curve as the determining function for the behavior of a material under collapse conditions be questioned for this reason? We shall attempt to compare the behavior of a material with regard to collapse pressure as the wall thickn ‘creases. ‘The Buler buckling load for a straight bar or the elastic collapse pressure of a round tube is deter- mined by—aside from the dimensions of the bar or tube—the modulus of elasticity £” of the material. It should be recalled that £’ defines the slope in the tension for compression stress-strain diagram as long as the strains are elastic. ‘The Euler load or collapse pressure depends directly 24 the slope of the elastic portion of the stress-strain curve of the material. Is it not natural, therefore, to conelude that something similar also must be true in the ease of plastic collapse? Is it not probable that, when the stresses causing an instability of the equilibrium increase until the permanent strains become appreciable in the heavier-wall tubes, the slope of the stress-strain diagram will still be influential in deter- mining the stabilicy? The reduced modulus * [equa- tion (2)] defines as close approximation the corre sponding quantity which must be substituted for 5’. ‘These details are mentioned here again, in connection with the remarks of Mr. McCorkle, to show that the shape of the stress-strain curve must influence the collapse resistance of a material in the plastic range of strain, Some of the difficulties encountered in the prac- tical interpretation of collapse-test data to which he called attention may be explained by saying that they are due to difficulties in determining E* from test data. ‘The reasons are rather obvious. Although it is generally not dificult to determine B” in the tensile test, the strains inerease with the stress in a complex manner in the plastic range of strains. Tt is known that a pre- vious permanent deformation or an exposure to elevated temperature changes the shape of a stress-strain curve, and the speed with which the deformation proceeds has ‘a further effect, These circumstances should be con- sidered earefully when discrepancies which appear in collapse tests in the plastic range are to be explained. In this connection, the remarks of Professor Timo- shenko concerning the possible anisotropy of the brass tubes tested are pertinent. The tubes were annealed either in the condition as received or were annealed by ‘ourselves prior’ to testing, No anisotropy of the “Baushinger effect” type such as occurs in cold-worked metals, therefore, existed. However, anistropy due to preferred orientation of grains may have existed, and ue to the lack of time this point was not investigated. ‘The steel tubes tested were investigated carefully for anistropy by making tensile stress-strain curves in the axial and circumferential directions on plates flattened from the tubes and heat-treated after flattening. Ten- sion curves also were made in the direction 45 deg. to the axis. No indication of anisotropy was found wit the accuracy of the test results. ‘These tubes were machined carefully to provide a perfectly-round section, so that it is believed the influence of out-of-roundness ‘was eliminated completely in the test results. ‘Several requests for details concerning the collapse- testing procedure have been made in the discussions nd the following brief description is submitted in reply. ‘The collapse-testing apparatus used is illustrated iagrammatically in Fig. 29 and 30. Fig. 29 shows the arrangement for tests made with no axial forees acting. Fig. 20 shows the arrangement for tests in which axial ‘compression stress was acting. Both of these types of test commonly are made in the collapse testing of casing and are referred to as “openvend” and tests, respectively. Water was used as the pressure fluid in the collapse tests. ‘The hydrostatic pressure applied to the test specimen was measured by a presture gage of the Bourdon-tube type. The gage was recalibrated frequently during the ‘course of the teats. The calibrating device consisted of fan accurately-ftted piston and cylinder in which pres- sure was generated by applying a measured load to the piston by means of a tensile-testing machine. ‘The area of the piston was 1 sq. in, so that the pressure applied to the gage connected to the cylinder of the calibrating device was taken as pounds per square inch equal to the Toad in pounds applied by the testing machine. This ‘value was compared with the pressure indicated by the gage. The piston of the calibrating device waa rotated Telative to the eylinder to minimize the effect of friction between piston and cylinder on the accuracy of the ‘generated calibration pressures, The pressure fluid used ‘was a machine oil of medium viscosity. ‘The deformation of the test specimen as pressure was applied was observed by the volume of fluid displaced from the inside of the test specimen. ‘The volume dis- placed was measured by the rise of the fluid in the capillary tube. ‘The bore of the capillary tube used was ‘approximately 3 mm. The principal use of the volume- displacement measurements was to show plastic defor- mation of the tube prior to collapse. Fig. 19 of the paper shows volume-displacement-pressure curves for two brass tubes, The straight portions of the curves418 ‘MaTeRIALs beginning at zero pressure correspond to elastic defor- zations of the tube, and the curved portions correspond ‘to plastic deformations. Volume-displacement-preswure curves were obtained on most of the tubes tested. How- ever, it was considersd sufficient to show only two of the curves in the paper. The volume-displacement-pressure curves show greater plastic deformation prior to plastic collapse for tubes of low -D ratio in agreement with ‘the reduced-modulus theory of plastic collapse. The collapse of the tube which results when the equilibrium becomes unstable occurs very suddenly. ‘The maximum pressure attained before collapse occurred Timoshenko and Mr. McCorkle, the following can be said: Suppose that the compression stress-strain dia- gram for a materi a, the straight elastic branch; 6, a short sharply-curved branch tangent to the elastic branch and to a straight horizontal line above it; and, ¢, a horizontal line corresponding to the yielding of the test specimen. A material having such a stress-strain diagram would be considered to have a “well-defined yield stress.” It has been shown in the paper and mentioned in the discussion that, as f ‘as branches (a) and (e) are concerned, the correspond ing potions of the cave Ja the “lps presare 2 Collapse Chamber and Volume-Displacement Measurement Arrangement for Open-End Collapse Tests, FIG. 2% ‘was indicated by a free pointer on the gage, which re- ‘mained at the maximum-pressure indication when the ‘age pressure suddenly dropped due to collapse of the tube. ‘The maximur-pressure indication was taken as ‘he collapse pressure. The collapse of the specimens was accompanied by quite noticeable shock and some noise which, in addition to the sudden drop in the presoure- wage reading, indicated that collapee had occurred. ‘The volume-displacement-pressure curves were not neces: ‘sary to determine the collapse pressure of the tube; the ‘other indications mentioned were positive. The rubber stoppers closing various orifices in the volume-displace- ment measurement apparatus were blown out when collapse occurred, so that the fluid (colored water) in- side the test specimens did not offer any appreciable restraint to the collapse of the tubes. ‘With reference to wme further remarks by Professor rail wil an shown in Fig, 20; the Ase shows fhe ela core cerrenpendag tonne Cot the nwesiein corr and te une are torepoe ing thrash (eof ie aerate carve Comme the however hee woul be ed ure contr ine the tor Wann eve (8) afte sestees tg’ The contraction Othe ied ess brane of he “clan presore- 2. "curve covearon. tng t th transition carve (8) af he nenetein ditgram old tee prcon tte feceesea diagram which tb iteak to sina ectne on sven iis known that's thnk ureten tae ofc Sipe (0) derrbe stove can be intend ns fhe aingram of seri whieh ora eee, by ena ond indvotntonct ocann, Ineralrest ot non-homsrenesay sea data,A THEORETICAL APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM OF COLLAPSE OF DEEP-WELL CaSING 419 The fact thatthe fonts in te 2 sang of abot 29 wt presure 2. rt tecunted fo; they correnen simpy to th en SSR) Pike Mla saate gears o he heh Sr'botrovafel in great eneugh nal to let Seructin of te sarespening coven Fg 2, ‘he colon fora ven by Me lela in Be papers presented caring this tympeta really Ne Gan Reems to crc the rel ele formula je below the two branches of the “colla curve of Fig. 20 thus easily is = Collapse Chamber and Volume-Displacement Meas the mean hoop treme fr internal and external pres ture ave given for moderately thdkomall taba. They Were obtained by developing the exact formula for thickval tes ina power series of 5, retaining only the fest power term. The maxim value ofthe radial tangentny and axial stremca of moartaly thik tubes subjected fo ether internal or external preaare can be read fap lg, 25 and 20 forthe same debe. Tor the patie ditibtion in which yielding is securrng over the whole wal thcknen. The fet of ovaley afte tbe on eslape prearre hes Been dealt Jement Arrangement for Closed-End Collapee Tests. FIG. 30 with respect to the fact that the pressure acts on the outside of the tube, and not on the center line of the tube section. ‘The writers also have taken this into count, Mr. Clinedinst mentions that he has found it tisfactory to obtain values of the reduced modulus graphically from the stress-strain curve, and the writers are pleased to be nuvised of this fact. In regard to his remarks concerning the conventional yield strength, reference perhaps can be made to what was said above fon the same subject. Mr. Clinedinst’s question about Barlow's formula cin be answered by comparing equa- ions (44) and (45), in which the exact expression for 10, Ciinedinst, "4, Rational Expression, forthe, Critic une Tremute or Bipe" wauee ELterant Prewure” p. with above. The theory of the effect of axial tension and compression stress on plastic collapse developed in the paper has been checked against the test data of Ed: wards and Miller in our discussion of the paper by W. C. Maint The agreement was very satisfactory, although it should be noted that the theory assumes materials with fairly well-defined yield points. ‘The writers learned with interest, from the remarks of Dr. R. G. Sturm, that he has derived equations for the buckling of thin-wall cylinders under more general assumptions than the ones made in the paper, and they420 ‘MATERIALS look forward with interest to the bulletin of the Experi ‘ment Station of the University of Ilinois containing his investigation. His remark, that out-of-roundness is not ‘a negligible factor if it is of appreciable amount, con- forms with what has been said above with regard to this subject. The tests referred to in his Fig. 1 (Sturm), however, have not been carried out so far as to indicate the maximum of the pressure to be expected at a lower value than the computed collapse pressure of 8 perfectly-round tube. ‘The comments made by Dr. Sturm regarding the con- dition of yielding under biaxial stress are much appre- ciated. It is believed that the condition of plasticity ductile metal, according to which yielding occurs when the octahedral shear stress: TsiV ral Fea) FO (cv, em os are the principal stresses) reaches a constant Vee value “2 (ey is she yield strength in pure tension) a convenient means for comparing states of plastic stress, Experimeaial investigations have established sufficiently the validity of this criterion—reference being made to the extensive series of tests which w initiated by one of the authors in the work of W. Lode in Goettingen, E. A. Davis in this country, and also by Ros and Eichinger, Quinney, G. I. Taylor and others. In the case of tutes, one of the principal stresses (for ‘example «,) can bo neglected so that the function: wlmewebotsest (ct peripheral, sz axial stress) can be used conveniently in practical applications, and is recommended to engi- neers as the condition of flow. Replying to the question of Dr. T. McLean Jasper, the ratio of the length to diameter of the compression specimens used in the investigation was 23. With refer- fence to his second question, it should be noted that streavatran curver in Fig. 22 are not all plotted to the Concerning the interesting remarks made by Dr. D. E. Babeock in regard to the widely-different values of the modulus of elastic a single crystal of iron, in Dolycrystalline iron or steel, the sta- jatieal mean for the elastic modulus is fairly constant, ‘and independent of direction—provided a. preferred orientation has st heen produced by severe cold- ‘working. Concerning Dr. Babcock’s comments on the validity of the flow condition, equation (87), reference is made to preceding remarks on this subject. In reply to the first point raised by Professor ‘Schwalbe, it can bs said that the analogy between the mathematical treatment of the collapse of a tube stressed beyond the plastic limit and the treatment of the inelastic buckling of straight bar is justified due to the fact that toth refer to problems of bars havi rectangular cross-sections for which the applicat the reduced modulus * as used in the paper is estab- lished, An individual element de-¢ in a tube wall is evidently bent in the same manner as if it were a part of a straight bar de: t, both elements having a reetangu- lar cross-section perpendicular to their axes. As far as the distributions of stress are concerned, it seems imma- terial whether these are elastic, plastic, or mixed; they all must behave in the same manner. ‘The only difference which arises appears in such relations as equations (5), (6), or (9)—which lead to the form of equation (11), which does not coincide with the one valid for a straight bar and, consequently, differences will appear also in the expressions for the bending moments for both problems. ‘The second point mentioned by Professor Schwalbe refers to a question which also has been raised by other discussors of the paper. This question refers to the ‘value or changing values of Poisson's ratio which should bbe used when plane bending of a tube beyond the yield stress is considered. This question probably deserves more attention than it has received in investigations of this kind, Bending and collapsing of tube must be con- ideved under certain assumptions. One of them is that the mean stress in the axial direction of the tube shall vanish, and a second one is that plane sections originally perpendicular to the axis of the tube remain perpen- dicular plane sections during the entire deformation of the tube walls. Additional conditions also need to be satisfied. To the knowledge of the writers, some of these have never been considered fully or even formulated in sufficient detail. In other words, itis desirable to estab- lish the correct stress-strain relations for ‘plane strain” for small strains and when they are of a mixed type s0 ‘that a portion of the strain is elastic and a portion is plastic, and finally when both the elastic and plastic strains are of the same order of magnitude, Tt is im le in this reply to enter into further diseussion of these conditions, and it must be admitted that no attempt ‘was made to analyze them when the paper was written. It only ean be said that it was realized that probably no imple relation can be expected for the change of Poisson's ratio while an elastic-plastic deformation proceeds. Consider for example the tangential strain «. {Tt must consist of two portions, an elastic strain «’ and f plastic strain « te Each term in this equation consists of two portions: a uniform portion «, and the bending strain propor- tional to the distance 2 from the center of the section. Similar relations must hold for the axial strains « Unfortunately the bending strains erp and uy cannot be expressed further in such a simple manner as for purely-elastic states of deformation, and the quantity which must be substituted for Poisson’s ratio for elastic- plastic atrains becomes quite involved and dependent on the magnitude of the plastic strains. In view of these conditions, no further attempts were made to determine Poisson's ratio, and a mean value was used as mentioned in the paper.