Control Valve Applications A gas transmission metering and reducing station is also an example of valves in seties. A primary control valve reduces the pressure, and a monitor valve safeguards against the over-pressurization of the downstream line in case of the failure of the primary control valve, The system is designed for the primary valve to fail open and the monitor valve to fail closed. ‘The overall capacity of valves in series if needed can be determined from the following equation: (UIC, 6)? = (Cys)? + WC ya)? + «.. (UC, (12-3) In these definitions, the overall pressure drop is used in the expression for Cy, and the pressure drop across each of the components is used in the C,; definition. This equation must also be used when a valve and another resistance component, such as a diffuser or orifice, is installed in series. (The C, of an orifice or a diffuser can be approximated by using thirty times the flow area, where the area is expressed in square inches.) Failure to do so can result in an installed C, less than that requited by the process. Frequent Application Problems It is worthwhile to look at some of the common problems experienced when using control valves. These problems tend to be independent of the applications but can be aggravated by the unique needs of each installation. The root cause of these common problems varies from a lack of understanding of valve design and the selection of the wrong valve type (usually because of efforts to reduce initial capital cost) to poor calibration and maintenance. Controlling Pressure Drop The first problem to be discussed arises from the purposes of a control valve, which are to do the following: 1. Convert energy by reducing the fluid pressure, 2, Handle deviations from ideal operation, 3, Handle the influence of unavoidable process changes, 4, Permit the smooth transition from one load condition to another. To be able to achieve these objectives, there must be some pressure loss at the valve, and this results in an increase in fluid kinetic energy within the valve. Guidelines that have developed through many years of successful applications indicate that at least 10% of the system pressure drop should be available actoss the control valve to provide some control. To achieve good control, a value of 30% is desired. These guides are continually challenged, as in the case of the first application category discussed in this chapter, process control/feed regulation. In this application the most efficient plant operation would be to control the full-load condition without any energy absorption, an impractical goal. Thus, special attention must be devoted to the sizing pressure drop conditions to assure that the valve can modulate the feed flow and meet the control objectives. Excessive Fluid Velocities ‘Throughout this discussion of control valve applications, we have referred to the problems of erosion, vibration, noise, cavitation, and flow instabilities. All of these problems can be eliminated by considering the control of fluid velocities 434Frequent Application Problems during the flow and the accompanying pressure drop through the valve. Excessive fluid velocities cause widely varying local pressures because of the conversion of static pressure head to kinetic energy. This results in extreme turbulence and boundary layer separations as the fluid is forced to make directional changes in the flow path through the valve. The high fluid velocities and locally varying pressure differences cause the following: ‘+ Uneven forces on moving parts leading to vibrations that cause excessive wear, breaking parts, unscrewing bolts, and noise and flow rate oscillations. + Shock waves that lead to screech and high noise-level work environments, Even pipe breakage can occur, as noted in Reference 7, when the noise is in excess of 110 dBA. + Cavitation and the rapid erosive wear of metallic surfaces near the location of the bubble collapse. ‘+ Flashing of the fluid and the accompanying high-velocity liquid drops that erode metal surfaces. + Erosion of metallic parts when the fluid has entrained hard solids such as sand, pipe scale, weld slag, and catalyst. It should be apparent that good long-term control cannot be achieved when all or even one of these problems are present. Guidelines on what velocities are acceptable have been developed over many years of experience in a wide range of applications. These are expressed asa limit tothe fluid kinetic energy exiting from the valve trim, as discussed in Reference 8. For the kinetic energy evaluation, the location in the valve that is of greatest concern is just downstream of where the fluid is throttled or controlled. At this location, the flow area is the smallest, and the fluid velocity and kinetic energy are the highest. The parts of the valve responsible for controlling and seating are often located at this point and are therefore subjected to the highest energy fluid. Figure 12-17 shows the throttle area for various kinds of valve trim. For a top- guided globe valve, the trim outlet flow area is the annulus area between the plug and seat. In a cage-guided valve, the trim outlet flow area is the exposed area of the windows in the cage. For a multi-path cage, the trim outlet flow area is the total area of all the exposed flow paths, For multi-stage trims, the flow area from stage to stage must not increase too rapidly or else the throttling will take place ‘across the first stages, and the later stages will be ineffective (see Figure 12-17). Butterfly and ball valves usually meet the presented criteria for kinetic energy. ‘The pressure drop across these types of valves is not large enough to accelerate the flow to a high velocity level. Thus, a much lower value of energy is realized. Ina valve, the disk or plug moves to increase or decrease the area through which flow can pass. For a given set of conditions, a fixed area of the trim is open to flow. Under any significant pressure drop conditions, this area will be considerably less than the inlet or outlet area of the valve. As a result, the fluid passing this point will have much higher velocities and kinetic energy levels than in other valve locations. The only way to increase this flow area without increasing the flow rate isto increase the resistance of the throttling flow path. The flow conditions defines how far the valve is open, and the valve’s trim design (flow path resistance) defines how much flow area exists at the trim outlet. Once this area is defined, the continuity equation can be used to calculate the velocity of the fluid at the outlet of the trim. 435Control Valve Applications ye Ac vale 4| (A) PLUG AND SEATRING Aa a EXT AREAS, “kaise nOLL OPEN ALTERNATE ROLE SHAPES: Ag = ENTRANCE AREAS IVE PARTIALLY OPEN \- i (©) HyaRIO- SINGLENULT STAGE (©) SINGLE STAGE, MULTIPATH, sau Pats DAILLEDHOLECAGE (0) SINGLE PATH, MULTI STAGE Ao (@) PLUG AND CAGE jos overuse Ly" Ee - ‘Ag EXT AREAS (6) MULT PATH, MULT STAGE ( MuLTisTAGE, MULTI PATHE Figure 1217, Throwing Exit Area (A,) Examples for Typical valve Trim Design. 436Frequent Application Problems w MipAy (12-4) ‘The fluid density and velocity are used to establish the fluid’s kinetic energy: 1P.Ve ii (12-5) KE ‘Values for the constants My, and Mg are shown in Table 12-2. For gas or steam, the fluid velocity at the trim outlet may be sonic. If itis, the density of the fluid at the trim outlet must be higher than the outlet density (p,) in order to pass the given mass flow rate, w. This higher density can be estimated using Equation 12-4 by substituting the fluid’s sonic velocity, c, for the outlet velocity, V,, and solving for density. This density and sonic velocity are then used in Equation 12-5 to find the kinetic energy. By including the effect of density in the criteria a single kinetic energy guideline can be defined for all fluids. Thus, the velocity for high-density fluids, such as liquids, would be much lower than for gases. Table 12-3 shows criteria for a valve trim’s outlet kinetic energy. The valve trim should be selected to keep the kinetic energy below these levels. ‘Table 12-2. Numerical Constants for Velocity and Kinetic Energy Equations, Constant Units Used in Equations M w Po Ao Yo KE Mm, | 25 bh Toit i? Ws ss 1.0 kgs kgim? om? mis : M, | 46368 > Tbe - Ws Pst a) + kgim? : mis kPa For most conditions, an acceptance criterion of 70 psi (480 kPa) for the trim outlet kinetic energy will lead to a trouble-free valve. In some applications, where the service is intermittent (the valve is closed more than 95% of the time) and the fluid is clean (no cavitation, flashing, or entrained solids), the acceptance criteria can be increased but should never be higher than 150 psi (1030 kPa). From the general form of the energy equation, potential energy i expressed in terms of column height of the fli, Similar, kinetic energy Is expressed in this scussion as ahead, The form thats commonly ‘efered tos the velocity head. The units of presure are traditionally used forthe velociy bead expression, tihich ean also be converted toa belt ofthe lid obo consistent with the poteatal energy te, For objects with ama the kine energy i expressed 25 KE = massXV42) Similar, the velocity head isan expression ofthe Knee energy ofthe Mud, although in the form that, Isrolatve 1 unit volume ofthe lowing medium. Thus, KE =(nassIvolume XV") = pV42 ‘The gravitational constant i wily shown inthe denominator ofthe velocity bed expression This required in onder to conver from mast unto force units. The gravitational constant hasbeen included in the constant My. 437Control Valve Applications Remember to check the lculated velocity to be sure that it does not exceed the sonic velocity of the fluid. If velocity Is greater than sonic it must be ‘set equal to sonic velocity. ‘Table 12-3. Trim Outlet Kinetic Energy Criteria Kinetic Energy | Equivalent Water coco conemnne Criteria Velocity Pai KPa We mis Continuous Service, Single- 70 #0 700 30 phase Fluids Cavitating and Multephase 0 25 75 2 Fluid Outlet Vibration-sensitive System 1 75 co 2 In flashing service, liquid droplets are carried by their vapor at much higher velocities than would be the case for a single-phase liquid flow. To eliminate the risk of erosion in this situation, the acceptance criteria for flashing or potentially cavitating service should be lowered to 40 psi (275 kPa). The same criteria exists for liquids carrying entrained solids. Special applications may require even more stringent kinetic energy criteria. For example, pressure letdown valves used in pump test loops must be vibration- free so that a proper evaluation of the pump can be made. These valves are designed with trims that reduce the kinetic energy to less than 11 psi (75 kPa). Gas, or steam valves with very low noise requirements may also result in extra-low trim outlet kinetic energy requirements. ‘These kinetic energy criteria are additional sizing considerations that assure the reliable long-term operation of the control valve. A decision to ignore these rules may result in lower procurement cost but cause high operation and maintenance ‘costs. In some cases, the ability of the valve to perform its control function may be jeopardized, References 9 and 10 present examples in which feedwater regulators could not perform the intended control function. Control was achieved when @ trim was used that halved the fluid exit velocity of the originally installed cage trim and local smoothing of the flow path was incorporated. ‘The calculation of trim velocities and kinetic energy will require a knowledge of the cross-sectional area for the flow channel of interest as well as the number of ports, Approximate calculations can be made with some information about the valve design, but it is best to work with the manufacturer to obtain more accurate results. Another approach would be to use Equations 12-5 and 12-4 to calculate the V, and A,, respectively, by fixing the kinetic energy at the Table 12-3 values. The area calculated is the area needed, at the valve travel, that passes the flow input to Equation 12-4, Then Equation 12-5 is used to calculate the fluid density so it can be used in Equation 12-4 with the velocity at sonic. This calculated area ‘can then be compared with the flow area forthe valve being proposed by the valve supplier, The actual area should always be greater than the calculated value in order to meet the kinetic energy selection criteria. A larger area would also be needed if cavitation or noise were major considerations in the application, Calibrating It Right A third problem involves achieving full-seat loading to maintain tight shutoff when the valve is closed, A prevalent practice is to calibrate the valve, or the bench set when a positioner is not used, so that the closure member (e.g., plug, diaphragm, disk) is just positioned at the seat instead of also assuring that the closure member is fully loaded against its seat. 438