Mechanics 5

Dynamics of a rigid body

• Torque
• Moment of Inertia
• Newton’s laws for a rigid body
• Angular momentum
• Conservation law

Basic phenomena
In an empty space with no
external forces acting on the
body, it is impossible to change
the velocity of a particle.
However it is possible to
change the rotational
frequency of a body using only
internal forces. This is done by
changing the mass distribution
around the rotation axis.

If no external forces exists, the

centre of mass of the system of
particles stays at rest of
continues with a constant
velocity.

Centre of mass

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 Experiment 1
A B

1 kg 1 kg

Two identical, massive wheels are fixed to the wall . The wheels consist of two
disks with different radii. In the wheel A the rope has been wrapped around the
larger disk and in B around the smaller disk. In both A and B there is a 1 kg
mass hanging from the ropes.
Question: Which of the masses falls with the greatest acceleration?
Answer: Though the forces are equal, A falls faster, because the point of
action is further away from the axis of rotation. The force has a greater torque
on the wheel.

Torque T
The rotating effect of a force depends not only on the magnitude of
the force F, but also on the distance of the action line of the force
from the rotation axis .
Definition: The torque of force F with respect to axis point A is
defined by
T = Fr
where r is the distance of the action line of the force from the point A

The unit of Torque is 1 Nm

(Newton meter) r

F
T = Fr

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 Experiment 2
A = a hollow cylinder, B) a solid cylinder C) a solid ball
All have the same mass and radius

A B C

1 kg 1 kg 1 kg

Question: In what order the masses fall down?

Answer: The mass C is first down B is second and A is third.
Argumentation: Even though the masses are same, the distribution of mass
around the axis varies. In the ball the mass is distributed closest to the axis.
That’s why the ball has the least inertia and it falls down fastest. In the empty
cylinder A the all the mass is at the distance r from the axis and that is why it is
the most difficult to get into a rotation.

Rotational kinetic energy

A rotating body has kinetic energy, which is
vc the sum of the kinetic energies of its mass
C
points.
rC B Erot = S½ mivi2

A rA
Because all the mass points have
different velocities, but same angular
velocities, it is more convenient to
write vi = wri . Then
Erot = ½(S miri2)w2
Erot = ½ I w2

Quantity I =S miri2 or I =Ûr2 dm is called the moment of inertia of the body.

It describes the distribution of mass around the axis.

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 Moment of Inertia
The moment of inertia of a rigid body is defined by
I = Ú r2 dm
where integration goes through all the mass elements of the body
and r is the distance of mass element dm from the axis.

Table of moments of inertia of most common bodies:

Hollow cylinder (mass m, radius r) I = mr2

Solid cylinder I = ½ mr2
Solid ball I = 2/5 mr2
Stick (mass m, length l )
- axis = midpoint I = 1/12 ml2
- axis = end of the stick I = 1/3 m l2

Steiner’s rule
Let I0 = the moment of inertia of a body with respect to an axis A, which goes
through the centre of mass of the body.
Then the moment of inertia with respect to any axis A’ parallel to A can be
calculated from

I = I0 + m ⋅ a2
a = the perpendicular distance of A and A’

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 Analogy between linear motion
and rotation
The formulas of linear and rotational motion are analogous. You have only
to know what quantities in the linear motion and in the rotational motion
correspond each other.
Below is a table of corresponding quantities

distance s angle j
velocity v = Ds/ D t angular velocity w = D j / D t

acceleration a = D v/ D t angular acceleration a = D w / D t

mass m the moment of inertia I
force F torque T
linear momentum p = mv angular momentum L = I w

Analogous formulas
linear kinematics: rotation:
v = v0 + at w=w0+wt
s = vkt = v0t + ½ at2 j = wkt = w0t + ½ a t2
dynamics: dynamics of rotation:
Newton’s II law: F = ma T=Ia
work: W=Fs W=Tj
power: P=Fv P=Tw

kinetic energy: Ek = ½ mv2 rotational energy: Erot = ½ I w 2

The conservation law of linear momentum -> The conservation law
of angular momentum

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 Example1
A wheel (a solid cylinder) (m=5.0 kg, r = 30 cm, n = 900 RPM) is stopped by
using a breaking force of 20 N. Calculate a) the angular retardation a
b) in how many seconds does the wheel stop
c) how many rounds does the wheel rotate before stopping

Solution: From T = I Dw / Dt we get Dt = I Dw / T = ½ mr2 Dw / Fr

Now Df = 900 RPM = 900/60 RPS = 15 Hz => Dw = 2p f = 94.2 rad/s
breaking time: D t = ½*5*0.3*94.2 / 20 = 3.5 s
Number of rounds = average frequency * time = 15/2 round/s*3.5 s = 26.5 rounds

Part C could be solved also using

energy principle

During the breaking the rotational energy transforms to the work

done by the friction
½ I w02 = T j
=> j = ½ I w02 / T = ½ ( ½ mr2 w02 /Fr) = ¼ mr w02 /F
= ¼ 5*0.3*94.242/20 rad = 166 rad
In rounds: 166/2π = 26 rounds

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 “Pure” rolling = rolling without gliding
P
speed v
r
w

road

In pure rolling:
The radial velocity of point P with respect to the center
v=wr ( “rolling condition” )
v is also the linear speed of the wheel

Example: A wheel has a radius of 50 cm and it rolls with 3 RPS.

The its speed is r w = 0.5 m * 2p*3 1/s = 9.4 m/s

Example 2 competition between shapes

a b c

A hollow cylinder , a solid cylinder and a solid ball start from rest rolling
down the hill, with height difference h = 3.0 m.
a) In what order do they come down ?
b) Calculate their final velocities .
Solution: a) The order is ball, solid cylinder, hollow cylinder. The ball is
first (smallest moment of inertia), the solid cylinder is second because
its moment of inertia is next to the ball.

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 …cont…
b) We use the formulas from the table of moments of inertia:
hollow cylinder I = mr2 , solid cylinder I = ½ mr2, solid ball I = 2/5 mr2 .

”rolling condition” when a round body (radius r, angular velocity w, speed v)

rolls without gliding, the velocity of a point on the radius with respect to the
centre is equal to the linear velocity of the body: v = w r

Energy principle: The potential energy the body has on the top transforms
partly to kinetic energy , partly to rotational energy
mgh = ½ mv2 + ½ I w 2

…cont …
Replacing these conditions , we get
for the hollow cylinder:
mgh = ½ mv2 + ½ Iw2 = ½ mv2 + ½ (mr2) v2/r2 = ½ mv2+½ mv2 = mv2
=> v = ◊(gh) = ◊(9.81*3.0) m/s = 5.4 m/s
and for the solid cylinder
mgh= ½ mv2 + ½ Iw2 = ½ mv2 + ½ (½ mr2) v2/r2 = ½ mv2+ ¼ mv2 = 3/4 mv2
=> v = ◊(4/3gh) = ◊(4/3*9.81*3.0) m/s = 6.3 m/s
and for the ball
mgh=½mv2 + ½ I w2 = ½ mv2+ ½ (2/5 mr2) v2/r2= ½ mv2+ 2/5 mv2 =7/10 mv2
josta v = ◊(10/7gh) = ◊(10/7*9.81*3.0) m/s = 6.5 m/s

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 Angular Momentum (spin) L = Iw
L
The angular momentum is a
vector in the direction of
rotational axis and
magnitude of
L=Iw

* Angular momentum is proportional to

Conservation law: the rotational frequency and the mass of
the rotating body. Also the mass
The angular
distribution around the axis influences it
momentum of an
through the moment of inertia.
isolated system is a
constant

T, w and L as vectors
In picture on the right the right hand thumb
shows the direction of the angular momentum
vector w and spin vector L = I w

Also the torque is defined as vector

T=rxF

F T axis
point

Counterclockwise force has a Torque, that is

directed to us (the red arrow)

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 The conservation of angular momentum

• The angular momentum of an isolated

system is a constant
… means that…
- Rotating bodies tend to preserve the
direction of the rotation axis, and the
rotational frequency
- If the moment of inertia of a body increases
for some reason, it’s rotational frequency
must decrease

Applications of the conservation law

1. Flywheels in motors:
Many motors have a heavy flywheel
which keep motors going steady
2. Riffling of a gun:
a wheel of Volkswagen
The pipe of a gun has riffling in order to
force the bullet into a rotational
motion. According to the
conservation law the bullet keeps its
axis direction during the flight.
3. Tail rotors in helicopters prevent them
from rotating horizontally.

tail rotor of Sikorsky helicopter

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 Spinning top
• A rotating body with a big moment of
inertia is called a spinning top
A spinning top tends to keep
it’s axis of rotation

More applications
• In ships and tanks there are
heavy stabilizing wheels
• The aero planes have rotating
wheels showing the horizon
• A figure skater spins fast by figure skating
decreasing her moment of
inertia and in that way
increasing her rotational
frequency
• Gymnastic can also control his
rotational frequency by changing
his mass distribution around the
axis artificial horizon
of an aircraft

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Gyroscopic stabilizers of USS Henderson,
(battleship built 1917)

A photographer has a camera with

gyroscopic stabilizer, when he takes
pictures from a helicopter

Gyroscopes
The gyroscope effect was discovered in 1817 by Johann Bohnenberger and
invented and named in 1852 by Léon Foucault for an experiment involving the
rotation of the Earth.
A gyroscope is a device for measuring or maintaining orientation, based on
the principle of conservation of angular momentum. In physics this is also
known as gyroscopic inertia or rigidity in space. Gyroscopes are used in
autopilots of aeroplanes.

Gyroscope
maintains its
spatial
directions
despite the
rotation of the
Earth

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 Gyrocompass consists of a rotating wheel,
Gyrocompass which is fixed from both ends of its axis to a
plate, which can turn freely in a horizontal
plane.

The wheel axis of gyrocompass turns to the

North. The phenomenon is not based on
magnetism, and thus not effected by
magnetic disturbances or presence of iron.
Gyrocompass is used in ships and planes.

“A human
gyrocompass”

Gyrocompass of an aircraft

Principle of the gyrocompass

The rotation of Earth would causes a
torque to the wheel. The direction of the
torque is to the North. According to the
law
T dt = DL
west The east
also the spin turns to the North.
Earth
When spin point to the North, the wheel
doesn’t experience torque anymore.

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 Impulse principle
Newton’s II law for rotation:
T=Ia

T = I Dw/Dt

T Dt = I DL

This means that Torque vector is always in the direction of the change of
angular momentum DL (and Dw).
“The spin chases the torque”

This leads to very non-intuitive phenomena. In the next section some of

them are explained.

Precession of a spinning top

P
Torque Question: What happens if a spinning top
Spin
r rotates in non-vertical position ?

Gravitation
Answer: The torque vector due to gravitation points out from the
paper (towards us). The spin vector chased the torque and
starts slowly to rotate. This is called precession

The Earth’s axis rotates with a period of

26000 years. This was first observed by
a Greek astronomer Hipparchus. From
this follows that the Arctic Circle moves
every year a few centimeters.

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 Precession of a wheel
A spinning disk is
rope hanging from a rope,
which is fixed to the other
end of the axis.
F What happens ?
r

L - vector

Torque - vector

Force F=mg

Answer: The wheel axes starts to rotate slowly to the right

maintaining its horizontal position.
“The spin L chases the torque T”

Coriolis force
If a stone is dropped from a helicopter
above Rovaniemi, is doesn’t hit the
ground at Rovaniemi, but to the
South of Rovaniemi.

This is seen the picture:

Rovaniemi moves along the red line
and the particle moves along the light
blue line around the Earth

This phenomenon is called the Coriolis force. (Of course there is no such
force. The reason is the rotation of the Earth and the law of inertia:
(Newton’s I law).
In the southern hemisphere the stone would hit the Earth to the North of
the place where it is dropped.

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 Meteorological consequence

In the Northern hemisphere the Coriolis force deflects the wind to the
right and makes the air move counterclockwise around the centre of
the low pressure system. In the Southern hemisphere it is just the
opposite.

Kepler’s III law
conservation of spin

The law of equal areas says that the
planet A1 radius from the Sun to the planet
sweep equal areas in equal times.
Mathematically A = ½ r2 Dj :
sun => ½ r12Dj1 = ½ r12Dj1
A2
⇒ m r12Dj1/ Dt = m r12Dj1 /Dt
⇒ I1w1 = I2 w2
⇒ L1 = L2

Kepler found the conservation law of spin already in 16th century in this
special case, just analyzing observation.
When the planet is far from the Sun, its moment of inertia I decreases. That’s
why its angular velocity w increases so that the product I w remains the
same.

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