UNIVERSAL TRAINER KIT

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED

For internal evaluation of

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP

Bachelor of Technology

In

Electronics and Communication Engineering

By

Name: Alok Mohanty

Regd. No.-1641016

1st Semester, ECE-‘A’

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Institute of Technical Education and Research

 SIKSHA ‘O’ ANUSANDHAN UNIVERSITY
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
(December,2016)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to take this opportunity to express our gratitude to our respected mentors Mr.
Siddhartha Sahany & Mr.Shaktijeet Mahapatra, for the inspired guidance, insight,
continuous encouragement, timely suggestions that they have provided throughout the
duration of this work. The present work, being successfully completed due to their sincere
monitoring and vital inputs.

We are grateful to Prof. Guru Prasad Mishra, Head of the Department of Electronics and
Communication Engineering, permitted us to make use of the available facilities in the
department to carry out the project successfully. We would also thank all our friends,
faculty and staff members’ of Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
for their support and all kinds of help to accomplish this work.

Signature of the Student

Name: Alok Mohanty
Registration No.: 1641016107
 ABSTARCT

Universal breadboard kit is an electronic device used to provide a regulated amount

of current to the electronics component according to their need. It decrease the
uses of components like battery, AC to DC converter, individual breadboards and
wires. The advantages of the kit is that, it different values of output like +5V,
+12V, -12V and a variable out of 1.25-16.5V .

I needed the component for constructing the circuit are fuse , resistors, center-tap
transformer, ICs, Capacitors, bread board etc. A center –tap transformer is used
for conversion of 220 input voltage into 12V output. For different output I use a
variety of ICs and for a variable voltage a 10k potentiometer is used. Resisters are
used to keep the ICs safe.

After completing all the components connection accordingly we got the output
+5,+12,-12& a variable voltage of 1.25 – 16 as a result.For the safety of both user
and the circuit the project should well covered.
 CERTIFICATE OF DECLARATION
I declared that

a. The work contained in this report is original and has been done by me..

b. I have followed the guidelines provided by the Department in preparing the report.

c. I have followed the professional and ethical responsibility provided by the university.

Name:-Alok Mohanty

Registration no:-1641016107
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement............................................................................................................ I

Abstract.............................................................................................................................II

Certificate of Declaration.................................................................................................III

Chapters
1. Introduction 1
2. Customer Needs Recognition 2
3. Product function Decomposition 3
4. Benchmarking and Engineering Specification 4
5. Product Architecture 5
6. Analytical and numerical Model Solutions 6
7. Physical Prototype 7
8. Testing and Improvement 8
9. Final Product 9
10. Conclusion 10
11. Individual Learning 11
12. References 12
13. Questionnaire 13
 LIST OF FIGURES

a. Figure 1 : LM 7812 IC Pin Configuration

b. Figure 2 : LM 7812 IC sample working circuit
c. Figure 3 : LM 7805 IC sample working circuit
d. Figure 4 : LM 7912 IC Pin Configuration
e. Figure 5 : LM 7912 IC sample working circuit

f. Figure 6 : LM 317 IC Pin Configuration

g. Figure 7 : LM 317sample working circuit
h. Figure 8 : Physical Prototype for the circuit
i. Figure 9:Final circuit design

j. Figure 10 : Working of rectifier circuit

k. Figure 11 : Half wave rectifier

l. Figure 12 : Full wave rectifier

CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
Breadboard is a device which used for construct electronic projects easily without the need of
soldering. The beginners faces a lot of problem in the field of electronics that they cannot solder
the components perfectly as like the connection drawn in the circuit diagram . Once the
component are not solder perfectly the project is not give the perfect output.
It is a circuit board i.e used to make temporary circuits and also for testing the circuit diagram.
The electronic elements inside the electronic circuits can be interchanged by inserting the
terminals and leads into holes and later connecting it with the help of appropriate wires. The
device has stripes of metal below the board that connects the holes placed on the top of the
board. The connections of the breadboard are mostly temporary and the elements can further be
reassembled and reused without any damage. Breadboards are generally used in electrical
engineering. Engineers make use of breadboards in order to test different products made by
them.
Breadboards earlier were made of copper wires or terminal strips. These days it is made up of
white plastic and is a breadboard that can be plugged. Breadboards are solderless and they are
made of two kinds of strips i.e. terminal and bus strips. Terminal strips help in holding the
electronic elements while the bus strip is used to power electric power to all the electronic
components.
So, at last the final product formed is a “UNIVERSAL BREADBOARD KIT” in which the
bread boards connected are connected together with a VDC power supply of -12v, 12v, 5v and of
variable voltages on a plywood which is prepared by using components like transformer, diodes,
resistor, potentiometer, capacitors (1000µf and 10µf), veroboard, connecting knobs, switch
(SPST), 7805, 7812, 7912 and LM317 chip and etc.

Fig:---1
A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test
equipment or software used to generate different types of electrical wave
forms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of the most common waveforms
produced by the function generator are the sine, square, triangular and sawtooth
shapes.

In this project, a digital function generator capable of generating sine, square and
triangular waves in a variable frequency and amplitude were designed and
implemented on a veroboard using op-amp IC741.

A logic probe is a tester circuit in which the test probe is used for analysing
and troubleshooting the logical states (Boolean 0 or 1) of a digital circuit.
While most are powered by the circuit under test, some devices use batteries.
They can be used on either TTL (transistor-transistor logic) or CMOS
(complementary metal-oxide semiconductor) integrated circuit devices.
The pulse-detecting electronics usually has a pulse-stretcher circuit so that
even very short pulses become visible on the amber LED. A control on the
logic probe allows either the capture and storage of a single event or
continuous running.
When the logic probe is either connected to an invalid logic level (a fault
condition or a tri-stated output) or not connected at all, none of the LEDs light
up.
Another control on the logic probe allow selection of either TTL or CMOS
family logic. This is required as these families have different thresholds for the
logic-high (VIH) and logic-low (VIL) circuit voltages.
Some logic probes have a separate audible tone for each of the logical states.
An oscillating signal causes the probe to alternate between high-state and low-
state tones.
A logic probe is a cheap, versatile and convenient digital test instrument, but
can test only a single signal at a time. When many logic levels need to be
observed or recorded simultaneously, a logic analyser is used.

Chapter -2

CUSTOMER NEEDS RECOGNITION

There are different types of customer needs for this product. Engineering students like us
and even software engineers who regularly work on electronic devices even need this
product . The product gives us desired types of output voltage that has made it possible
for us to do any type of tasks.
Technically,
these breadboards are called solder less breadboards because they do not require soldering to
make connections. ... Electronic components can be soldered directly together, but more
commonly they are soldered onto printed circuit boards (PCBs).A breadboard is a circuit which
if of a temporary nature used for the purpose of testing and prototyping circuits. It is easy to
prototype circuits with the help of breadboards because it is fast and easy. Breadboards are
generally used to test circuits. As this device have holes in it. In order to form a circuit, wires are
inserted simply inside the holes. An advantage of using a breadboard is that the positions of the
wires can be changed if they are placed in a wrong order.
The power supply is connected to both the
black and red rows. The other rows are connected in a vertical manner which consists of five
rows each without any links to the across the centre. In this way there are separate blocks of
connections to each of the ICs pin. Now this was the connection in a small breadboard. In case of
large breadboards, there are breaks half way in the top and the bottom rows of the power supply.
It is always better to link across the gap before you start building circuit. If you do not link it
then that part of the circuit will not have any power supply.
 Fig:--2

The customer need for the function generator is to be capable of

generating sine, square and triangular waves in a variable frequency and
amplitude.

The customer needs for digital logic proves is to be capable of detecting

logic “1” and “0” in a digital circuit.

Chapter -03
PRODUCT FUNCTION DECOMPOSTION
OVERALL VIEW

AC
 TRANSFORME
R

LM317 7805 7812 7912

VARIABLE
-12V
+5V +12
V

IC PIN CONFIGURATION
 IC

1
3
2
Fig :--4

TRANSFORMER

INPUTS

TRANSFORMER

+12V COMMON
-12v

Fig:--5
The overall view for functional generator-

The overall view for digital logic proves-

ICs OUTPUT

LED-Red
Transistor switching
Logic
LED-Green
Input

Fig.3.1
 Chapter-4

BENCHMARKING AND ENGINEERING SPECIFICATIONS

SL NAME OF THE COMPONENET SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

NO. REQUIRED

1 TRANSFORMER 12-0-12 1NOS.

2 (a)ICs FOR+12V LM7812 1NOS.

(b)ICs FOR +5V LM7805 1NOS.

(c)ICs FOR -12V LM7912 1NOS.

(d)ICs FOR VARIABLE V LM317 1NOS.

3 DIODES 1N4007 4NOS.

4 CAPACITORS 1000MICROFARAD 2NOS.

25V

5 RESISTORS 220 1NOS.

6 POTENTIOMETER 10K OHM 1NOS.

7 MAIN CORD 5AMP 1NOS.

8 VERRO BOARD SINGLE DOTTED 1NOS.

9 BREADBOARD 2NOS.

10 CONNECTING KNOBS IN COLOURS 1NOS.

11 PLYWOOD 12”*12” 1NOS.

12 BASE FOR PLYWOOD CIRCULAR 4NOS.

13 SCREWS AND NUTS 1” AS PER REQUIRED

14 INSULATED TAPE 1NOS.

The following components are used in the project:-

01. Transformer:- A center-tap transformer is designed to provide two separate secondary

voltages, VA and VB with a common connection. This type of transformer configuration produces a two-
phase, 3-wire supply. The secondary voltages are the same and proportional to the supply voltage, VP,
therefore power in each winding is the same. The voltages produced across each of the secondary
winding is determined by the turns ratio as shown.
 Fig:--8

02. (a) 7812 IC: -

7812 is a famous IC which is being widely used in 12V voltage regulator circuits. Truly speaking
it is a complete standalone voltage regulator. We only need to use two capacitors, one on the
input and second one on the output of 7812 in order to achieve clean voltage output and even
these capacitors are optional to use. To achieve 12V 1A current, 7812 should be mounted on a
good heat sink plate. Thanks to the transistor like shape of 7812 which makes it easy to mount on
a heat sink plate. 7812 has built in over heat and short circuit protection which makes it a good
choice for making power supplies.
(b) 7805 IC: -

7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage
regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not give the fixed
voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. The xx
in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide. 7805 provides +5V regulated
power supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at input and output pins depending
upon the respective voltage levels.

(c) 7912 IC –
79xx voltage regulators are very commonly used in electronic circuits. The main purpose of this
IC is to supply required regulated negative voltage to the circuits. IC 79xx can supply a constant
negative voltage output, in spite of any voltage fluctuations in its input voltage. It can be mainly
found in the circuits in which integrated circuits that require +Vcc and – Vcc are used.
(d) LM317:-

The LM317 is an adjustable 3−terminal positive voltage regulator

Capable of supplying in excess of 1.5 A over an output voltage range of
1.2 V to 37 V. This voltage regulator is exceptionally easy to use and
requires only two external resistors to set the output voltage. Further, it
employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe area
compensation, making it essentially blow−out proof.
The LM317 serves a wide variety of applications including local, on
card regulation. This device can also be used to make a programmable
output regulator, or by connecting a fixed resistor between the
adjustment and output, the LM317 can be used as a precision current
regulator.
(c)

Working sample of LM 317 IC (Fig: 7)

IC 79xx
IC 79xx is a three pin negative voltage controller IC. It is a small integrated circuit used in a
circuit to supply a constant negative input voltage. The number 79 indicates that it is a negative
voltage regulator and xx indicates the output voltage of the IC. ‘xx’ can be replaced by the
controlled output voltage provided by the regulator, for example, if it is 7905, then the output
voltage of the IC is -5 V. Similarly if it is 7912, then output voltage of the IC is -12 volts and so
on. The name of the IC may vary based on the manufacturer as LM79xx, L79xx, and MC79xx
etc.
IC 79xx requires heat sink for its safe operation. Heat sink boosts heat dissipation therefore the
life of the device can be extended.
(a) LM 79XX IC Pin Configuration (Fig: 4)

Working Sample circuit (Fig: 5)

79xx ICs and Output Voltages

IC Number Output Voltage

LM317 0-16V
7912 -12 V
7805 5V
7812 12V
TABLE – 4.1
 Fig :--6

03.Diodes: - A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes called the anode and
the cathode. Most diodes are made with semiconductor materials such as silicon, germanium, or
selenium.

Fig:--9

04. CAPACITOR:
Capacitors are two-terminal electrical elements. Capacitors are essentially two conductors,
usually conduction plates - but any two conductors - separated by an insulator - a dielectric -
with connection wires connected to the two conducting plates.

Sometimes you can use a capacitor to store energy. In a subway car, an insulator at a
track switch may cut off power from the car for a few feet along the line. You might use a large
capacitor to store energy to drive the subway car through the insulator in the power feed.
 Capacitors are used for all these purposes, and more. In this chapter you're going to start
learning about this important electrical component. Remember capacitors do the following and
more.

Fig:--7

05. RESISTORS::
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as
a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal
levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other
uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used
as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed
resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage.

The componemnt ,specification& quantity for function

generator in table form :-

SI NO. COMPONENTS SPECIFICATIONS QUANTITY

1. Integrated Circuit 741 1
(op-amp)
2. Resistors -10 K Ω 5
-100 K Ω 1
-1K Ω 2

-100 Ω 1
 -Ω
3. Potentiometers 10 K 2
4. Capacitors 0.01 mF 4
5. Wire 23 SWG As required

Tab.4.1
(i) CAPACITOR :-
- It is a device used to store an electric charge, consisting of one or more pairs
of conductors separated by an insulator.
- In our universal breadboard kit we have used two 1000 mF capacitor for
filtering.

Fig.4.4

(ii) RESISTORS :-
- It is a device having resistance to the passage of an electric current.
- In our universal breadboard kit we have used a 220 Ω resistor for the safety
of LM317 IC.

Fig.4.5
 Tab.4.3

(iii) POTENTIOMETER :-
- a variable resistor with a third adjustable terminal. The potential at the third
terminal can be adjusted to give any fraction of the potential across the ends
of the resistor.
- In our universal breadboard kit we have used a 10K potentiometer to adjust
the varying output voltage of LM317 IC.
 Fig.4.6
(iv) WIRES :-
- 23-SWG wires were used for connetions.

Fig.4.7

(v) INTEGRATED CIRCUIT (OP-AMP) :-

- An operational amplifier (often op-amp or opamp) is a DC-coupled high-
gain electronic voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a
single-ended output.
 The componemnt ,specification& quantity for logic probes
in table form :-

SI NO. COMPONENTS SPECIFICATIONS QUANTITY

1. Diode 1A 4
2. Transistors BC548B 2
3. Resistors -330 Ω 2
-33 K Ω 2
-820 K Ω 1

-5.6 K Ω 1

-68 K Ω 1

4. LED Dual lighting 1

5. Wire 23 SWG As required

Tab.4.1

(vi) DIODE :-
- It is a semiconductor device with two terminals, typically allowing the flow
of current in one direction only.
- In our universal breadboard kit we have used four 1 Amp diodes to act as a
bridge rectifier.
 Fig.4.3
(vii) RESISTORS :-
- It is a device having resistance to the passage of an electric current.
- In our universal breadboard kit we have used a 220 Ω resistor for the safety
of LM317 IC.

Fig.4.5
 Tab.4.3

(viii) WIRES :-
- 23-SWG wires were used for connetions.
 Fig.4.7

(ix) Transistors:-

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic

signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material
usually with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit.
 CHAPTER: - 5

PRODUCT ARCHITECTURE

05. PRODUCT ARCHITECTURE

IC TRAINER

VERO BOARD
SUPPLY AC BREAD BOARD

AS
PER
CENTRE TAPED CAPACITOR RESISTE DIODE CHIP POTENTIOMETE CUST
TRANSFERMER R R OME
S
R

RECTIFIER

LM780 LM7812 LM7912

+5V
+12 V -12 V

Fig :--10
 CHAPTER: - 6

ANALYTICAL AND NUMERICAL MODEL SOLUTIONS

This is a simple approach to obtain a 12V and 5V DC power supply using a single circuit. The
circuit uses two ICs 7812 (IC1) and 7805 (IC2) for obtaining the required voltages. The AC mains
voltage will be stepped down by the transformer T1, rectified by bridge B1 and filtered by
capacitor C1 to obtain a steady DC level .The IC1 regulates this voltage to obtain a steady 12V
DC. The output of the IC1 will be regulated by the IC2 to obtain a steady 5V DC at its output. In
this way both 12V and 5V DC are obtained, likewise we can get -12 V by using IC7912 (IC3).

Fig:--11
This circuit is very useful in cases when we need two DC voltages for the operation of a circuit.
By varying the type number of the IC1 and IC2, various combinations of output voltages can be
obtained. If 7806 is used for IC2, we will get 6V instead of 5V. Same way if 7809 is used for IC1
we get 9V instead of 12V.
Full Wave Rectifier:-
The circuit diagrams and wave forms we have given below will help you understand the
operation of a bridge rectifier perfectly. In the circuit diagram, 4 diodes are arranged in the
form of a bridge. The transformer secondary is connected to two diametrically opposite
points of the bridge at points A & C. The load resistance RL is connected to bridge
through points B and D.

During first half cycle of the input voltage, the upper end of the transformer secondary
winding is positive with respect to the lower end. Thus during the first half cycle diodes
D1 and D3 are forward biased and current flows through arm AB, enters the load resistance
RL, and returns back flowing through arm DC. During this half of each input cycle, the
diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased and current is not allowed to flow in arms AD and
BC.

During second half cycle of the input voltage, the lower end of the transformer
secondary winding is positive with respect to the upper end. Thus diodes D2 and
D4 become forward biased and current flows through arm CB, enters the load
resistance RL, and returns back to the source flowing through arm DA. Flow of
current has been shown by dotted arrows in the figure. Thus the direction of flow
of current through the load resistance RL remains the same during both half cycles
of the input supply voltage.

Fig:--12
 CHAPTER-7
PHYSICAL PROTOTYPE

This is a simple approach to obtain a 12V and 5V DC power supply using a single circuit. The
circuit uses two ICs 7812 (IC1) and 7805 (IC2) for obtaining the required voltages. The AC mains
voltage will be stepped down by the transformer T1, rectified by bridge B1 and filtered by
capacitor C1 to obtain a steady DC level .The IC1 regulates this voltage to obtain a steady 12V
DC. The output of the IC1 will be regulated by the IC2 to obtain a steady 5V DC at its output. In
this way both 12V and 5V DC are obtained, likewise we can get -12 V by using IC7912 (IC3).

Such a circuit is very useful in cases when we need two DC voltages for the operation of a circuit.
By varying the type number of the IC1 and IC2, various combinations of output voltages can be
obtained. If 7806 is used for IC2, we will get 6V instead of 5V. Same way if 7809 is used for IC1
we get 9V instead of 12V
 CHAPTER: - 8
TESTING AND IMPROVEMENT
The testing & improvement for voltage regulator:-

TESTING:-

1. The following is a step-down transformer, it has the capability to change the 200V input
into12V output.
2. This IC is used for DC to DC converter application. It has three pin i.e. input, output, and
adjustment. This IC is also used in heat sink. The I.C. gives a variable output ranging from 1.25 to
16.5 V.
3. The IC has three pin i.e. is input, ground, output. And by using the IC in universal kit the I.C
has an output of +5v.
4. 7812 is a famous IC which is being widely used in 12V voltage regulator circuits. Truly
speaking it is a complete standalone voltage regulator The following I.C. has an output of
+12V.
5. The following I.C. has an output of -12V.

IMPROVEMENTS:
The following outputs may not be accurate but this issue can be improved by:

1. Soldering could have been done properly.

2. Glue gun could have been used in place of cello tapes.

3. LED could have been used.

4. All connections should be clean, visible and understandable.

5. Avoid overlapping of wires.

6. For variable voltage output, the pot should be of 10k.

 The testing & improvement for function generator:-

After completing all the circuit connections we observe the following

outputs:

1. INTEGRATOR PART-I: It gives square wave as output.

2. INTEGRATOR PRT-II: It gives triangular wave as output.

3.INTEGRATOR PART-III: It gives sin wave as output.

4. We can vary both the frequency and amplitude of these output waveforms
using our device.

*IMPROVEMENTS:
The following outputs may not be accurate but this issue can be
improved by :

1. Clean circuit connections.

2. Avoid overcrowding of wires.
3. For variable voltage output , the pot should b of 10k.
4. The pins of the I.Cs should be properly connected.

The testing & improvement for digitttaaall logic probes:-

After completing all the circuit connections we observe that when the
probe detects logic “0” in a digital circuit, the LED emits Green light and
when the probe detects logic “1” , it emits Red light.
*IMPROVEMENTS:
The following outputs may not be accurate but this issue can be
improved by :

1. Clean circuit connections.

2. Avoid overcrowding of wires.
3. For variable voltage output , the pot should b of 10k.
4. The pins of the I.Cs should be properly connected.

FUNCTION GENERATOR
A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or software
used to generate different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of
frequencies. Some of the most common waveforms produced by the function
generator are the sine, square, triangular and sawtooth shapes. These waveforms can
be either repetitive or single-shot (which requires an internal or external trigger
source).[1] Integrated circuits used to generate waveforms may also be described as
function generator ICs.

Although function generators cover both audio and RF frequencies, they are usually
not suitable for applications that need low distortion or stable frequency signals.
When those traits are required, other signal generators would be more appropriate.

Some function generators can be phase-locked to an external signal source (which

may be a frequency reference) or another function generator.[2]
Function generators are used in the development, test and repair of electronic
equipment. For example, they may be used as a signal source to test amplifiers or to
introduce an error signal into a control loop. Function generators are primarily used
for working with analog circuits, related pulse generators are primarily used for
working with digital circuits. This capability makes it very easy to evaluate the
frequency response of a given electronic circuit.

WORKING
Simple function generators usually generate triangular waveform whose frequency
can be controlled smoothly as well as in steps.[3]This triangular wave is used as the
basis for all of its other outputs. The triangular wave is generated by repeatedly
charging and discharging a capacitor from a constant current source. This produces
a linearly ascending and descending voltage ramp. As the output voltage reaches
upper or lower limits, the charging or discharging is reversed using a comparator,
producing the linear triangle wave. By varying the current and the size of the
capacitor, different frequencies may be obtained. Sawtooth waves can be produced
by charging the capacitor slowly, using a current, but using a diode over the current
source to discharge quickly - the polarity of the diode changes the polarity of the
resulting sawtooth, i.e. slow rise and fast fall, or fast rise and slow fall.

A 50% duty cycle square wave is easily obtained by noting whether the capacitor is
being charged or discharged, which is reflected in the current switching comparator
output. Other duty cycles (theoretically from 0% to 100%) can be obtained by
using a comparator and the sawtooth or triangle signal. Most function generators
also contain a non-linear diode shaping circuit that can convert the triangle wave
into a reasonably accurate sine wave by rounding off the corners of the triangle
wave in a process similar to clipping in audio systems.
A typical function generator can provide frequencies up to 20 MHz. RF generators
for higher frequencies are not function generators in the strict sense since they
typically produce pure or modulated sine signals only.

Function generators, like most signal generators, may also contain an attenuator,
various means of modulating the output waveform, and often the ability to
automatically and repetitively "sweep" the frequency of the output waveform (by
means of a voltage-controlled oscillator) between two operator-determined limits.

SPECIFICATION
Typical specifications for a general-purpose function generator are:

• Produces sine, square, triangular, sawtooth (ramp), and pulse output. Arbitrary
waveform generators can produce waves of any shape.

• It can generate a wide range of frequencies. For example, the Tektronix FG 502
(ca 1974) covers 0.1 Hz to 11 MHz.

• Frequency stability of 0.1 percent per hour for analog generators[4] or 500 ppm
for a digital generator.

• Maximum sinewave distortion of about 1% (accuracy of diode shaping network)

for analog generators.[5] Arbitrary waveform generators may have distortion less
than -55 dBbelow 50 kHz and less than -40 dB above 50 kHz.
• Some function generators can be phase locked to an external signal source, which
may be a frequency reference or another function generator.

• Amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), or phase modulation

(PM) may be supported.

• Output amplitude up to 10 V peak-to-peak.

• Amplitude can be modified, usually by a calibrated attenuator with decade steps
and continuous adjustment within each decade.

• Some generators provide a DC offset voltage, e.g. adjustable between -5V to

+5V.[2]

• An output impedance of 50 Ω.

CIRCUITS ELEMENTS
Waveform generator
An electronic circuit element used for generating waveforms within other apparatus
that can be used in communications and instrumentation circuits, and also in a
function generator instrument. Examples are the Exar XR2206 and the Intersil
ICL8038[7] integrated circuits, which can generate sine, square, triangle, ramp, and
pulse waveforms at a voltage-controllable frequency.

Function generator
An electronic circuit element that provides an output proportional to some
mathematical function (such as the square root) of its input; such devices are used
in feedback controlsystems and in analog computers. Examples are the Raytheon
QK329 square-law tube[8] and the Intersil ICL8048 Log/Antilog Amplifier.

Software
A completely different approach to function generation is to use software
instructions to generate a waveform, with provision for output. For example, a
general-purpose digital computer can be used to generate the waveform; if frequency
range and amplitude are acceptable, the sound card fitted to most computers can be
used to output the generated wave.

LOGIC PROBE
A logic probe is a hand-held pen-like test probe used for analyzing and
troubleshooting the logical states (Boolean 0 or 1) of a digital circuit. While most
are powered by the circuit under test, some devices use batteries. They can be used
on either TTL (transistor-transistor logic) or CMOS (complementary metal-oxide
semiconductor) integrated circuit devices.

The pulse-detecting electronics usually has a pulse-stretcher circuit so that even very
short pulses become visible on the amber LED. A control on the logic probe allows
either the capture and storage of a single event or continuous running.
When the logic probe is either connected to an invalid logic level (a fault condition
or a tri-stated output) or not connected at all, none of the LEDs light up.

Another control on the logic probe allow selection of either TTL or CMOS family
logic. This is required as these families have different thresholds for the logic-high
(VIH) and logic-low (VIL) circuit voltages.

Some logic probes have a separate audible tone for each of the logical states. An
oscillating signal causes the probe to alternate between high-state and low-state
tones.

A logic probe is a cheap, versatile and convenient digital test instrument, but can test
only a single signal at a time. When many logic levels need to be observed or
recorded simultaneously, a logic analyzer is used.

LOGIC PROBE CONNECTIONS

Before using the logic probe, it is necessary to understand the connections.

As can be seen, there are three connections to the logic probe:

1. Black lead with crocodile clip: There are two leads which generally come
out of the opposite end of the instrument to the metal probe itself. The black
lead is connected to negative ground and is also used as the return.
 2. Red lead with crocodile clip: This lead will have red on it somewhere,
possibly just on the crocodile / alligator clip and is used to connect to the
supply. Be careful to connect this to the logic supply which will normally be
+5 volts. Read the instructions to see over what range the probe will operate.

3. Probe: The probe, as shown on the diagram is a metal point used for probing
the circuit.

INITIAL SETTINGS
When using the logic probe, it is necessary to select the required settings on the
switches. Dependent upon the logic probe manufacturer and model, there are a
number of options that may need to be set:

1. TTL / CMOS: It is necessary to select the logic family. Normally two options
are given, namely CMOS and TTL. As the high and low states of these two
logic families are slightly different, it is necessary to select the correct option.
 2. MEM / PULSE : This is used to select he operational mode of the logic probe.
The Pulse position is used for normal operation for pulse or level detection.
The MEM or memory position is used to capture a pulse. For example if it is
necessary to detect whether a pulse has occurred or not.

Note: Some surface mount devices these days use supply rails of 3.3 volts or less.
Most logic probes will not work with these ICs as the logic levels cannot normally
be accommodated. Additionally it is often difficult to probe surface mount boards as
there is a real danger of shorting pins.

PROBING AND RESULTS

With power applied to the circuit under test and the logic probe, it is possible to use
it to probe various points on the circuit.

One easy point to locate may be a transistor driver. The can of the transistor is often
connected to its collector making a point where the signal can be easily accessed.

The logic probe will indicate which lines are high, low or carrying a signal.

It is then a matter of interpreting the results in line with the circuit to find out whether
they are acting correctly or not.
A brief order of using a logic probe could be:

1. Connect the black clip or line to ground or to a common line of the circuit to
be tested. This assumes that 0V and ground / common are the same.

2. Secondly connect the red clip or leave to the positive supply of the circuit.
3. Select the logic family CMOS or TTL. TTL normally runs using a 5V supply
whereas CMOS is typically 5 - 15V.

4. Use the probe to connect to the required monitoring points. At this point the
LEDs will light accordingly and a buzzer if included may sound.

5. Setting a MEM switch to MEM will enable the logic probe to capture any
short pulses. There may be a separate LED to indicate this.

It is sometimes worth using the logic probe to check known signals to understand its
operation better.

CHAPTER-9
FINAL PRODUCT
 CHAPTER: - 10
CONCLUSION

The purpose of the work was to get a better insight in how much different measure
can convert the AC voltage to the prescribed DC voltages using the concept of ICs
to get the result. In this project we had used the LM7805, LM7812, LM7912, LM317
IC to get the +5V, +12V,-12V and variable voltage respectively. And how the ICs
operate on a minimal voltage to produce a constant output however the input is
increasing or decreasing in between the prescribed limit of the respective ICs. ICs
have the 4% tolerance on the preset output voltage. ICs were short circuit proofed
and have a very high capacity towards tolerance.

CHAPTER: - 11
INDIVDUAL LEARNING
In this project I learnt that how to design a circuit on a Vero board in a systematic
way and précised way. And also have practice on soldering the components on a
Vero board. And also studied the details working about LM ICs and its properties.

More over application of the ICs were reflected by the help of this project done.

CHAPTER: - 12
REFRENCES

1. Make: Electronics , Second Edition by Charles Platt

2. Make: More Electronic by Charles Platt

3. For Datasheet for LM317 ICs by the National Semiconductor

http://www.ti.com/product/lm317?HQS=TI-null-null-dscatalog-df-pf-
nullwwe

4. For Datasheet for LM7805 ICs by the National Semiconductor

http://www.ti.com/product/lm7805c?HQS=TI-null-null-dscatalog-df-pf-null-
wwe
 5. For Datasheet for LM7812 ICs by the National Semiconductor
http://www.ti.com/product/lm7812c?HQS=TI-null-null-dscatalog-df-pf-
nullwwe

6. For Datasheet for LM7912 ICs by the National Semiconductor

http://www.ti.com/product/lm7912?HQS=TI-null-null-dscatalog-df-pf-
nullwwe

7. Circuit Designing : AutoCAD Electrical Software

8. Wikipedia powered by Google search

CHAPTER: - 13
QUESTIONNAIRE