Sports Injuries
Corey Joseph and Caroline F Finch, Australian Centre for Research into Injury in Sport and its Prevention (ACRISP), Federation
University Australia, Ballarat, VIC, Australia
Ó 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
This article is an updated version of the previous edition article by Rebecca Dennis, Caroline F. Finch, volume 6, pp. 206–211, Ó 2008, Elsevier Inc.
Sports Injury as an International Public Health Issue
Participation in sport and physical activity is a global priority
and encouraged by government agencies worldwide. The bene-
fits that physical activity provides include general health, non-
communicable disease, physical fitness, psychological, social,
and economic effects, and these impact the individual as well
as the community (Oldridge, 2008; Penedo and Dahn, 2005;
Reiner et al., 2013; Warburton et al., 2006). However, partici-
pation is not without risk, and injuries can occur to those
who partake in sport and physical activity. Unfortunately, these
sports injuries can have both long- and short-term adverse
effects by economically burdening the individual, causing
permanent physical damage or disability, affecting quality of
life, impacting time at work, and leading to time away from
physical activity (Cook and Finch, 2011; Lyons et al., 2010).
It has been found that even minor sports injuries can affect
the ability to perform daily routine activities and the participa-
tion or performance in any subsequent activity (Finch and
Cassell, 2006). Previous injury or disability is also a barrier to
sports participation, resulting in a reduction in participation
levels (Finch et al., 2001; Askling et al., 2008; State Government
of Victoria, 2013). Sports injuries can be associated with signif-
icant injury-related morbidity, and in the European Union, it
has been estimated that 4.6% of all sports-related injuries result
in temporary disabilities, with 0.5% of these being permanent
(Kisser and Bauer, 2012). Considering the significant impacts
of sports injury on healthcare delivery systems, and individual
health and well-being, sports injury and its prevention is
a major public health issue.
Epidemiology of Sports Injury
Sports injuries have long been recognized as a global health
problem requiring a public health approach to reduce their
impact (Timpka et al., 2008). Sports injuries have been
reported to burden 5.2 million Australians and cost
AU$2 billion to the Australian healthcare system (Medibank,
2006). In Europe, 20% of all nonfatal injuries are sports
injuries and cost V2.4 billion (Kisser and Bauer, 2012). More
than US$1.58 billion is spent on sports injuries in the United
States (Consumer Product Safety Commission, 2004, 2005).
There is recent evidence that the incidence of sports injuries,
and its associated burdens, is increasing (Finch et al., 2014).
A concern from a global perspective, however, is that most
population-based sports injury rates are based on data reported
in developed countries, and little is known about sports
injuries in undeveloped nations.
Most information about the incidence of, and risk factors
for, sports injuries comes from elite, semielite, or professional
sporting environments. Limited data exist on grassroots or
community-level sports injuries, at the broad population level,
International Encyclopedia of Public Health, 2nd edition, Volume 7
which is arguably the most important context. In these commu-
nity participation settings, the main sources of sports injury
data come from hospital admissions, emergency department
presentations, and insurance claims (Fridman et al., 2013; Cas-
sell et al., 2003; Åman et al., 2014). However, only 30% of
sports injuries actually present to these healthcare settings,
making the true burden of sports injury difficult to ascertain
(Cassell et al., 2003; Mitchell et al., 2010). There are, therefore,
concerns around the best way to record sports injuries, with the
need to be consistent and employ standardized reporting
to be able to make accurate comparisons with other
population-based data, and also to provide information in
a form to best influence public health policies (Finch, 2012).
A lack of clear definitions of sports injuries have also made
it difficult to report accurate injury rates and make compari-
sons between studies. While clear definitions of sports injuries
that represent the holistic views of clinicians, athletes, and
sporting institutions have been suggested (Timpka et al.,
2014), there is no consistency or standardized definition of
what a sports injury is, and several injury definitions have
been proposed from time loss, to medical attention, to any
physical complaint (Clarsen et al., 2013). For example,
some sports injury studies define an injury as “an event occur-
ring during a match or training session that required medical
attention (including self-treatment), or caused the player to
miss at least one scheduled match or team training session”
(McNoe and Chalmers, 2010), others define it as “any injury
that prevents a player from taking a full part in all training and
match play activities typically planned for that day, where the
injury has been there for a period greater than 24 h from
midnight at the end of the day that the injury was sustained”
(Blake et al., 2014). As a result of this lack of consensus, and
the intricacies of different sports, specific injury definitions
have been developed for particular sports, such as cricket
(Orchard et al., 2005) and soccer (Fuller et al., 2006). The
concept of defining injury has also been applied to particular
injury types, such as concussion (McCrory et al., 2009). A new
definition that takes into account the International Classifica-
tion of Functioning, Disability, and Health proposed by the
World Health Organization has been suggested (Timpka
et al., 2014; Table 1). Another issue impacting on compara-
bility of study findings is the manner in which rates have
been standardized (i.e., per ’000 participants, per 1000 h,
time lost from participation) also vary widely, and often
population-based data are not reported annually making it
difficult to fully understand the current-date impact of sports
injuries or monitor trends over time.
Sports Most Commonly Associate with Injury
Generally, there is a greater risk of injury associated with
contact versus noncontact sports because of the high potential
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803678-5.00432-X 79
80 Sports Injuries
Table 1 Sports injury definition incorporating impairment
Clinical examination
Sports injury
Loss or abnormality of bodily structure or functioning resulting from an
isolated exposure to physical energy during sports training or
competition that following examination is diagnosed by a clinical
professional as a medically recognized injury
Sports disease (overuse syndrome)
Loss or abnormality of bodily structure or functioning resulting from
repeated bouts of physical load without adequate recovery periods in
association with sports training or competition that following
examination is diagnosed by a clinical professional as a medically
recognized disease or syndrome
Athlete self-report
Sports trauma
An immediate sensation of pain, discomfort, or loss of functioning
associated, by an athlete, with an isolated exposure to physical energy
during sports training or competition having an intensity and quality
making the sensation being interpreted by the athlete as discordant
with normal body functioning
Sports illness
A progressively developing sensation of pain, discomfort, or loss of
functioning associated, by an athlete, with repeated bouts of physical
load during sports training or competition without adequate recovery
periods that reach an intensity and quality making the sensation being
interpreted by the athlete as discordant with normal body functioning
Sports performance
Sports incapacity
Sidelining of athlete by a sports authority (the athlete her/himself, coach,
manager, sports committee) due to reduced ability to perform
a planned sports activity following an isolated exposure to physical
energy during sports training or competition
Sports sickness
Sidelining of athlete by a sports authority (the athlete her/himself, coach,
manager, sports committee) due to reduced ability to perform
a planned sports activity following repeated bouts of physical load
without adequate recovery periods in association with sports training or
competition
Reproduced with permission from Timpka, T., Jacobsson, J., Bickenbach, J., et al.,
2014. What is a sports injury? Sports Med. 44, 423–428.
for impact-related mechanisms of injury. This is evidenced
by the high rates of injuries in Australian football (Cassell
et al., 2003), American football (Consumer Product Safety
Commission, 2004, 2005), and soccer (Eurosafe, n.d.).
However, there are also relatively high risks associated with
noncontact sports such as basketball, bicycling, gymnastics
and aerobics, horse riding, and ski sports (Cassell et al.,
2003; Consumer Product Safety Commission, 2004, 2005;
Eurosafe, n.d.). Commonly, injury rates are also higher in
participants of team sports (e.g., American football, Australian
football, basketball, soccer) rather than individual sports (e.g.,
equestrian, gymnastics, running) because of the greater phys-
ical requirements and opportunities for direct interactions
with other athletes. In Australia, the top five sports where
injuries occur are Australian football, basketball, netball,
running, and tennis (Cassell et al., 2012). In the United States,
the top five are basketball, bicycling, American football, exer-
cise or exercise equipment, and baseball (Consumer Product
Safety Commission, 2012). In Europe, soccer, gymnastics, aero-
bics, handball, horse riding, and ski sports yield the highest
injury rates (Eurosafe, n.d.). Team ball sports account for
40% of all sports injuries in Europe, with soccer (74%), basket-
ball (8%), volleyball (7%), and handball (3%) resulting in the
majority of injuries (Kisser and Bauer, 2012).
Categories of Sports Injuries
Sports injuries affect all structures that make up the musculo-
skeletal system and include muscle, bone, tendon, ligament,
and cartilage. They result when a load applied to a body tissue
exceeds its failure tolerance (Bussey, 2002). Each tissue within
the body displays its own biomechanical properties and
responds differently to loading, and not all injuries occur as
the result of acute energy transfer. Where sports participation
is concerned, the loading applied to, and by, the body often
results in nonacute or overuse injury, particularly when the
stresses or loads the body undergoes during movement reach
a threshold at which adaptations no longer take place and
rest is required (Bussey, 2002). Therefore, it is important to
understand the mechanisms that cause injury so that they can
be prevented.
Sports injuries can be categorized into acute or overuse
depending on the mechanism of their occurrence, or subse-
quent injuries dependent on their relatedness and temporal
sequence. Acute injures can be defined by the type and loca-
tion, or by the mechanism causing the injury (Brukner and
Khan, 2012). For example, an acute injury could be a muscle
or ligament strain, and such injuries generally occur suddenly
from a single inciting event or mechanism. An overuse injury
is generally one that occurs as a result of repeated,
low-magnitude musculoskeletal loading combined with
suboptimal recovery (Bussey, 2002; Cook and Finch, 2011).
Examples of overuse injuries are tendinopathies and stress frac-
tures. Many people will sustain more than one injury over their
playing career, or a sporting season, and subsequent injuries are
therefore those that are repeat, recurrences, or multiple injuries
(Finch and Cook, 2013; Fuller et al., 2006; Hamilton et al.,
2011; Hammond et al., 2011). Improved understanding of
subsequent injuries will ensure that the risk of new injuries is
not overestimated and/or recurrent injuries are not underre-
ported (Finch and Cook, 2013).
Classification systems have been developed to categorize
sports injuries with reasonable success (National Centre for
Classification in Health, 2006; Rae et al., 2005; Finch and Bou-
fous, 2008; Orchard et al., 2010). Injuries that occur during
sports participation can be categorized into a range of injury
types (Australian Sports Injury Database Working Party,
1997). The most common injury types are bruising, sprains,
strains, fractures, and concussions (Cassell et al., 2003; Kisser
and Bauer, 2012).
As alluded to previously, it is difficult to know the true
incidence of sports injuries due to the limited
community-level data. However, based on hospital emer-
gency department records and insurance claimant data,
most sports injuries at the population level are fractures, intra-
cranial injuries, sprains, strains, or bruises (Burt and Over-
peck, 2001; Cassell et al., 2003, 2012; Finch et al., 1998;
Forssblad et al., 2005; Fridman et al., 2013; Kisser and
Bauer, 2012; Schneider et al., 2006; Söderman et al., 2002;
 Sports Injuries 81

de Loes et al., 2000; Otago and Peake, 2007; Boyce and
Quigley, 2004). It must be noted, however, that it is likely
that the majority of sprains and strains do not lead to an emer-
gency department presentation and, therefore, go unrecorded
in hospital-based data collections. Furthermore, the majority
of overuse injuries and other minor musculoskeletal injuries
are likely to be treated in nonemergency, nonhospital settings,
such as private physiotherapy clinics, and there is very scant
information worldwide on their occurrence.
Sports Injury Risk Factors
Both intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors directly influence the
occurrence and frequency of sports injury. These factors can
either act individually or jointly in increasing injury risk.
A model of injury prevention to identify causation based on
risk factors was initially developed by Meeuwisse (1994).
This model emphasized the interaction between extrinsic and
intrinsic risk factors, and an update is provided in Figure 1.
Intrinsic factors can be categorized as being biological or
psychological in nature and individually make up and distin-
guish one person from another. Extrinsic factors are more
related to external, environmental (physical or social) condi-
tions and the manner in which external loads are applied to
the human body (Bahr and Krosshaug, 2005). Most common
risk factors are age (intrinsic), sex (intrinsic), previous injury
(intrinsic), and type of sport (extrinsic). Meeuwisse’s (1994)
model has since been further developed to consider risk factors
that are modifiable and those that are nonmodifiable (Bahr
and Krosshaug, 2005; Figure 1). Much of the clinical sports
medicine focus to date has been on modifying relevant intrinsic
risk factors. There has been less attention given to extrinsic risk
factors, though this trend is undergoing some reversal
following recognition that it greatly impacts on the implemen-
tation of preventive programs. It has been argued that partic-
ular preventive focus should now be on developing programs
that target modifiable risk factors (although age and gender
are important, also). Recently, Meeuwisse’s model of sports
injury was further refined to describe sports injury as a cyclic,
dynamic model whereby an individual can cycle through the
model without an outcome (i.e., injury) (Meeuwisse et al.,
2007). This updated model still allows for interplay between
injury risk factors, but it also recognizes that these can still
increase an individual’s injury susceptibility even when they
do not directly lead to injury.
As mentioned previously, the majority of research around
sports injuries has been undertaken in elite or subelite sport,
and what is known about risk factors applies mainly to these
populations. While the number of participants in
community-level sport by far outnumber their professional
counterparts, in terms of both participation levels and injury
rates, what is known about risk factors from elite sport still
provides valuable information to inform risk factors at the
community-level. The majority of research into sports injury
risk factors involves adults, and lesser is known about pediatric
and adolescent sports injuries. This is despite the large
emphasis on children and adolescents spending increased

External risk factors Repeat participation in activity

Non-modifiable
• Weather conditions
• Playing surface
• Opposition players

Modifiable
• Type of sport
Adaptation?
• Level of play
• Position played
• Exposure within the
sport (match training)
• Preseason training
• Size of area of play
Internal risk factors • Time of day No injury
Non-modifiable • Rules of play
• Age • Coaches
• Gender • Sports equipment
• Previous injury • Protective equipment
Modifiable • Footwear
• Body composition Events Recovery
• Muscle strength
• Joint range of motion
• Balance
• Nutritional status Predisposed Susceptible
• Limb dominance athlete athlete
Inciting event Injury
• Athletic technique
• Knowledge of the rules • Playing situation
• Skill level • Player/opponent No recovery
behaviour
• Motivation
• Biomechanical
• Risk taking
description (joint &
• Coping strategies whole body) Removed from
participation
Risk factors for injury Mechanisms of injury
(distant from outcome) (proximal to outcome)

Figure 1 Injury causation model. Adapted from Bahr, R., Krosshaug, T., 2005. Understanding injury mechanisms: a key component of preventing
injuries in sport. Br. J. Sports Med. 39, 324–329; Meeuwisse, W.H., Tyreman, H., Hagel, B., Emery, C., 2007. A dynamic model of etiology in sport
injury: the recursive nature of risk and causation. Clin. J. Sport Med. 17, 215–219.
82 Sports Injuries
time being physically active (Finch and Twomey, 2012).
However, there are complexities around injuries during the
years of growth with risk factors for injury such as adolescent
growth spurt, age, biologic maturity, body size, coaching,
gender, previous injury, and psychological characteristics being
a concern (Caine et al., 2008; Shanmugam and Maffulli, 2008).
There is also evidence to suggest that specialization in sports
during adolescence or childhood leads to burnout and impacts
physical growth, biological maturation, and psychobehavioral
development, and all of these can increase injury risk (Malina,
2010; Nyland, 2014).
In children and adolescents in the United States, the highest
incidence rates of injury occur in ice hockey, rugby, soccer, foot-
ball, and cross country for boys, and in soccer, basketball,
gymnastics, and cross country for girls (Caine et al., 2008).
The majority of injuries occur to the lower extremity, with the
knee and ankle predominating; however, this can be dependent
on the type of sport played (Gottschalk and Andrish, 2011;
Caine et al., 2006). For example, a high rate of upper extremity
injuries occur in baseball, judo, and gymnastics (Caine et al.,
2006). Ligament and tendon sprains, muscle strains, disloca-
tions, and fractures are common injuries (Frisch et al., 2009),
and high levels of overuse injuries have also been reported
(Caine et al., 2006). Injury prevention programs for children
and adolescents have been shown to be effective for reducing
injury risk in sports such as soccer (Emery and Meeuwisse,
2010), Australian football (Scase et al., 2006; Romiti et al.,
2008), handball (Wedderkopp et al., 2003), basketball (Emery
et al., 2007), and cricket (Shaw and Finch, 2008; White et al.,
2011). However, the majority of evidence relates only to lower
limb injuries and team sports, and more focus needs to be
placed on individual sports and upper extremity injury risk
(Maffulli et al., 2010). There are some good examples of how
this evidence has been used to inform policy and strategies
have been put in place to prevent sports injuries in sports
such as karate (Macan et al., 2006) and ice hockey (Emery
et al., 2010).
Sports Injury Prevention
Over much of the past two decades, sports injury research has
predominantly focused on diagnosis, treatment, and rehabili-
tation programs; however, efforts are now being shifted toward
the prevention of injuries. Some injury prevention programs
have been developed to reduce the occurrence of sports injuries
(Lauersen et al., 2013) and examples include warm-up
programs focusing on neuromuscular control that include
specific exercises aimed at reducing overall injuries, severe
injuries, overuse injuries, knee injuries, and general lower
extremity injuries (Emery and Meeuwisse, 2010; Longo et al.,
2013; Soligard et al., 2008; Andrew et al., 2013; Herman
et al., 2012), as well as eccentric hamstring programs (Arnason
et al., 2008; Askling et al., 2003; Petersen et al., 2011). Sports
injury prevention programs employing footwear, shoe insoles,
externally worn braces, protective headwear, mouth guards,
training and stretching programs have been reviewed and their
effectiveness evaluated (Leppänen et al., 2013). It has been
shown that many musculoskeletal sports injuries can be pre-
vented via the use of insoles, braces, and training programs.
Interestingly, contrary to popular belief, stretching programs
have now been shown to be ineffective at reducing injury
(Leppänen et al., 2013).
While the development of injury prevention programs is
highly important, the uptake of these programs by coaches,
trainers, and athletes is equally important. A large body of
evidence exists for the efficacy of programs that prevent sports
injuries; however, this research is usually conducted under
‘perfect world’ conditions, and limited research exists in the
evaluation of programs that have been developed in contrived,
lab-based settings, and how effective they are when tested in
the ‘real world’ (Klügl et al., 2010). There has been much less
attention in the literature on the implementation of sports
injury prevention programs (Finch, 2011).
The Translating Research into Injury Prevention Practice
framework (TRIPP) was developed to consider the context in
which injury prevention programs are to be applied, taking
into account the behavioral aspects of individuals involved in
the implementation, participants, and uptake of the prevention
program (Finch, 2006). Though extending the seminal model
of sports injury prevention (van Mechelen et al., 1992), the
TRIPP framework aims to facilitate the implementation of
effective and efficient injury prevention programs in their
‘real world’ context (Table 2).
There are many different models or approaches to imple-
menting health promotion programs that could be extrapo-
lated to sports injury prevention, and recent research has
started to do this (Finch, 2011). For example, to comprehen-
sively evaluate the impact of a particular intervention, the
Reach, Effectiveness, Adoption, Implementation, and Mainte-
nance (RE-AIM) framework was developed to take into
account the multilevel nature of interventions (i.e.,
individual, environmental, policy, etc.) and considers the
RE-AIM of an intervention in order to determine the
effectiveness of translating the evidence into practice
(Glasgow et al., 1999). In the context of sporting injuries, the
RE-AIM framework can be used to evaluate intervention
impact, which is important because an intervention will not
work without high-quality implementation (Finch and
Donaldson, 2010; O’Brien and Finch, 2014a). Understanding
the limitations of program implementation, and strategizing
the delivery, enables the effect of the intervention to be
maximized.
Table 2 Stages and stage description of the Translating
Research into Injury Prevention Practice framework
Model
stages Description
1 Injury surveillance
2 Establish etiology and mechanisms
3 Develop preventative measures
4 ‘Idea conditions’/scientific evaluation
5 Describe intervention context to inform implementation
strategies
6 Evaluate effectiveness of preventative measures in
implementation context
Source: Finch, C., 2006. A new framework for research leading to sports injury
prevention. J. Sci. Med. Sport 9, 3–9.
 Sports Injuries 83

Table 3 The Sports Setting Matrix extension of the Reach, Effectiveness, Adoption, Implementation, and Maintenance framework

Level of assessment/intervention setting or target

National sporting organization State/provincial sporting organization Regional association or league Club Team Participant

Reach
Effectiveness
Adoption
Implementation
Maintenance

Reproduced with permission from Finch, C., Donaldson, A., 2010. A sports setting matrix for understanding the implementation context for community sport. Br. J. Sports
Med. 44, 973–978.

To complement the RE-AIM framework and assist in the

implementation of prevention programs, the Sports Setting
Matrix (SSM) has been proposed. The SSM was developed to Table 4 Overview of knowledge transfer scheme (KTS)
assist in targeting explicit levels of a sporting organization
Scheme steps Description
when attempting to implement an injury prevention program
(Finch and Donaldson, 2010; Table 3). In this matrix, focus Step 1: problem statement Describe the problem as encountered in
can be placed on the overarching, national organization level practice in terms of:
all the way down to an individual participant level. The SSM l Problem magnitude
has the ability to be applied at multiple levels, which is l Problem severity
important given most community-level sport is hierarchal in l Societal burden
l Problem context
nature, and therefore, enhancing the effectiveness of delivery.
Step 2: evidence synthesis For all available evidence, describe:
Taking into account that an intervention will not work
and description l The gain for the individual
without high-quality implementation, a review assessed the
l The gain for the society
use of the RE-AIM framework in the reporting of injury l The context of the evidence
prevention interventions in team sports (O’Brien and Finch, l Contemporary views and practices
2014b). This review highlighted a clear absence of detail of practice and practitioners
outlining who instructed and observed the individuals Step 3: KTG Establish a KTG consisting of
undertaking the injury prevention program (i.e., researchers), representativeness of key
whether ‘delivery agents’ were educated about the intervention stakeholders, practitioners, and
(whether the researchers educate independent individuals researchers with expertise on the
such as coaches), and if agents were used to deliver the injury or evidence at hand. Within the
KTG, discuss:
program (O’Brien and Finch, 2014a,b). It is important that
l The problem statement (KTS step 1)
these details are provided to clearly define the intended end
l The evidence description (KTS
users (e.g., athletes, coaches, trainers), and the necessity to step 2)
provide these details to others wanting to replicate the l Completeness of group
program for the benefit of preventing injuries, or further l In the event that the group identifies
research. Additionally, to further optimize implementation, it that some key stakeholders or
is imperative to outline the components that, as a minimum, experts are missing, they can be
must be covered and delivered for the program to be effective. added to the KTG
Reporting these implementation points will be of huge Step 4: product development For the KTS product to be developed,
importance in closing the gap between evidence and practice. describe the:
l Product goal
While a top-down approach to prevention programs (i.e.,
l Target group(s)
scientifically develop effective prevention programs and then,
l Product context
implement them) can work to an extent, it is also important Step 5: evaluation Evaluate the KTS product within the
to consider the alternative, bottom-up approach, and consider RE-AIM framework (Glasgow et al.,
the barriers that exist in the science filtering to the end user. In 1999):
order to bridge the gap between research and practice, the l Reach
Knowledge Transfer Scheme was developed that is a five-stage l Effectiveness
process which can adopt either a top-down or bottom-up l Adoption
approach (Verhagen et al., 2013). The stages from the l Implementation
l Maintenance
bottom-up are (1) problem statement; (2) evidence synthesis
and description; (3) knowledge transfer group; (4) product RE-AIM, Reach, Effectiveness, Adoption, Implementation, and Maintenance; KTG,
development; and (5) evaluation (Table 4). knowledge transfer group.
Keeping all this in mind, there are still further challenges for Reproduced with permission from Verhagen, E., Voogt, N., Bruinsma, A., Finch,
C.F., 2013. A knowledge transfer scheme to bridge the gap between science and
preventing injuries in sport. Ensuring that individuals continue practice: an integration of existing research frameworks into a tool for practice. Br. J.
to perform and comply with any sports injury prevention Sports Med. 48, 698–701.
84 Sports Injuries
program is a challenge to coaches and trainers (Engebretsen
et al., 2008; Finch et al., 2013a; Soligard et al., 2010). Compli-
ance can range from high (Finch et al., 2013a; Soligard et al.,
2010) to low (Engebretsen et al., 2008) and be highest during
preseason, compared to the end of a season (Finch et al.,
2013a; Sugimoto et al., 2012; Steffen et al., 2013a,b; McKay
et al., 2014). Importantly, players and coaches can all provide
valuable feedback in improving the implementation and
adherence of these programs (Finch et al., 2013b; Saunders
et al., 2010).
The uptake of effective sports injury prevention strategies
can be enhanced through policy implementation support and
reinforcement (Timpka et al., 2006, 2008). However, for policy
to be effectively implemented, there needs to be strong support
for injury prevention measures by individuals, parents, clubs,
associations, and organizations. As well as a dedicated
committee to coordinate putting the intervention in place, clear
guidelines outlining the requirements of the program, clear,
simple, and easy to access injury prevention and management
resources, and guidelines around insurance (State Government
of Victoria, 2013).
See also: Head Trauma; Spinal Injury; Young People and
Violence.
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Further Reading
Bahr, R. (Ed.), 2012. The IOC Manual of Sports Injuries: An Illustrated Guide to the
Management of Injuries in Physical Activity. John Wiley & Sons.
Bahr, R., Mæhlum, S. (Eds.), 2004. Clinical Guide to Sports Injuries. Human Kinetics.
Bird, S., Black, N., Newton, P., 1997. Sports Injuries: Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment
and Prevention. Stanley Thornes, Cheltenham, UK.
Caine, D.J., Caine, C.G., Lindner, K.J. (Eds.), 1996. Epidemiology of Sports Injuries.
Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL.
Caine, D.J., Maffulli, N. (Eds.), 2005. Special Issue: Epidemiology of Pediatric Sports
Injuries: Individual Sports. Medicine and Sport Science, vol. 48.
Li, G., Baker, S. (Eds.), 2014. Injury Research: Theories, Methods, and Approaches.
Springer.
Verhagen, E., van Mechelen, W. (Eds.), 2010. Sports Injury Research. Oxford University
Press.
Relevant Websites
www.acc.co.nz – Accident Compensation Corporation.
www.acsm.org/access-public-information/acsm’s-sports-performance-center/related-
resources – American College of Sports Medicine.
www.sportsmed.org – American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine.
www.arthritisresearchuk.org/arthritis-information/arthritis-and-daily-life/sports-and-
exercise-injuries.aspx – Arthritis Research United Kingdom.
www.aflcommunityclub.com.au/index.php?id¼343 – Australian Football League
Community.
www.dpcd.vic.gov.au/sport/publications-and-research/publications/injury-prevention –
Department of Transport, Planning and Local Infrastructure.
www.injuryupdate.com.au – Injury Update.
www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/sportsinjuries.html – MedlinePlus Sports Injuries.
www.nhs.uk/conditions/Sports-injuries/Pages/Introduction.aspx – National Health
System United Kingdom.
www.sportinginjuries.nsw.gov.au/ – New South Wales Sporting Injury Committee.
www.playbytherules.net.au/ – Play by the Rules.
www.playsafeinitiative.ca/ – Play Safe Initiative.
www.smartplay.com.au – Smart Play.
www.sma.org.au – Sports Medicine Australia.
www.sportsinjurytracker.com.au/ – Sports Medicine Australia.
www.stopsportsinjuries.org/ – Sports Trauma and Overuse Prevention Initiated by the
American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine.
www.vichealth.vic.gov.au/Programs-and-Projects/Physical-Activity/Physical-activity-
programs/Healthy-Sporting-Environments.aspx – Vic Health.
www.vicsport.asn.au/Risk-Management/Sport-Injury-Risk-Management/ – Vic Sport.
www.sportsinjuryclinic.net – Virtual Sports Injury Clinic.