Introduction

Tensile test is one of the most important mechanical property evaluation test. In this test a cylindrical or a
plate shaped specimen is deformed by applying a uniaxial force as shown in the figure below. One end of
the sample is fixed in a static grip while the other end of the specimen is pulled at a constant velocity. The
load is continuously monitored during the test. It is usual to conduct this test until the sample fractures.
During the test, the instantaneous elongation of the sample can be calculated from the velocity of
deformation or can also be measured by using an extensometer.

The resulting output from such a test is recorded as load versus displacement/elongation and can be
graphically displayed as a load versus elongation curve. Load versus elongation curve is then converted to
engineering-stress versus engineering-strain curve to evaluate the tensile properties of materials. Very
often engineering-stress versus engineering-strain curves need to be converted to true-stress versus true-
strain curves.

The tensile properties that can be obtained from the stress-strain curves are yield strength, tensile strength,
fracture strength, percent total elongation, uniform elongation, strain hardening exponent, modulus of
resilience, and modulus of toughness.

Purpose :-

1.To study the stress-strain behavior of these three specimens

 2. To check adequacy of specimen according to British Standards

3. To determine mechanical properties of the sample e.g. yield strength, Modulus of elasticity and
ductility etc

Apparatus:-

1) 200 Ton Shimadzu Universal Testing Machine

2) Shimadzu Extenso- meter(L.C=0.001mm)
3) Spring divider
4) Vernier Callipers (L.C=0.05mm)
5) Weighing balance and steel tape

Related Theory:-

Iron ores:-

Magnetite Fe3O4 (70-75% Iron)

Hematite Fe2O3 (70% Iron)

Iron Pyrite FeS2 (45% Iron)

Siderite FeCO3

Steel:-

Steel is metal alloy that is mainly composed of iron and carbon.

Manufacturing Of Steel:-

Oxides of Iron +Flux Coke Pig Iron + water

2300ᶿC

Pig Iron + Admixture Molten Steel

This molten steel is molded into different sizes known as billets and ingots.

Classification Of Steel:-

Type Of Steel Carbon Content(%)

Low Carbon Steel 0.05-0.29
Medium Carbon Steel 0.3-0.59
High Carbon Steel 0.6-0.99
Ultra High Carbon Steel 1-2
Mild Steel 0.16-0.29

Chemical Composition of Mild Steel:-

Element Maximum %age

Carbon 0.29
Sulpher 0.06
Phosphorus 0.06

Various Ingredients And Their Functions:-

Ingredient Function
Nickel And Manganese Increase Tensile Strength Of Steel
Chromium It increases hardness and melting temperature of
steel. If present in amount greater than 10.5% it
resists corrosion
Vanadium It increases hardness and reduces metal fatigue

Properties Of Steel:-

Hardness:-

It is the property that enables to resist plastic deformation usually by penetration by

 Scratch
 Indentation (Resistance to Punching)
 Rebound
Ductility:

It is mechanically property indicating the extend to which material can be defomed plastically without
fracture.

It gives the warning before failurein any steel specimen. It is indicated by reduction in area and %age
elongation.

€ < 5% britlle
€ > 5% ductile

Tensile Properties

Tensile properties indicate how the material will react to forces being applied in tension. A tensile
test is a fundamental mechanical test where a carefully prepared specimen is loaded in a very controlled
manner while measuring the applied load and the elongation of the specimen over some distance. Tensile
tests are used to determine the modulus of elasticity, elastic limit, elongation, proportional limit, reduction
in area, tensile strength, yield point, yield strength and other tensile properties. The main product of a
tensile test is a load versus elongation curve which is then converted into a stress versus strain curve.
Since both the engineering stress and the engineering strain are obtained by dividing the load and
elongation by constant values (specimen geometry information), the load-elongation curve will have the
same shape as the engineering stress-strain curve.

Toughness

The ability of a metal to deform plastically and to absorb energy in the process before fracture is termed
toughness. The emphasis of this definition should be placed on the ability to absorb energy before
fracture. Recall that ductility is a measure of how much something deforms plastically before fracture, but
just because a material is ductile does not make it tough. The key to toughness is a good combination of
strength and ductility. A material with high strength and high ductility will have more toughness than a
material with low strength and high ductility. Therefore, one way to measure toughness is by calculating
the area under the stress strain curve from a tensile test. This value is simply called “material toughness”
and it has units of energy per volume. Material toughness equates to a slow absorption of energy by the
material.
Stress-Strain Curve:-

 True elastic limit is a very low value and is related to the motion of a few hundred dislocations.
Micro strain measurements are required to detect strain on order of 2 x 10 -6 in/in.
 Proportional limit is the highest stress at which stress is directly proportional to strain. It is
obtained by observing the deviation from the straight-line portion of the stress-strain curve.
 Elastic limit is the greatest stress the material can withstand without any measurable permanent
strain remaining on the complete release of load. It is determined using a tedious incremental
loading-unloading test procedure. With the sensitivity of strain measurements usually employed
in engineering studies (10 -4in/in), the elastic limit is greater than the proportional limit. With
increasing sensitivity of strain measurement, the value of the elastic limit decreases until it
eventually equals the true elastic limit determined from micro strain measurements.
 Yield strength is the stress required to produce a small-specified amount of plastic deformation.
The yield strength obtained by an offset method is commonly used for engineering purposes
because it avoids the practical difficulties of measuring the elastic limit or proportional limit.
 Ultimate Tensile Strength
 Ultimate strength is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or
pulled before failing or breaking. Tensile strength is the opposite of compressive strength and the
values can be quite different

 Fracture Strength A
fracture is the separation of an object or material into two, or more, pieces under the action of
stress. The fracture of a solid almost always occurs due to the development of certain
displacement discontinuity surfaces within the solid. If a displacement develops in this case
perpendicular to the surface of displacement, it is called a normal tensile crack or simply a crack;
 if a displacement develops tangentially to the surface of displacement, it is called a shear crack,
slip band, or dislocation

 Young’s Elastic Modulus

An elastic modulus, or modulus of elasticity, is the mathematical description of an object or substance's

tendency to be deformed elastically (i.e., non-permanently) when a force is applied to it. The elastic
modulus of an object is defined as the slope of its stress–strain curve in the elastic deformation region:[1]
As such, a stiffer material will have a higher elastic modulus.

Units:-The unit of modulus of rupture is MPa in SI unit system

 Modulus of Rupture
Ultimate strength determined in a flexure or torsion test. In a flexure test, modulus of rupture in bending
is the maximum fiber stress at failure. In a torsion test, modulus of rupture in torsion is the maximum
shear stress in the extreme fiber of a circular member at failure.
Units:-The unit of modulus of rupture is MPa in SI unit system

 Modulus Of Resilience

Resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy when it is deformedelastically, and release that
energy upon unloading. The modulus of resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be
absorbed per unit volume without creating a permanent distortion. It can be calculated by integrating the
stress-strain curve from zero to the elastic limit. In uniaxial tension,

whereUr is the modulus of resilience, σy is the yield strength, and E is the Young's modulus

Units:-The unit of modulus of rupture is MPa in SI unit system

Poisson’s Ratio:-

 Poisson's ratio ( ), named after Siméon Poisson, is the negative ratio of transverse to axial
strain

where
 is the resulting Poisson's ratio,
is transverse strain (negative for axial tension (stretching), positive for axial compression)
is axial strain (positive for axial tension, negative for axial compression).

 Unit less quantity

Proof stress:-

It is the stress corresponding to the yield point of the material having no clear indication of the yield
point and their yield point is got from graphical solution of the strain curve.

Methods of finding the yielding point:

There are four methods of finding yielding point

Halting of machine or drop of beam method:

The yield point during a simple tension test can be observed by halting of machine or drop of beam. This
method is suitable only for grade-40 steel , if apply it to grade-60 steel the yield point may not occur.
This method is not suitable for tor steel because there is no yielding phenomenon.

Offset method:

For the material that do not have a well defined yield point. Yield strength is determined by offset
method. This consists of drawing of a line parallel to initial tangent of the stress strain diagram at 0.2%
strain.(0.002m/m)

Specific strain method:

According to this method yielding occurs at 0.5% strain i.e yield stress is the stress corresponding to 0.5%
strain.
Luder line method:

According to this method during a simple tension test yielding takes place when small pieces of material
drop down from the outer periphery of the steel bar.

Cold work steel or Tor steel bar:

By applying the pre calculated twist to the hot rolled steel the Yielding portion is eliminated from the
stress strain curve. There is a permanent set in the steel after the twisting at normal temperature that is
why it is called cold twisted steel. Commercial name of cold twisted steel bar is Tor steel.

Advantage:

We can utilize full strength of the material.

Disadvantage:

As there is no yielding so failure is sudden.

Material quality is checked by twisting.

The main difference between cast iron and steel is of carbon contents. For steel 2% is the maximum limit
but for cast iron carbon contents varies from(2-4.5%)

Cast iron :-

Carbon contents for cast iron from 2% to 2.5% (it is main diference between cast iron and steel)

Physical properties:-

i. Its structure is coarse crystalline.

ii. It is brittle in nature.
iii. It cannot be welded .(not always true because if high temperature is available it can be welded)
iv. It does not rust.

Uses:

It is used for making rain water pipes, gratings and man hole cover.

Failure Modes:-

Failure Mode Of Mild Steel in Tension Test :

As mild steel is a ductile material which is weak in shear as compare to tension. So it should fail in shear.
As maximum shear stress is developed at 45o with the longitudinal axis therefore failure plane in mild
steel occurs at roughly 45o with the longitudinal axis.
Failure Mode of Cast iron in Tension Test:

It is brittle material which is weak in tension as compare to shear. So, it should fail in tension. The
max.tensile stress due to tensile loading develops at 90o with the longitudinal axis. Hence, cost iron fails
at 90o with the longitudinal axis.

Nominal diameter:

It is that diameter with which a bar is designated

Maximum Bar Length:-

Maximum length of bar is 12m(40ft)

Gage length:

It is the length between two marks on a bar whose tension test is to be performed. Ranges given by the
code

(a) For hot rolled steel bars

Gage length = 5d where d is the nominal diameter of bar

(b)For tor steel bars

Gage length=5.65√S where s is the Nominal X-sectional area of bar

%Age Elongation:-

The change in length per unit original length expressed in percentage

€=(Lf-Lo)/Lox100

Lf=Final Length Of Sample after rupture

Lo=Original Length Of Sample before rupture

%Age Reduction In Area:-

Reduction in x-sectional area per unit original area expressed in %age.

%Area=(Ao-Af)/Aox100

Ao=Original X-sectional area

Af=Reduced X-sectional area after rupture

Procedure of Tensile Test

The following procedure was adopted in ensuring that the data recorded from tensile test specimens was
taken in an organised and consistent manner.

1. Five specimens were chosen. Care is to be taken to ensure that the specimens did not have any notching
or cracks from manufacturing or any surface defects that would adversely affect the tensile tests.

2. Before loading the specimens in the Instron machine, the computer system connected to the machine
was set up by inputting the necessary information of gauge length and width of the specimen. The
computer system was then prepared to record data and output necessary load-deflection graphs.

3. The specimens were loaded into the Instron machine, and a tensile test was performed. The data was
recorded electronically in text files shown in Appendix B and the load-deflection curve was shown on the
computer screen as a visual representation. Figure 14 gives a visual representation of the apparatus and
the set-up used for testing.

Results