An Overview of Aluminum DC Billet Casting

Prepared by -- M.R. Jarrett, E.D. Manson-Whitton, and W.H. Neilson

The Luxfer Group

ABSTRACT --- This paper details the operational and technological developments of
the DC casting process for a high-volume commercial extrusion business. Improved
extrusion manufacturing efficiency is driving the need for better and more consistent
billet quality. This has necessitated significant technological and process development
of DC billet production, in order to produce extrusion ingot of predictable performance. A
thorough understanding is therefore required of the interaction of the equipment and
process technologies that impact on the metallurgical macro- and microstructure of the
DC cast ingot, and its subsequent performance in the extrusion process. The concept of
the limit diagram approach in quantifying billet performance will be used to highlight the
importance of optimizing billet quality.

INTRODUCTION
Primary Recyclable
Master Alloys
Aluminum Aluminum
The first commercial semicontinuous casting
machine for Al alloys was opened in Germany in
1936, following development of vertical continuous Alloy Composition
casting techniques for other metals, such as lead, Control, Furnace
[1] Fluxing Charge
since the middle 19th Century. Over the past fifty
years, the DC (Direct Chill) casting process has been Melting/
developed to become the predominant process for Transfer
[2,3]
extrusion billet production, with 6xxx alloy Alloy Composition Holding
extrusion billet accounting for a large percentage of Control Furnace
the throughput of worldwide aluminum DC casting
production.
Filtration, In-line treat- Metal Cleanliness,
Together with market-driven advancement, Degassing, ment during Grain Refinement,
Grain Refinement Hydrogen & Alkaline
environmental considerations are driving significant laundering
Metal Reduction
change in DC casting technology. The provision of
consistent high-quality DC cast billet of predictable
Solidification, As Cast
performance is of fundamental importance in Lubrication, Casting Micro/Macrostructure
operating extrusion presses at maximum efficiency, Mould Technology - Grain size
- Cell size
while meeting the stringent quality requirements of - 2nd phase particle
the market place. Several key factors affecting billet morphology
quality, that impact on extrusion performance, have
[4]
been previously described by Weaver, and Microstructural
[5] Homogen-
Langerweger, and more recently by Bryant and isation
Modification/
[6] Optimisation
Fielding. These emphasize the importance of
characterizing and control of the total process. A Figure 1. Schematic representation of a typical DC
schematic representation of a typical DC casting casting process.
process is shown in Figure 1. The key process
stages form the basis of the subsequent sections of The DC casting process from melting, through
this paper, which detail the critical aspects of both melt in-line treatment, casting, and homogenization is
equipment and process technology. discussed in terms of the present best practice and
promising novel techniques. The impact of best
practice on billet quality, and ultimately the impact on
extrusion, are also then discussed, utilizing the
extrusion limit diagram concept, the critical aspects of

85
which have been summarised by Parson, Hankin and
[7]
Bryant. All discussion is in the context of a high
throughput DC casting operation, concentrating on
6xxx series alloys.
DC BILLET PRODUCTION
Melting
Current standard DC casting facilities use melting
furnaces which are charged with a mixture of primary
and secondary scrap aluminum depending on target
billet specification. The molten metal is transferred to
a holding furnace before casting. The use of a
holding furnace maximizes efficiency by fully utilizing
melting time. The ideal configuration balances the
melting capacity of the furnaces with the casting
capacity of the DC casting machine. Alloying
additions are made in the melting furnace, in the
holding furnace, or during laundering to the holding
furnace. Better mixing is achieved if alloying
additions are made earlier, although there is a danger
of significant loss if additions are made to the melting
furnace, and unless additions can be made with the
furnace door closed, production time may be lost.
Both melting and holding furnaces can be
induction or gas heated. Gas is preferred for
efficiency, and for melt cleanliness as the 'churning'
resulting from induction heating can drag oxide
particles from the dross back into the melt. More
recently oxyfuel furnaces, burning gas with ~10%
oxygen have been introduced, although a well-
controlled gas furnace, incorporating either
regenerative or recuperative air heating systems to
maximize fuel efficiency, remains the industry
preference.
Furnaces can be fixed hearth or tilting. Fixed
hearth furnaces have a lower capital cost, but tilting
furnaces are preferred for metal cleanliness, process
control, and safety, as at any point the flow can be
stopped by resetting the furnace, whereas a fixed
hearth furnace requires manual plugging. Older fixed
hearth furnaces are generally being replaced with
tilting furnaces. A further advantage of tilting
furnaces is that they can be fully drained, allowing
greater flexibility for alloy changes.
Together with other areas of the DC casting
process, the environmental impact of furnaces is
being minimized by the reduction of particulate
emissions through more efficient furnace design (for
example, the use of regenerative burners) and, where
necessary, the use of equipment for the capture of
both particulate and noxious gaseous emissions.
86
Temperature control is of paramount importance
in casting, having a direct bearing on product quality
and production efficiency. The optimum melt delivery
temperature for 6xxx alloys is in the range 690°C to
750°C, and is product and plant specific.
Temperature measurement is predominantly through
use of either J- or K-type thermocouples. Other
methods of temperature measurement, such as
optical pyrometry, are used but encounter problems
with aluminum due to oxide skin formation.
Immersed thermocouples, however, remain the most
accurate, robust, and reliable technology. Heating
equipment is universally thermostatically controlled,
to maintain thermal efficiency and process control.
Molten Metal Pretreatment
For the purposes of this paper, molten metal
pretreatment, carried out in the melting or holding
furnace, has been distinguished from in-line
treatments given during laundering of the melt to the
casting machine.
[8]
The main purpose of fluxing is to clean the melt
by degassing and removal of oxides and other
inclusions. Other advantages of fluxing include the
production of a dry dross, which minimizes metal
losses during skimming. Fluxing, together with more
recent developments in dross reprocessing (pressing
and recycling), has led to improved recoveries in the
industry, whilst maintaining cleaner and more efficient
melting units.
Currently, two methods of fluxing are available,
using chlorine gas, or chlorine based salt. Injection of
gas (sometimes using a spinning nozzle) below the
surface of the melt has until recently been the
preferred method. However, environmental legislation
is now necessitating the phasing out of chlorine gas
use at the melting stage. The use of fluxing salts,
although a more mature technology than gas fluxing,
is now being re-evaluated as a replacement for
chlorine gas. However, there are still environmental
concerns over the chlorine and fluorine reaction
products produced which remain in the dross, and the
uncertain determination of potentially hazardous
products of reaction emitted to the environment from
the use of these fluxes. The need to reduce, and
eventually eliminate the use of chlorine in fluxes has
led to a gap in the market for an alternative
environmentally friendly fluxing method. Currently
there are no processes yet capable of commercial
operation.
In-line Metal Treatment
Certain melt treatments, namely grain refinement,
degassing, and filtration, must be given in-line during
laundering to the casting machine to accrue
maximum benefit. Grain refining inoculants have in
the past been added to the holding, or even melting
furnace. The disadvantages of this method include
fade (where the effectiveness of the grain refiner
decreases with time), and the formation of a boron
particle-rich sludge in the bottom of the furnace which
contaminates the metal, and leads to through length
variation in cleanliness and composition of the DC
cast log. Degassing and filtration are performed in
the launder such that there is minimum turbulent flow,
which can cause the reintroduction of oxides, before
the casting machine. Recent technological
developments of these techniques have been
[9]
reviewed by Fielding and Kavanaugh, who
emphasize the criticality of degassing and filtration in
the DC casting process.
Figure 2. System for automatic injection of grain
refiner rod into the melt during laundering to the
casting machine.
Grain Refinement. The purpose of grain refinement
is to produce a refined, equiaxed grain structure with
modified second phase particle morphology through
87
the thickness of the DC cast log. Current practice is
to use ~10ppm of Ti to give the most desirable grain
size of ~80-150µm. There are a number of
alternative grain refiners available, all based on Al,
the most common being: 6%Ti; 3%Ti; 5%Ti:0.1%B;
5%Ti:1%B; and 5%Ti:0.2%B. All these compositions
are in commercial use for a variety of applications
and products.
Best metal cleanliness is achieved if grain refiner
is added before degassing or filtration. Figure 2
shows a system for injection of grain refiner rod into
the launder, which can be controlled automatically to
give the desired rate of addition.
Universally the 5%Ti:1%B is the preferred
[10]
inoculant. As a result of this it has been
extensively researched leading to a number of
publications discussing in detail its capability as a
[11, 12]
grain refiner under various conditions. Its
Achilles heel, however, is the high boron content.
Boron is an insoluble element and boron particles are
prone to flocculate, forming large clusters which can
be deleterious to products in the form of pick-up, and
as an abrasive to dies. To counter the problem of
boron inclusions, it is advised to inoculate at a
reduced rate that accounts for the boron content of
the recycled aluminum.
250
Average grain size (µm)
200
150
Target
Grain size
100
50
00 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020
Increasing Ti%
Figure 3. Average grain size (determined at
mid-radius) as a function of total melt titanium content
for a 180mm diameter 6063 billet following in-line
inoculation with 5%Ti:1%B rod.
Figure 3 shows the effect of Ti content on grain
size for a typical 5:1 grain refiner achieving the target
[13]
grain size. In addition to grain size modification,
experiments have shown that the morphology of the
insoluble iron-rich phase can be influenced, not only
by grain refiner base composition, but also by the
supplier. (The presence of the iron-rich phase in the
form of α-script has been shown to affect adversely
[14]
extrusion surface quality by increasing pick-up ).
This would indicate that the nucleation mechanism of to previous levels of ~0.3-0.4cc/100g. Figure 7, for
the iron rich particles is strongly influenced by the example, shows the hydrogen content of a melt
grain refinement process. This effect is currently measured before and after passing through the Alpur
being investigated to gain an understanding of the degasser shown in Figure 5.
process. Figure 4 is a plot of α-script occurrence for
different grain refiners, and shows that the choice of
grain refiner can have a significant effect on the
amount of α-script in the microstructure.

3
2
No. Script per mm

0
A A B C1 C2
5:1 3:1 3:1 5:1 5:1
Figure 5. The Alpur degasser in use at British
Aluminum Extrusions, Banbury, UK.
Grain Refiner
2
Figure 4. Number of α-script particles per mm for
different grain refiners produced by three different
suppliers (shown respectively A, A, B, C1, C2).

The most promising new grain refiner currently

[15,16,17]
available is titanium carbide, which, in addition
to eliminating the boron contamination issues, is
reported to overcome problems of poisoning by Zr
and Cr containing alloys, yet is as effective in
[15]
reducing grain size as titanium boride. Closer
temperature control is, however, required in using
titanium carbide and thus commercial implementation
may require adjustment to processing control.
Individual plants are currently evaluating the use of
titanium carbide.

Other novel methods of grain refinement include

[18]
Nb additions , and physical methods, which retard
formation of and break up dendrites, such as
[19]
ultrasonic vibration , sump displacement, and
[20]
electromagnetic stirring.
Figure 6. Schematic of the SNIF R-140 degasser
Degassing. Most high-quality casthouses now use showing two chambers.
in-line spinning nozzle degassing systems for the
removal of hydrogen. The most common systems Both Alpur and SNIF systems, when using
are the Alpur (Pechinney) and SNIF (Foseco), chlorine gas, have also been shown to reduce oxide
however some patents are now ending, and inclusions by ~50%. They will reduce the overall
enterprising companies are designing their own volume fraction of inclusions, and through the stirring
[9]
systems based on existing and new technology. An action will break up coarse borides. However, as a
example of an Alpur degasser is shown in Figure 5, result of this, the number density of particles can
and a schematic of a SNIF degasser is shown in increase. Improved process control using multi-
Figure 6. Efficiencies of spinning nozzle type chamber SNIF and Alpur systems, incorporating two-
degassers are very high, and they can deliver way metal flow and controlled Ar and Cl gas mixtures
hydrogen levels of less than ~0.1cc/100g, compared

88
have, however, demonstrated significantly improved Glass cloths are also used, but remove only the
levels of particle removal. Figure 8 shows inclusion coarsest particles, and their primary purpose is to
levels of 6063 casts before and after passing through give a uniform distribution of metal during the start of
the Alpur degasser shown in Figure 5. casts using the dip tube and float configuration. The
Alcan bed filter is viewed as being a particularly
0.6 efficient system, and comprises a layered bed of
graduated ceramic spheres through which the metal
passes. Particles are trapped at the interstices
0.5
between spheres.
Hydrogen Content (ml/100g)

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
6063
6060
6060
6060
6060

6063
6063
6063
6063
6063
6063
6063
6082
6082
6063
6063
6063
6063

Figure 9. Schematic of a porous tube filter. Metal

flows into the box and is filtered through the walls of a
Alloy
cartridge of porous tubes.
Figure 7. Hydrogen content of 6xxx alloys measured
before (grey) and after (black) passing through an CFFs work in much the same way as the Alcan
Alpur degasser. Bed Filter, but are less effective because of the
shorter distance through which the metal flows. They
1.4 allow flexibility as they are discarded after each cast,
and are widely used as secondary filters.
1.2
Inclusion Content (mm /kg)

The newest filtration development, shown in

[21]
Figure 9, is the porous tube filtration system which
2

1.0
filters more effectively than the ABF or CFF systems.
0.8
PTF filtration is currently used for quality-critical
finished products such as photocopier tubes. Figure
10 shows a comparison of inclusion content following
0.6
filtration with (a) CFF and (b) PTF, showing an order
of magnitude difference. Both the ABF and PTF will
0.4
eventually block and therefore a continuous
maintenance program is required in order to sustain
0.2 maximum performance, and are best used in
conjunction with an in-line degasser.
0
6063

6063

6063

6063

6063

6063

6063

6063

Alloy
Figure 8. Inclusion levels of 6063 before (grey) and
after (black) passing through an Alpur degasser.

Filtration. There are a number of filtration methods

[9]
in use throughout the industry. The most common
methods are those that rely upon oxide entrapment
by the tortuous route the aluminum must take as it
travels though the filtration medium. These methods
can be classified as: Ceramic Foam Filters (CFF);
Alcan Bed Filter (ABF); and Porous Tube Filter (PTF).

89
 180 Casting
CFF
PTF
Configuration. The three main casting configurations
160
in commercial use are dip tube and float, hot top, and
[3]
airslip. Within each of these general systems, many
140 variations have been individually developed.
.

120
Inclusion content (K/kg)

Dip tube
100
Float
80 Molten metal

Cooling water
60

40
Solid metal
20
Figure 11. Schematic of the dip tube and float
0 configuration for DC casting.
0 20 40 60
Figure 11 shows an illustration of the casting
Time (minutes)
configuration for a typical dip tube and float system.
(a) Although this system has been in use for much longer
0.5
than hot top and airslip and is gradually being
CFF
replaced, thousands of tonnes of good quality
aluminum billet for a wide diversity of markets are still
0.45 PTF
cast through this system annually.
0.4
The dip tube and float system remains popular
because of its low capital cost, ease of maintenance
Inclusion content (K/kg)

0.35 and fast turnaround in casting preparation. Billet can

consistently be produced with desirable macro- and
0.3 microstructure. Good surface quality can be achieved
using either grease or continuous lubrication. Mold
0.25 type is critical, and aluminum molds must have a
sustained maintenance program to ensure consistent
0.2 surface quality, whereas graphite lined molds require
minimal maintenance to achieve good surface quality,
0.15 and improved shell.

0.1 The drawbacks of the dip tube and float system

are partly a result of the turbulent metal flow, leading
0.05 to oxide entrainment, and occasional blocking of the
dip tube. The major disadvantage of the system is
0 the unavoidable presence of a shell zone, which must
0 20 40 60 be minimized to reduce the impact on extrusion
recovery.
Time (minutes)

(b) The hot top system, shown in Figure 12, reduces

Figure 10. Inclusion content following filtration by (a)
ceramic foam filter (average inclusions ~40K/kg), and
(b) porous tube filter (average inclusions ~0.1K/kg).
turbulent flow but does not eliminate the shell zone
and its associated problems. Molds tend to be either
graphite or ceramic for ease of maintenance, and are
again lubricated by either grease or continuous
lubrication systems depending on cast length.

90
 Molten metal

Insulation

Cooling water

Solid metal

(a)
Figure 12. Schematic of the hot top casting
configuration for DC casting.

In both dip tube and float and hot top

configurations, the deleterious shell zone can be
minimized by casting with a low metal height in the
mold and using an appropriately high casting speed.
Under optimum conditions the shell zone can be
controlled to a thickness of less than ~10mm, but
cannot be eliminated.

The shell zone, shown in Figure 13 for

conventional dip tube and float casting, results from (b)
the region of slow cooling within the mold, between
the meniscus and point of water impingement, where
the air gap acts as effective insulation. Generally, the
deeper the mold the longer the air gap and the
deeper the shell zone. The airslip system, shown in
Figure 14, was developed in response to this issue,
and is so named because the annulus around which
the billet is formed is a pressurized system, and the
metal flowing into the mold does not touch the mold
but is suspended on an air/lubricant film over which it
slips. Solidification in an airslip mold then is not
influenced by heat transfer through the mold but (c)
through the air/lubrication gap, and together with a Figure 13. Microstructure of as DC cast (dip tube
short mold, the system effectively eliminates the shell and float) 6082 (a) edge showing inverse
zone, and minimizes surface inverse segregation. segregation, (b) ~5mm from the edge showing large
Figure 15 shows the shell zone in conventional dip grains in the shell zone, and (c) in the center of the
tube and float DC cast billet, and elimination of the billet.
shell zone using airslip technology. Figure 16 shows
the shell zone thickness as a function of effective
[22]
mold depth. Molten metal

Graphite insert
Air/Lubricant
Air gap
Cooling water

Solid metal

Figure 14. Schematic of the airslip DC casting

configuration.

91

(a)
(b)
Figure 15. Anodized sections through 180mm DC
cast billet (a) conventional dip tube and float showing
shell zone, and (b) airslip with no shell zone.
Increased billet quality, with resultant improved
extrusion recoveries from reduced discards, through
the use of airslip is achieved at the expense of a
higher capital cost and maintenance. Balancing of
the pressurized system can, however, be
problematic, and gas, while always shown as
escaping downwards, can under some conditions
escape upwards, leading to oxidation of the molten
metal stream feeding the mold. The system is
undergoing continuing development by suppliers and
92
20
Conventional
mould
15
Shell depth (mm)
Low metal level/
10 short mould
5
Airslip
0
0 20 40 60 80
Effective mould depth (mm)
Figure 16. Shell depth as a function of effective mold
depth for conventional configurations, and airslip
[22]
which can eliminate shell entirely.
will certainly play an increasingly major role in DC
casting in future.
Casting speed. Casting speed is optimized for both
productivity and quality. Cast speeds vary with ingot
-1
size and alloy type from 50 to 150mm min in the
general ingot size range from 400 to 150mm
diameter. Start speeds are nominally 10 percent
lower than the final cast speed and are controlled to
lessen the effect of high-stress-induced centerline
cracking at the start of the cast. This is also
controlled by careful design of stool shape. Ramping
to the final speed is PLC controlled.
Cooling. Water is the universal coolant for all DC
casting systems. It must be supplied at a rate which
continuously removes the film of boiling water
adjacent to the billet skin, promoting nucleate boiling
[23]
to give a continuous, uniform cooling of the ingot.
Systems have been developed to slow cool at the
[1]
start of the cast and reduce billet internal stresses.
Alcoa, Alcan and Reynolds have devised their own
methods (CO2, pulsed water, and air mixture
[1, 3]
respectively). These systems rarely extend
beyond the influence of their plants. Universally, the
water flow rate for billet production is in the range 0.8
to 1 gallon per minute per inch (1.42 to 1.77 liters per
minute per cm) of mold circumference. Temperature
ranges of delivered water can vary depending on
supply from ambient (0-25°C depending on season )
to constant temperatures of ~25°C where control or
recycling is used. Water temperature is an important
variable in achieving microstructural control.
 Water composition is rarely viewed as a
controlled factor, but the influence of composition is
considered to be a potentially important factor.
Contamination by lubricants is controlled for
environmental reasons only, although it may have an
influence on billet cooling rate, and therefore on
microstructural development.
Analytical Systems and Process Control. All
casting systems are now controlled by PLC systems.
The list of factors which can be monitored and
controlled is extensive. As computing power
increases, so does the amount of information that can
be collected and stored. This information can be
used, not only for on-line monitoring, but as a
valuable management tool for continuous
improvement.
An example of what can be measured as metal
flows though a casting plant is as follows: charge
weight and make up; charging time; melting time and
time at temperature; transfer temperature, time and
weight; casting temperature; metal level; stool height
in the mold (ram position); degassing parameters
such as gas pressure, speed, and temperature;
furnace tilt; casting speed including start speed and
ramp time; cast time; launder temperature; water
temperature and flow rate; inoculation rate; log
length, weight, and number; homogenizer time in,
temperature, time out; and cooling rate following
homogenization. Modern systems also provide
condition monitoring of key equipment so as to
provide early warning of potential equipment failure
and to aid maintenance and total productive
maintenance (TPM) activities.
Melt composition and temperature are probably
the two most crucial parameters in DC casting which
must be measured and controlled. Compositional
control starts with charge composition, which varies
with the amount and quality of scrap and primary
metal used. For cost efficiency, the greatest quantity
of scrap of a known quality is used which still
maintains final billet quality. Primary aluminum (to
purity specification based on a combination of iron
and silicon content e.g. 99.7% Fe+Si=0.3%max.) and
sometimes commercial scrap, make up the rest of the
charge. Following melting, a sample is taken from
the furnace and analyzed, compositional adjustment
is then made by introduction of primary aluminum, to
dilute elements in concentrations greater than alloy
compositional limits impose, and/or master alloys
which contain high concentrations of alloying
elements, to bring the composition up to specification.
93
Master alloys are available as element-rich
aluminum ingot, element-rich tablets, or ‘pure’ alloys
(e.g., Mg, Si). The choice is dependent on furnace
size, and method and position of addition. To
increase melting capacity, additions can be made in
the launder or holding furnace, although this requires
an initially dilute charge, as alloying element
concentrations can only be increased using this
method.
Control of elements within most alloys is
nominally ±0.03%. However, extrusion customers are
increasingly specifying both tighter tolerances and
capping of deleterious impurity elements to attain
their own process consistency.
Figure 17. Typical batch homogenizer for aluminum
DC cast billets.
[26]
HOMOGENIZATION
Homogenization of DC cast billet is necessary to
achieve an optimized microstructure for ease of
extrusion. An ideal homogenization treatment
eliminates microsegregation, modifies the insoluble
particle morphology, and on cooling precipitates a
fine dispersion of Mg2Si, which, by removing Mg and
Si from solution lowers the flow stress of the billet but
allows full redissolution during extrusion.
Homogenization is typically performed at
temperatures between 500 and 595°C for times of 1
to 4 hours, and is dependent upon the degree of
microstructural refinement and homogeneity required.
Following the high-temperature soak, air cooling or
water quenching is used, and a controlled cooling
rate is critical in achieving the ideal Mg2Si size,
[24, 25]
morphology and distribution.
Traditionally, batch homogenization is used,
shown in Figure 17, with the disadvantage of
temperature variations from log to log and along the
same log with position in the furnace, leading to
variations in microstructure and mechanical
properties from billet to billet. Recently, commercial,
fully-automated continuous homogenization furnaces
 [26]
have been introduced, shown in Figure 18, which
virtually eliminate many of the problems associated
with batch homogenization. In the future, continuous
homogenization will allow delivery to the extruder of
billet with microstructure and flow stress controlled to
within very tight limits.
Figure 18. An example of a continuous homogenizer,
allowing greater control and flexibility than a batch
[26]
homogenizer.
SUMMARY
Extruders demand not only high-quality DC cast
billet, but also consistency of quality and mechanical
properties (most notably flow stress) from billet to
billet and batch to batch. All technological
development is aimed at achieving this, while keeping
costs low and ensuring environmental targets are
met.
Consistently high billet quality achieved through
controlled production allows maximum recovery
through elimination of quality based rejections and
minimization of top and tail discard and scalping (if
required).
Developments in equipment and process
technology have provided the potential for significant
improvements in billet quality. The most significant
being:
• Airslip mold technology,
• In-line multichamber degassing systems,
• Grain refinement, e.g., TiC, ultrasonics,
• Porous tube filtration, and
• Continuous homogenization.
These provide the processing capability to
continually optimise billet quality through the following
factors.
94
Microstructural Optimization
The ability to manipulate the as-cast
microstructure through controlled solidification and
grain refinement techniques, coupled with an ability to
apply accurate heating and cooling cycles to
individual logs during continuous homogenization,
gives the capability to optimize billet microstructure
for specific products or processes. Ultimately the
need for a homogenization treatment, separate to
billet preheat, may be negated if sufficient
microstructural refinement is achieved during casting.
This will only be achieved, however, through a
fundamental understanding of the nucleation and
growth mechanisms taking place during solidification
under the influence of: (i) temperature and time; (ii)
alloy chemistry; (iii) inoculant chemistry; and (iv)
physical turbulence eg. deliberate dendrite breakage.
Moreover, the effective removal of the shell zone
using airslip technology provides the extruder with an
increased capability of achieving maximum recovery
by drastically reducing extrusion billet discard size.
Utilization of knowledge base engineering
techniques relating thermophysical models with a
predictive microstructural capability will play an ever
increasing role in process optimization, in realizing
the precise microstructural control needed for
maximum extrusion efficiency.
In-Line Metal Cleanliness
Removal of hydrogen, residual alkaline metals,
and nonmetallic inclusions using the next generation
in-line degasser systems, may remove the need for
final filtration other than for the most critical
applications. Control of molten metal turbulence
throughout the casting cycle provides further
opportunity for cleanliness improvement, by reducing
the formation and entrainment of oxide inclusions.
Considerable benefits, for example in structural
integrity, have been achieved for foundry casting by
minimizing oxide formation through carefully
designed runners and gating systems. Full
characterization of the DC casting process is required
to fully understand the potential improvement to be
derived from improved metal flow. In order to
produce the cleanest metal, however, best-available
technology would suggest the incorporation of the
porous tube filter in conjunction with an in-line
degassing system.
Impact on Extrusion
With a supply of reliable high-quality billet with
tailored microstructures and consistent flow stress,
the extruder can operate presses at maximum
efficiency and minimum cost. Figure 19 shows a be coupled with a strong research and development
typical speed and surface quality limit diagram for capability in order to provide the fundamental science
extrusion of 6063. Such extrusion limit diagrams are necessary for full exploitation of the technology.
a valuable aid in evaluating extrusion and maximizing Indeed, without these processes, optimization of the
productivity within the bounds of avoidance of surface technological advances will be stifled. It is therefore
defects, specific pressure requirements, and essential in order to maximize the impact of
attainment of mechanical properties. Figure 19 technology within the business, that these processes
shows that maximum productivity is achieved by be undertaken simultaneously with effective
extruding under conditions at the apex of the triangle communication and technology transfer processes in
bounded by insufficient pressure, and inadequate place.
surface. Thus, in respect to Figure 19, high quality
and consistent billet can increase extrusion CONCLUSIONS
productivity in two ways. Firstly, the position of the
apex can be raised by improved billet microstructure A supply of high-quality extrusion billet with
leading to lower susceptibility to tearing and pickup. predictable and controllable microstructure and
Secondly, more consistent billet properties allow mechanical properties is essential for any competitive
press operation much closer to the theoretical extrusion business.
maximum speed without the risk of defects leading to
expensive quality rejections. Key advances in equipment and process
technology provide the technical solutions to control
140 billet quality to precise limits of performance. The
most significant technological advances are currently:
Extrusion speed (m/min)

Insufficient Inadequate
120 pressure surface
Dilute alloy • Airslip mold technology,
100 More available • In-line multichamber degassing systems,
pressure
80 Dilute alloy • New grain refinement techniques, e.g., TiC,
High ratio
Thinner Complex shape
ultrasonics,
60
section
Pick-up
• Porous tube filtration, and
Inadequate Tearing • Continuous homogenization.
40
mechanical Surface melting
properties More critical surface
20 The optimization of DC cast billet requires an
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 holistic approach to the continual development of the
Billet temperature (°C) technology through:
Figure 19. A typical extrusion limit diagram for 6063.
• The mechanistic quantification of the critical
In addition to maximizing productivity, consistent process stages through laboratory scale
high quality billet allows the extruder to supply a more optimization and in plant trials,
consistent product to their customers, while • An effective technology transfer process
maximising recovery due to improvements in planned translating innovative technology to robust
and unplanned scrap. Assurance of quality also industrial practice,
allows the extruder to design to tighter limits, for • A proactive in-plant continuous improvement
example reducing wall thickness while maintaining culture, and
mechanical property requirements, and improving • Precise characterization of extrusion
through-batch consistency, for example, in the equipment and process capabilities with
automotive market. Mechanical property effective evaluation and performance
requirements of ±5MPa proof stress variations within measures.
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