EC 8395

COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
 UNIT-I ANALOG MODULATION

PART - A
1. Define amplitude modulation.(APR/MAY’17) [R]
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of a carrier signal is varied according to variations
in amplitude of modulating signal.
The AM signal can be represented mathematically as, eAM = (Ec + Emsinωmt)sinωct
And the modulating index is given as, m = Em / Ec

2. Define the term modulation index for AM. [R]

Modulation index indicates the depth of modulation. As the amplitude of
modulating signal increases, modulation index increases. For amplitude modulation, the
modulation index is given as,
m = Em / Ec = Amplitude of modulating signal / Amplitude of the carrier
And for frequency modulation,
m = δ/ƒm = Maximum frequency deviation / Modulating frequency

3. Calculate percentage modulation in AM if carrier amplitude is 20 V and modulating

signal is of 15V. [A]

Here Em= 15V

Ec = 20V
Modulation index, m = Em / Ec
= 15/20 = 0.75
Percentage modulation = m * 100 = 75%

4. Define AM draw its spectrum. [R]

Amplitude of the carrier signal varies according to amplitude variations in modulating signal.
Spectrum: Fig shows the spectrum of AM signal. It consists of carrier (ƒ c) and two sidebands at ƒc
± ƒm .
Ec

mEc /2 mEc /2

ƒc - ƒm ƒc ƒc + ƒm

Fig: Spectrum of AM wave

5. Sketch the block diagram for generating FM signal using PM modulator and PM signal
using FM modulator.
(or)
What is the relationship between phase modulation and frequency modulating?
Apr/ May 2018[U]
 Integrator Phase
em (t ) modulator
FM output

Differentiat Frequency
em (t ) or modulator
PM output

6. The equation of an AM wave is, e AM = 100[1 + 0.7cos (3000t/2π) + 0.3cos(6000t/2π)

sin(106t/2π)]. Find the amplitude and frequency of various sideband terms. [A]
The given equation can also written as
eAM = [100 + 70cos(3000t/2π) + 30cos(6000t/2π)] sin(106t/2π)
Here , Em1 = 70 and ω1 = 3000/2π rad/sec
Em2 = 30 and ω2 = 6000/2π rad/sec
Ec = 100 and ωc = 106/2π rad/sec
Hence, m1 = Em1/Ec = 70/100 = 0.7
m2 = Em2/Ec = 30/100 = 0.3
Ec = 100

(m1Ec)/2 (m1Ec)/2=35

(m2Ec)/2 (m2Ec)/2=15

ωc-6000/2π ωc-3000/2π ωc=106/2π ωc+3000/2π ωc+6000/2π

Fig shows the frequency spectrum

7. What is the difference between high level and low level modulation? [U]
In high level modulation, the modulator amplifier operates at high power levels and
delivers power directly to the antenna. In low level modulation, the modulator amplifier performs
modulation at relatively low power levels. The modulated signal is then amplified to high power
level by class B power amplifier. The amplifier feeds power to antenna.

8. Define detection / demodulation. [R]

Detection is the process of extracting modulating signal from the modulated carrier.
Different types of detectors are used for different types of modulations.
(or)
Demodulation or detection is the process by which modulating voltage is recovered from
the modulated signal. It is the reverse process of modulation.

9. What are two major limitations of the standard form of amplitude modulation? [U]
a) Most of the power is transmitted in the carrier. Hence AM is less efficient.
 b) Because of amplitude variations in AM signal, the effect of noise is more.

10. Define frequency modulation. [R]

Frequency modulation is defined as the process by which the frequency of the carrier wave
is changed in accordance with the instantaneous value of the message signals.

11. Define modulation index for FM. [R]

Modulation index is defined as the ratio of maximum frequency deviation to the
modulating frequency.

12. Define frequency deviation. [R]

Frequency deviation is the change in frequency that occurs in the carrier when it is acted on
by a modulating signal frequency. The frequency deviation is typically given as the peak
frequency shift in Hertz (Δf).

13. What is the effect of increasing modulation index in FM? [U]

In FM, the total transmitted power always remains constant. But with increased depth of
modulation, the required bandwidth is increased.

14. What are the advantages of FM over AM? [U]

a) The amplitude of FM is constant. It is independent of depth of modulation. Hence transmitter
power remains constant in FM whereas it varies in AM.
b) Since amplitude of FM is constant, the noise interference is minimum in FM. Any noise
superimposing amplitude can be removed with the help of amplitude limits. Whereas it is difficult
to remove amplitude variations due to noise in AM.
c) The depth of modulation has limitation in AM. But in FM the depth of modulation can be
increased to any value by increasing the deviation. This does not cause any distortion in FM
signal.
d) Since guard bands are provided in FM, there is less possibility of adjacent channel interference.
e) Since space waves are used for FM, the radius of propagation is limited to line of sight. Hence it
is possible to operate several independent transmitters on same frequency with minimum
interference.
f) Since FM uses UHF and VHF ranges, the noise interference is minimum compared to AM
which uses MF and HF ranges.

15. What do we understand by narrowband FM? [U]

When the modulation index is less than 1, the angle modulated systems are called low index. The
bandwidth requirement of low index systems is approximately twice of the modulating signal
frequency. Therefore low index systems are called narrowband FM.

16. State Carson’s rule of FM bandwidth. [R]

Carson’s rule of FM bandwidth is given as,
BW = 2(δ + ƒm (max))
Here δ is the maximum frequency deviation and ƒ m (max) is the maximum signal frequency.

17. Differentiate between narrow band FM and wideband FM. [U]

In narrowband FM, the frequency deviation is very small. Hence the frequency spectrum
consists of two major sidebands like AM. Other sidebands are negligible and hence they can be
neglected. Therefore the bandwidth of narrowband FM is limited only to twice of highest
modulating frequency.If the deviation in carrier frequency is large enough so that other sidebands
cannot be neglected, then it is called wideband FM. The bandwidth of wideband FM is calculated
as per Carson’s rule.

18. What are the degrees of modulation? [R]

Under modulation m<1
Critical modulation m=1
Over modulation m>1

19. Define Under modulation. [R]

In this case the modulation index m<1, (i.e.)Vm<Vc. The envelope of AM signal does not
reach the zero amplitude axis. Hence the message signal is fully preserved in the envelope of the
AM wave. This is known as under modulation.

20. Define PM. (APR/MAY’17) [R]

In phase modulation, the phase of the carrier varies according to amplitude variations of the
modulating signal. The PM signal can be expressed mathematically as,
ePM = Ecsin(ωct+ mpsinωmt)
Here mp is the modulation index for phase modulation. It is given as,
mp = Φm
Here Φm is the maximum value of phase change.

21. How do you get FM using PM system? [U]

The frequency modulated wave can be obtained from PM system. This is done by
integrating the modulating signals before applying it to the phase modulators

22. What is meant by indirect method of FM generation? [R]

In the indirect method, Fm is obtained from PM. The phase modulated signal can be
represented as,
ePM = Ecsin(ωct+ m cosωmt)
The instantaneous angular frequency ω of above signal is given as,
ω = dθ(t) / dt = d/dt [ωct+ m cosωmt] = ωc- m sinωmt * ωm
Or
ƒp = ƒc - mƒm sin(2πƒmt)
= ƒc + Δƒ where Δƒ = mƒm sin(2πƒmt)
Thus modulated signal frequency has deviation of Δƒ with respect to ƒc . And
Δƒ = mƒm sin(2πƒmt)
Hence maximum deviation is,
Δƒ = mƒm
If ƒm remains constant, then frequency deviation will be directly proportional to m. Thus as long as
modulating frequency does not change, phase modulation produces FM output.

23. A 107.6 MHZ carrier is frequency modulated by a 7 kHZ sine wave. The resultant FM
signal has a frequency of 50 kHZ Determine the modulation index of the FM wave. [A]
Here δ = 50 kHZ and ƒm = 7 kHZ .
Modulation index = δ/ƒm = 50/7 = 7.142
24. An AM broadcast transmitter radiates 9.5 KW of power with the carrier unmodulated
and 10.925 KW when it is sinusoidally modulated. Calculate the modulation index. [A]
Ptotal = 10.925 KW, Pc = 9.5 KW
P 
m= 2 total 1
 Pc 
 10.925 
m= 2 1 = 0.54
 9.5 

25. A broadcast radio transmitter radiates 5 KW power when the modulation percentage
is 60%. How much is the carrier power? [A]
Ptotal = 5 KW, m = 0.6, Pc =?
 m2 
Ptotal = Pc 1  
 2 
 0.62 
5 KW = Pc 1  
 2 
Pc = 4.237 KW.

26. The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8 A when only carrier is sent, but it
increases to 8.96 A when the carrier is modulated by a single tone sinusoid. Find the
percentage modulation. [A]
Here Itotal = 8.96 A and Ic = 8 A.
m2
Itotal = Ic 1 
2
m2
8.96 = 8 1 
2
m = 0.713

27. If a modulated wave with an average voltage of 20 Vp changes in amplitude  5

V,determine the maximum and minimum envelope amplitudes and the modulation
coefficients. [A]
Emax = 20 + 5 = 25 V
Emin = 20 – 5 = 15 V
Emax - Emin
Modulation index =
Emax  Emin
25 - 15
= = 0.25
25  15
28. Differentiate FM and AM. [U]

Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation

1. Amplitude of the carrier is varied according to
amplitude of modulating signal.
2. AM has poor fidelity due to narrow band.
3. Most of the power is in carrier hence less efficient.
Frequency of the carrier is varied according
to amplitude of modulating signal.
Since the bandwidth is large, fidelity is
better.
All the transmitted power is useful.

4. Noise interference is more. Noise interference is minimum.

5. Adjacent channel interference is present. Adjacent channel interference is avoided.

6. AM broadcast operates in MF and HF range. FM broadcast operates in VHF and UHF

range.
7. In AM only carrier and two sidebands are present. Infinite numbers of sidebands are present.

8. The transmission equipment is simple. The transmission equipment is complex.

9. Transmitted power varies according to modulation Transmitted power remains constant

index. irrespective of modulation index.
10. Depth of modulation has limitation. It cannot be Depth of modulation has no limitation. It
increased above 1. can be increased by increasing frequency
deviation

29. An angle modulated signal is described by xc(t) = 10 cos [2π (106) t + 0.1 sin (103)πt]
considering xc(t) as PM signal with kp = 10, find m (t). [A]
The phase modulated signal is expressed as,
e(t) = Ec sin [ωct+kEm cosωmt]
It can also be expressed by alternate equation as,
xc(t) = Ec cos [ωct+kEm sinωmt]
Comparing above equation with given equation,
0 .1 0 .1
kEm = 0.1 since kp = k = 10, Em = = = 0.01
k 10
And m(t) = Em sinωmt
= 0.01 sin 103 πt

30. What is the need for pre-emphasis in FM transmission? [U]

The noise has greater effect on higher modulating frequencies than on lower ones. The
effect of noise on higher frequencies can be artificially boosting them at the transmitter and
correspondingly attenuating them at the receiver. Thus is pre-emphasis.

31. Illustrate the relationship between frequency modulation and phase modulation.
[U]
In phase modulation, instantaneous phase deviation, θ(t) is proportional to the modulating
signal voltage. In frequency modulation, instantaneous frequency deviation is given as time
derivative of θ(t). This frequency deviation θ’(t) is proportional to modulating signal voltage. Thus,
θ(t) = kem(t) = kEm cosωmt
 Em
and θ’(t) = k1 sin m t
m
32. A carrier is frequency modulated with a sinusoidal signal of 2 kH Z resulting in a
maximum frequency deviation of 5 kHZ .
Find 1) Modulation index 2) Bandwidth of the modulating signal [A]
Given data: Modulating frequency ƒ m = 2 kHZ
Maximum frequency deviation δ = 5 kHZ
1) Modulation index = mf = δ/ƒm
5  103
= = 2.5
2  103
2) Bandwidth of the modulating signal
BW = 2(δ + ƒm (max))
Here ƒm (max) is the maximum modulating frequency, which is given as 2 kH Z .
Hence,
BW = 2( 5 103 + 2  103 ) = 14 kHz.

33. Calculate the bandwidth of commercial FM transmission assuming Δƒ = 75 kH z and

W = 15 kHz. [A]
Here δ = Δƒ = 75 kHz
And ƒm (max)) = W = 15 kHz
BW = 2(δ + ƒm (max))
= 2[75+15] kHz = 180 kHz

34. An FM transmitter has a rest frequency ƒc = 96 MHZ and a deviation sensitivity K1 =

4 kHZ/V. [A]
Determine the frequency deviation for a modulating signal V m (t) = 8sin (2π2000t). Determine the
modulation index.
Compare Vm (t) = 8 sin (2π2000t) with Em (t) = Em sin (2π ƒmt), then we get,
Em = 8 V and ƒm= 2000 HZ , k1= 4 kHz/V.
Total frequency deviation = δ = k1  Em = 4 kHZ/V  8 V = 32 kHz.
32 kHZ
Modulation index, m = δ/ƒm = = 16
2000 HZ

35. For an FM receiver with an input frequency deviation Δƒ = 40 kHz and a transfer
ratio K = 0.01 V/kHZ, determine Vout. [A]
Output voltage is given as,
Vo = K  δ
= 0.01  40 Here Δƒ = δ = 40 kHz
= 0.4 V

36. Why carrier frequencies are generally selected in HF range than low frequency range?
[U]
The antenna size is very large at low frequencies. Such antenna is practically not
possible to fabricate. High carrier frequencies require reasonable antenna size for transmission and
reception. High frequencies can be transmitted using tropospheric scatter propagation, which is
used to travel long distances.
 37. Why is FM superior to AM in performance? [U]
i). In AM system the bandwidth is finite. But FM system has infinite number of sidebands
in addition to a single carrier.
ii). In FM system all the transmitted power is useful whereas in AM most of the
transmitted power is used by the carrier.
iii). Noise is very less in FM; hence there is an increase in the signal to noise ratio.

38. What is single tone and multi tone modulation? [U]

If modulation is performed for a message signal with more than one frequency component
then the modulation is called multi tone modulation.
If modulation is performed for a message signal with one frequency component then the
modulation is called single tone modulation.

39. Define instantaneous phase deviation [R]

The instantaneous phase deviation is the instantaneous change in phase of the carrier at a
given instant of time and it indicates how much the phase of the carrier is changing with respect to
the reference phase.

40. Define percent modulation for angle modulation [R]

The percent modulation for angle modulation is the ratio of frequency deviation
actually produced to the maximum frequency deviation allowed in percent form.
Percent modulation = Δf (actual)/ Δf(max)

41. Define carrier swing. [R]

The peak to peak frequency deviation (2Δf) is called carrier swing.

42. How can we obtain PM demodulator from FM demodulator? [U]

PM demodulator is obtained from FM demodulator by placing an integrator followed by
FM modulator.

43. How can we obtain PM modulator from FM modulator? [U]

PM modulator is obtained from FM modulator by placing a differentiator followed by
an FM modulator

44. How can we obtain FM demodulator from PM demodulator? [U]

FM demodulator is obtained from PM demodulator by placing a differentiator after the PM
modulator.

45. How can we obtain FM modulator from PM modulator? [U]

FM modulator is obtained from PM modulator by placing an integrator followed by a PM
modulator

46. Differentiate frequency and phase modulation. (Nov/Dec’16) (U)

Frequency modulation Phase modulation

1. Frequency of the carrier is varied in 1.Phase of the carrier is varied in
accordance with instantaneous accordance with instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal. amplitude of the modulating signal
 2. Modulation index is high 2. Modulation index is low
3. It is used for broadcasting the radio 3. It is used for data transmission and
signal. voice transmission.

47. An amplifier operating over the frequency range of 455 to 460 KHz has a 200 kQ
input resistor. What is the RMS noise voltage at the input to this amplifier if the
ambient temperature is 1 7°C ? (A) (Nov/Dec’17)
48. Find the modulating frequency and maximum deviation of the PM wave
represented by v(t) :::: 12 sin (6 + 108t + 5 cos 1250t). (A) (Nov/Dec’17)

PART-B

1. Derive the mathematical expression for AM, describe its frequency spectrum, bandwidth,
AM voltage distribution and power distribution. (Apr/May 2018)[Nov/Dec-
2014,2015,2017] [A]
2. Explain the AM Super Heterodyne Receiver.
(or)
Explain the working principle of super heterodyne receiver. Explain the following terms.
i) Selectivity
ii) Sensitivity
iii) Image signal.
3. Derive the expression for DSBSC wave and explain the method of generation and detection.
4. Derive the expression for SSBSC wave and explain the method of modulation and
demodulation.
5. Describe the Frequency discrimination method of generating SSB modulated wave and
method to demodulate it.
6. Derive expression for AM wave. Define modulation index and express its value in terms of
maximum and minimum voltage values of signal. Draw the spectrum and time-domain
signal of AM wave. (May/June 2014, Nov/Dec-2009) [A]
7. Derive the mathematical expression for FM and PM, its frequency spectrum and bandwidth.
Compare it.
(or)

(1) Distinguish between FM and PM by giving its mathematical analysis. [U]

(2)Derive the relationship between the voltage amplitudes of the sideband Frequencies
and the carrier and draw the frequency spectrum. [A] (May/June 2010)
8. Derive the average power of an angle modulated wave. [A]
9. Explain the bandwidth requirement for FM and define Carson’s rule (May/June 2011) [U]
10. Derive the expression for frequency components in Angle modulated waves using Bessel’s
function
11. Draw the block diagram of Armstrong indirect FM transmitter and describe its operation.
(or)
Discuss about the indirect method of generating FM Signals. (U)(Apr/May 2017).
12. Explain the frequency analysis of angle modulated wave. [U]
13. Discuss in detail about generation and detection of VSB signal.
(or)
Explain the modulation technique which is used for television signal transmission. Draw
the spectrum. Explain the generation and detection of the same. List the advantages and
disadvantages. (Apr/ May 2018)
14. The output of modulated wave of a standard AM transmitter is represented
S(t)=500(1+0.4sin3140t)cos6.28*107t. To find,
a) Modulating signal frequency
b) Carrier signal frequency
c) Mean output power at a load of 600Ω resistance.
15. For an AM DSBFC wave with a peak un modulated carrier voltage VC = 10 a load resistance
RL = 10Ω and a modulation coefficient m=1 Determine [A]
a) Powers of the carrier and the upper and lower sidebands.
b) Total sideband power.
c) Total power of the modulated wave,
d) Draw the power spectrum.
16. For an AM DSBFC transmitter with an un modulated carrier power Pc = 100W
that is modulated simultaneously by three modulating signals with coefficients
of modulation m1 = 0.2, m2= 0.4 and mB = 0.b, determine :
1) Total coefficient of modulation
2) Upper and lower sideband power
3) Total transmitted power. (Nov/Dec 2017, 6 marks ) [A]

17. In an AM modulator, 500Khz carrier of amplitude 20V is modulated by 10 KHz

modulating signal which causes a change in the output wave of +7.5V , Determine:
(1). Upper and lower side band frequencies.
(2). Modulation Index.
(3). Peak amplitude of upper and lower side frequency
(4). Maximum and minimum amplitudes of envelope. (May/June 2010) [A]
 18. For an FM modulator with a modulation index m=1, a modulating signal Vm(t)= Vm sin
(2π1000t), and an un modulated carrier Vc(t)= 10 sin(2π500kt), Determine [A]
a) Number of sets of significant side frequencies
b)Their amplitudes.
c).Draw the frequency spectrum showing their relative amplitudes.
19. Consider a modulating signal 2sin(2π103t) is used to modulate a carrier of frequency 106 Hz.
Find the bandwidth for
(a)Phase modulation & frequency modulation
(b)when modulating frequency is doubled
(c)when amplitude of modulating signal is halved, thereafter.
Use mp=10 and mf = 10.
20. (i)Derive the expression for instantaneous voltage of SSB wave. [A]
(ii). A 25 MHz carrier is modulated by a 400 Hz audio sine wave. If the carrier voltage is
4V and the maximum frequency deviation is 10 KHz and the phase deviation is 25 radians.
Write the equation of this modulated wave for (1) FM (2) PM. If the modulating frequency is
now changed to 2 KHz, all else remaining constant. Write a new equation for FM and PM.
(May/June 2016) [A]

21. Discuss about the sets of side bands produced when a carrier is frequency modulated by a
single frequency sinusoid.(May/June 2010) [U]
22. (i) Discuss the generation of SSB using Filter and phasing method.
(ii) Compare AM and narrow band FM with phasor diagram and expressions. (Apr/May
2018)

PART C
1. In Modulation by several sine waves simultaneously, in AM, the bandwidth required is twice
the highest modulating frequency. Prove this concept using appropriate expressions. [A]
2. Calculate the percentage power saving when the carrier and one of the sidebands are suppressed
in an AM wave modulated to a depth of (1) 100 percent and (2). 50 percent. [A]
3.A 400W carrier is amplitude modulated to a depth of 100%. Calculate the total power in case of
the AM and DSBSC techniques. How much power saving in watts is achieved for DSBSC? If the
depth of modulation is changed to 75% then how much power W is required for transmitting the
DSBSC wave? Compare the power required for DSBSC in both cases and comment on the reason
for change in power levels. (Nov/Dec 2016, 7 marks) [A]

4.Describe the relationship between the instantaneous carrier frequency and the modulating signal
for FM. [U]
5.Explain the nature of SSB spectrum if the modulating signal is m(t) = cos2π 100t + cos2π 2000t
and carrier is given by c(t) = cos2π 10000t. [A]

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. An amplifier operating over the frequency range from 18 to 20 MHz has a 10 kilo ohm
input resistor. What is the rms noise voltage at the input to this amplifier if the ambient
temperature is 27° C? (R)
2. Calculate the percentage power saving when the carrier and one of the sidebands are
suppressed in an AM wave modulated to a depth of (1)100 percent and (2) 50 percent.
(AZ)
3. What is the bandwidth of the FM signal if the frequency sensitivity of the modulator is
25KHz per volt? (R)
4. In an AM transmitter, the carrier power is 10 KW and the modulation index is 0.5.
Calculate the total power delivered. (AZ)
5. In an Amplitude modulation system, the carrier frequency is 𝑓𝑐 =100 KHz. The maximum
frequency of the signal is 5 KHz. Determine the lower and upper side bands and the band
width of AM signal. (A)
6. What is bandwidth need to transmit 4 KHz voice signal using AM? (R)
7. Two resistors of 20 KΩ, 50 KΩ are at room temperature (270K). For a bandwidth of 100
KHz. Calculate the thermal noise voltage generated by the two resistors in series. (AZ)
8. For an FM modulator with a peak frequency deviation ∆f=10 KHz, a modulating signal
frequency 𝑓𝑚 =10 KHz, 𝑉𝑐 =10V and a 500 KHz carrier. Determine
(i) Actual minimum bandwidth from the Bessel’s function table
(ii) Approximate minimum bandwidth using Carson’s rule and
(iii) Plot the frequency spectrum of FM.
(Note J0=0.77, J1=0.44, J2=0.11, J3=0.02). (A)
9. Thermal noise power from a resistor is measured as 4x10 -17W at a temperature of 20º C
for a given bandwidth. What will be the noise power when temperature is changed to 50º
C? (R)
10. A receiver connected to an antenna resistance is 50Ω has an equivalent noise resistance of
30Ω. Calculate the receiver’s noise figure in decibels and its equivalent noise temperature
(AZ).
11. A 1000 KHz carrier is simultaneously modulated with 300 Hz, 800 Hz and 2 KHz audio
sine waves. Find the frequencies present in the output.(A)
12. A 25 MHz carrier is modulated by a 400 Hz audio sine wave. If the carrier voltage is 4V
and the maximum frequency deviation is 10 KHz and phase deviation is 25 radians. Write
the equation of this modulated wave for (1) FM (2) PM. If the modulating frequency is
now changed to 2 KHz, all else remaining constant. Write a new equation for FM and
PM. (AZ)
13. A 400 W carrier is amplitude modulated to a depth of 100%. Calculate the total power in
case of the AM and DSBSC techniques. How much power saving in watts is achieved for
 DSBSC? If the depth of modulation is changed to 75% , then how much power in watts
required for transmitting the DSBSC wave? Compare the power required for DSBSC in
both cases and comment on the reason for change in the power levels. (AZ)
14. Consider two amplifiers are connected in cascade. First stage amplifier has gain and noise
figure as 10 dB and 2 dB respectively. Second stage has noise figure of 3 dB. Calculate
total noise figure. (AZ)

UNIT-II PULSE MODULATION

PART A

1. What is aliasing? What is the effect of aliasing? (Apr/May 2018) [R]

The phenomenon of a high-frequency in the spectrum of the original signal g(t) seemingly
taking on the identity of a lower frequency in the spectrum of the sampled signal g(t) is called
aliasing or fold over. The effect of aliasing as the output of the reconstruction filter depends on
both the amplitude and phase component of the original spectrum G (f), making an exact analysis
of the output difficult resulting in distortion.

2. Define quantizing process. [R]

The conversion of analog sample of the signal in to digital form is called quantizing
process. Graphically the quantizing process means that a straight line representing the relation
between the input and the output of a linear analog system.

3. What are the two fold effects of quantizing process? [R]

a) The peak-to-peak range of input sample values subdivided into a finite set of decision
levels or decision thresholds
b) The output is assigned a discrete value selected from a finite set of representation levels
are reconstruction values that are aligned with the treads of the staircase.

4. Define quantization error? [R]

Quantization is the value of which equals the difference between the output and input values of
quantizer.

5. What is Nyquist rate? [R]

The minimum sampling rate of 2W sample per second for a signal bandwidth of W hertz is
called the nyquist rate.

6. What is PAM? [R]

PAM is the pulse amplitude modulation. In pulse amplitude modulation, the amplitude of a
carrier consisting of a periodic train of rectangular pulses is varied in proportion to sample values
of a message signal.
7. What is single tone and multi tone modulation? [R]
If modulation is performed for a message signal with more than one frequency component
then the modulation is called multi tone modulation. If modulation is performed for a message
signal with one frequency component then the modulation is called single tone modulation.

8. What do you mean by companding? Define compander. [R]

The signal is compressed at the transmitter and expanded at the receiver. This is called as
companding. The combination of a compressor and expander is called a compander.

9. What is Sampling and Quantization? (Apr/May 2018) [R]

Quantization is a process by which an analog signal is divided into number of levels on
amplitude.
Sampling is a process by which an analog signal is divided into sequence of samples
(pulses) on regular interval of time.

10. List the errors in delta modulation. [R]

1. Quantizing noise – When the analog waveform is changing very slowly, there
will be Quantizing noise.
2. Slope overloads noise – When the analog waveform is changing very rapidly, there
will be Slope overload noise.

11. What do you mean by nonlinear encoding in PCM system? [R]

Nonlinear encoding is a technique used to increase the performance of PCM system. In
Nonlinear encoding the Quantization levels are not equally spaced. That is greater number of
Quantization levels for signals of low amplitude, and smaller number of Quantization levels for
signals of high amplitude.

12. What is meant by PCM? [R]

Pulse code modulation (PCM) is a method of signal coding in which the message signal is
sampled, the amplitude of each sample is rounded off to the nearest one of a finite set of discrete
levels and encoded so that both time and amplitude are represented in discrete form. This allows
the message to be transmitted by means of a digital waveform.

13.What are the advantages of PCM?(APR/MAY’17) [R]

 Relatively inexpensive
 Easily multiplexed: PCM waveforms from different sources can be transmitted over a
common digital channel (TDM)
 Easily regenerated: useful for long-distance communication, e.g. telephone
 Better noise performance than analog system
 Signals may be stored and time-scaled efficiently (e.g., satellite communication)
 Efficient codes are readily available

14. Define delta modulation. [R]

Delta modulation is the one-bit version of differential pulse code modulation.

15. Define adaptive delta modulation. [R]

 The performance of a delta modulator can be improved significantly by making the step
size of the modulator assume a time- varying form. In particular, during a steep segment of the
input signal the step size is increased. Conversely, when the input signal is varying slowly, the step
is reduced , In this way, the step size is adapting to the level of the signal. The resulting method is
called adaptive delta modulation (ADM).

16. Define quantization error? [R]

Quantization error is the difference between the output and input values of Quantizer.

17. What you mean by non-uniform quantization? [R]

Step size is not uniform. Non-uniform quantizer is characterized by a step size that
increases as the separation from the origin of the transfer characteristics is increased. Non-uniform
quantization is otherwise called as robust quantization.

18. Define Pulse Position modulation? (Nov’03) [R]

The position of a constant-width pulse within a prescribed time slot is varied according to
the amplitude of the sample of the analog signal. This is pulse position modulation (PPM).

19. Define Pulse Width modulation (PWM)? (June’07) [R]

The width of a constant-amplitude pulse is varied proportional to the amplitude of the
analog signal at the time the signal is sampled. This is PWM. PWM is also called as pulse duration
modulation (PDM) or pulse length modulation (PLM).

20. What are the types of sampling? [R]

i) Natural sampling
ii) Flat-top sampling

21.State Sampling theorem. (May-June 2012) [R]

A bandlimited signal of finite energy, which has no frequency components higher than W
Hz, may be completely recovered from the knowledge of its samples taken at the rate of 2W
samples per second.

22. In what situation multiplexing is used? [u]

Multiplexing is used in situations where the transmitting media is having higher

bandwidth, but the signals have lower bandwidth. Hence there is a possibility of sending
number of signals simultaneously. In this situation multiplexing can be used. Multiplexing can
be used to achieve the following goals:
• To send a large number of signals simultaneously.
• To reduce the cost of transmission
• To make effective use of the available bandwidth
22. Distinguish between the two basic multiplexing techniques? [U]
The two basic multiplexing techniques are:
• Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
• Time division multiplexing (TDM)
FDM can be used with analog signals. A number of signals are carried simultaneously on the
same medium by allocating to each signal a different frequency band.
TDM (also known as synchronous time division multiplexing) can be used with digital signals
 or analog signals carrying digital data. In TDM, data from various sources are carried in
respective frames. Each frame consists of a set of time slots, and each source is assigned a time
slot per frame.
23. Define coding efficiency of a PCM system. (Nov/Dec’17) (U)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Analog transmission is not particularly efficient. The
conversion of analogue signals to digital signals therefore eliminates the problems caused by
attenuation. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is the simplest form of waveform coding.

PART B
1. What are the types of pulse modulation? Explain them briefly. [Nov/Dec- 2003,8Marks] [U]
2. Draw the block diagram of PCM transmitter and receiver and explain functions of each.
[Nov/dec2004,10Marks;Nov/Dec-2003,10Marks;April/May-2005,8Marks;May/June-
2006,8Marks;Nov/Dec-2005,10Marks,Nov/Dec-2014,Nov/Dec-2015,May/June-2016,16-
Marks, Apr/May 2018] [U]
3. Explain the noise in delta modulation. [U]

4. Explain with suitable diagram, generation of PPM signal.[April/May-2004,8-Maks] [U]

5.Explain the general interfacing for data transmission.[April/May-2004,8-Maks] [U]
6. Explain delta modulation system with block diagram.Discuss the distortion occuring in delta
modulation with neat waveform. Explain the ways to overcome the distortion. [Apr/ May 2018,
Nov/Dec-2005, May/June-2016] [U]
7. Derive an expression for quantization error. [April/May-2005,8-Marks] [U]
8. Explain different noises in delta modulation system. [April/May-2005, May/June-2016] [U]
9. Explain the method of generation of PWM signal.[Nov/Dec-2004,12 Marks] [U]
10. What are the drawbacks of the delta modulation/and how they are overcome in adaptive delta
modulation? Explain with the help of neat block diagram.[May/June-2006,16 Marks] [U]
11. Explain PCM and differential PCM with the help of block diagrams. [May/June-2006] [U]
12.1. Compare analog and digital modulation. (May/June 2011) [U]

2. Explain the following: a. Inter symbol interference, b. Eye pattern

c. Quantization noise in PCM (May/June 2011)
13. Explain the generation of PCM signal with a block diagram[Nov/Dec-2017,7 Marks] [U]
14.Describe the generation and demodulation of PPM signal with necessary
waveforms. [Nov/Dec-2017,7 Marks] [U]
15.Explain various operation performed in the transmitter and receiver of PCM (Apr/May ‘17)
[U]
16.Explain in detail about the quantization process and derive the signal to noise ratio of uniform
quantizer (Apr/May ‘17) [U]

PART C
1. (i). Explain the detail the delta modulation transmitter and Receiver. [U]
(ii).Discuss the draw backs of delta modulation and explain the significance of adaptive delta
modulator. (May/June 2010, 6 marks) [U]
2. Explain the concept of Data communication network architecture protocols and standards in
detail. (May/June 2016, 16 marks) [U]

3. (i) For a PCM system with the following parameters, maximum analog input frequency = 4
kHz maximum decoded voltage at the receiver = 2.25 V and maximum dynamic range = 46 dB.
Determine (1) minimum sampling (2) minimum number of bits used in PCM code (3) resolution
(4) Quantization error (May/June 2016, 12 marks) [U]
ii) Compare the various pulse analog modulation techniques. (May/June 2016, 4 marks) [U]

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. Determine the odd and even parity bits for the ASCII character R whose hex code is
52.(A)
2. Determine the BCS for the following data and CRC generating polynomials. Data
G ( X ) = X 7 + X 5 + X 4 + X 2 + X1 + X 0
CRC P(X) = X 5 + X 4 + X1 + X 0. (A)
3. Interpret the CRC code for the data word 110010101. The divisor is 10101. (A)
4. Compare the various Pulse communication systems. (U)
 UNIT-III DIGITAL MODULATION AND TRANSMISSION
PART A

1.Compare binary PSK with QPSK. [U]

Sr.No BPSK QPSK
1. One bit forms a symbol. Two bits form a symbol.
2. Two possible symbols. Four possible symbols.
3. Minimum bandwidth is twice of ƒ b . Minimum bandwidth is equal to ƒ b .
4. Symbol duration = T b . Symbol duration = 2T b .

2. What are the advantages of M-ary signaling scheme? [U]

a) M-ary signaling schemes transmit multiple bits at a time.
b) Bandwidth requirement of M-ary signaling scheme is reduced.

3. Differentiate coherent and non-coherent methods. [U]

Coherent (synchronous) detection:
In coherent detection, the local carrier generated at the receiver is phase locked with the
carrier at the transmitter. The detection is done by correlating received noisy signal and locally
generated carrier. The coherent detection is a synchronous detection.
Non-coherent (envelope) detection:
This type of detection does not need receiver carrier to be phase locked with transmitter
carrier. The advantage of such a system is that the system becomes simple, but the drawback is
that error probability increases. The different digital modulation techniques are used for specific
application areas. The choice is made such that the transmitted power and channel bandwidth are
best exploited.
4. Draw the modulated waveform representing FSK and PSK.(Apr/May 2018)
5. What are antipodal signals? [R]
In BPSK, the two symbols are transmitted with the help of following signals,
Symbol ‘1’  s1(t) = 2P cos (2πƒ0t)
Symbol ‘2’  s2(t) = 2P cos (2πƒ0t + π)
Here observe that above two signals differ only in a relative phase shift of 180 0. Such signals are
called antipodal signals.

6. Under what circumstances M-ary signaling schemes are preferred over binary schemes?
[U]
Binary schemes transmit only one bit at a time. M-ary schemes transmit log2M bit at a
time. When available channel bandwidth is less, then M-ary schemes are used. M-ary schemes
require less bandwidth compared to binary schemes. For example binary PSK requires a
2ƒb
bandwidth of 2ƒb. But M-ary PSK requires a bandwidth of . Here N is number of bits
N
transmitted simultaneously. Since more symbols are transmitted in same amplitude range, the error
probability of M-ary scheme is more compared to binary schemes.

7. Compare bandwidth efficiency of M-ary PSK signals and M-ary FSK signals. [U]
For N-bit symbol, M-ary PSK requires a bandwidth of,
2ƒb
M-ary PSK, BW =
N
And M-ary FSK requires a bandwidth of,
2 N 1
M-ary FSK, BW = ƒb
N
Thus for N = 4,
2ƒb ƒb
M-ary PSK: BW = =
4 2
41
2
M-ary FSK: BW = ƒb = 8ƒb
4
Thus FSK requires more bandwidth compared to PSK.

8. What are the advantages of QPSK as compared to BPSK? [R]

1) For the same bit error rate, the bandwidth required by QPSK is reduced to half as compared to
BPSK.
2) Because of reduced bandwidth, the information transmission rate of QPSK is higher.
3) Variation in OQPSK amplitude is not much. Hence carrier power almost remains constant.

9. What is a correlator? [R]

Correlator is the coherent receiver. It correlates the received noisy signal ƒ(t) with the
locally generated replica of the known signal x(t). Its output is given as,
T

r(t) =  ƒ(t) x(t)dt

0
Matched filter and correlator are functionally same.
10. Compare QASK and QPSK. [U]
Sr.No Parameter QPSK QASK
Quadrature amplitude and
1 Modulation Quadrature phase
phase

Location of signal All signal points placed Signal points are replaced
2
points on circumference of circle symmetrically about origin

Distance between
2 0.15Eb for 16 symbols
3 2 0 .4 E b for 16 symbols
signal points and 2 Eb for 4 symbols
Relatively complex
4 Complexity Relatively simpler
Poor than QPSK. But better
5 Noise immunity Better than QASK
than M-ary PSK
Higher than QPSK. Lower
6 Error probability Less than QASK
than M-ary PSK.
7 Type of demodulation Coherent Coherent

11. Draw the phasor diagram of QPSK or Signal constellation of QPSK. [U]

- 2 (t )

 psTb
be (t )  b0 (t )  1 C B
be (t )  1
b0 (t )  1

 psTb
2
1 (t )  cos(2f 0t )
 (t )
- 1 Ts
psTb

be (t )  1 D A
b0 (t )  be (t )  1
b0 (t )  1 psTb

2
2 (t )  cos(2f 0t )
Ts

12. The binary data stream 001101001 is applied to the input of a duo binary system.
Construct the duo binary encoder output and corresponding receiver output, without
precoder. [A]
Table shows the output of duo binary system and receiver output also.
Sequences K=0 K=1 K=2 K=3 K=4 K=5 K=6 K=7 K=8
Binary 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
sequence b k
Polar -1 -1 +1 +1 -1 +1 -1 -1 +1
representation
ak
ck  ak  ak 1 - -2 0 +2 0 0 0 -2 0
Estimated -1 -1 +1 +1 -1 +1 -1 -1 +1
polar output
âk
Estimated 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
binary output
b̂k

13. Define minimum shift keying. [R]

Minimum shift keying uses two orthogonal signals to transmit binary ‘0’ and ‘1’. The
differences between these two frequencies are minimum. Hence, there are no abrupt changes in the
amplitude and the modulated signal is continuous and smooth.

14. Give the difference between standard FSK and MSK. [U]

Sr.No FSK MSK

1. The two frequencies are integer The difference between the
multiple of base band frequency two frequencies is minimum
and at the same time they are and at the same time they are
orthogonal. orthogonal.
2. BW = 4 f b BW = 1.5 fb
3. This is binary modulation. This quadrature modulation.

15. Show the arrangement for non-coherent detection of FSK binary signal. [U]
Fig shows the block diagram of BFSK receiver. The receiver consists of two band pass filters, one
with centre frequency f H and other with centre frequency f L . Since f H - f L = 2 f b , the outputs of
filters do not overlap. The band pass filters pass their corresponding main lobes without much
distortion.
 Band pass Envelope
filter at f H detector

b(t)

BPSK
signal Comparator
Band pass Envelope
filter at f L detector

16. What do you mean bit rate and baud rate? [R]
The rate at which data (bits) are transmitted is called bit rate. That is number of bits
transmitted per second. Unit is bps(bits per second).The rate at which signal elements (pulses) are
transmitted is called baudrate (modulation rate). This means number of signal elements (pulses)
transmitted per second. Unit is bauds.

17. What do you mean by ASK? [R]

ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying) is a modulation technique which converts digital data to
analog signal. In ASK, the two binary values (0, 1) are represented by two different amplitudes of
the carrier signal.

18. What do you mean by FSK? [R]

FSK (Frequency Shift Keying) also a modulation technique which converts digital data to
analog signal. In FSK, the two binary values are represented by two different frequencies near the
carrier frequency.

19. Differentiate Binary PSK and QPSK. [U]

Binary PSK
1. Two different phases are used to represent two binary values.
2. Each signal element represents only one bit.
QPSK
1. Four different phases are used to represent two binary values.
2. Each signal element represents two bits.

20. What is bandwidth efficiency? [R]

The ratio of data rate to transmission bandwidth is referred as bandwidth efficiency. It is
denoted as RBR.
Bandwidth efficiency = R / B
Where,
R – Data rate
B – Bandwidth

21. Mention the types of companding? [R]

Types of companding:
1. μ law companding
2. A law companding
22. What is an eye pattern? [R]
Eye Pattern is used to study the effect of inter symbol interference.

23. What is the width of the eye? [R]

It defines the time interval over which the received waveform can be
sampled without error from intersymbol interference.

24. What is sensitivity of an eye? [R]

The sensitivity of the system to timing error is determined by the rate of closure of the eye
as the sampling time is varied.

25. What is Inter symbol interference?(Apr/May 2018) [R]

The transmitted signal will undergo dispersion and gets broadened during its transmission
through the channel. So they happen to collide or overlap with the adjacent symbols in the
transmission. This overlapping is called Inter Symbol Interference.

26. How eye pattern is obtained? [U]

The eye pattern is obtained by applying the received wave to the vertical deflection plates
of an oscilloscope and to apply a saw tooth wave at the transmitted symbol rate to the horizontal
deflection plate.

27. Given the input binary sequence 1100100010, sketch the waveforms of the in-
phase and quadrature components of a modulated wave obtained by using
QPSK.(Apr/May’17) [A]

28. Show the sequences and waveforms involved in the generation of an MSK signal
for the binary sequence 1101000. QPSK.(Apr/May’17) [A]

PART B

1.With the neat block diagram, explain coherent binary FSK transmitter and receiver.
[Nov./Dec-2003,8-Marks;Nov/Dec-2005,10-Marks,Nov./Dec-2015,Nov./Dec-2016–13marks]
[U]
2. Draw the block diagram of binary PSK system and explain with signal space diagram.
[April/May-2004,8-Marks] [U]
3. Define DPSK. Draw the waveform representing DPSK. With neat diagram, explain the
generation and detection of DPSK with neat block diagram.(Apr/May 2018)[U]

4. Explain QPSK modulation scheme with phasor and constellation diagram.(Apr/ May 2018 )[U]
5. What is ASK? Draw the Waveform. [Nov/Dec-2004,6-Maks] [ U]
6. Compare BPSK and QPSK. [Nov/Dec-2015,6-Marks] [U]
7. Explain the operation of FSK transmitter and receiver and discuss about the bandwidth
requirements of FSK signals. [May/June-2006,16-Marks ,Apr/May 2017] [U]
8. Write short notes on the following
i) Costas loop method of carrier recovery

ii)Differential PSK modulator [May/June-2006,16Marks] [U]

9. Draw the constellation diagram for QPSK signaling scheme. And for the following binary
sequence sketch the waveform for the
i) In-phase and quadrature components.

ii) QPSK signal. 1100100010 [Nov/Dec-2015,16-Marks][Nov/Dec-2014,16-Marks] [A]

10. (i) Explain the generation and detection of binary phase shift keying.
(ii)Describe the operation of Costas loop receiver. (May/June 2011) [U]
11.(i)Discuss in detail the operation of QPSK modulator and demodulator with its phasor diagram.
(ii)Write note on Quadrature amplitude modulation. (May/June 2014, May/June 2011) [U]
12.What is Known as BPSK? Discuss us detail the BPSK transmitter and Receiver and also obtain
the minimum double side Nyquist bandwidth [U]
13.What is the need for carrier recovery? Explain the Costas loop method of carrier recovery.
(May 10) [U]
14. i) A BPSK modulator with a carrier frequency of 70 MHz and an input bit rate
of 10 Mbps, determine the following :
1) maximum and minimum upper and lower side frequencies
2) minimum Nyquist bandwidth and
3) Baud rate. [Nov/Dec-2017,6-Marks] [A]
15. With a block diagram explain the working of coherent binary FSK transmitter and receiver.
[Nov/Dec-2017,7-Marks] [U]
16. Determine the baud, minimum bandwidth and bandwidth effrciency for an 8'PSK system
operating with an information bit rate of 24 kbps [Nov/Dec-2017,6-Marks] [A]
11. Draw the block diagram of 8-QAM transmitter and explain its working. [Nov/Dec-2017,7-
Marks] [U]
12. .Explain the working of MSK Transmitter and receiver with its block diagram and power
spectra of MSK signals(Apr/May 2017) [U]

PART C

1. Illustrate the concept of 8QAM transmitter with the truth table. (Nov/Dec 2012, 8 marks) [U]
2.Differentiate coherent and non-coherent detection and compare the various digital
communication systems. (May/June 2016, 8 marks) [U]
3. Discuss us detail the QPSK transmitter and Receiver. Determine its bandwidth efficiency and
compare it with other m-ary PSK schemes. (Nov/Dec 2012, 16 marks) [U]

4. If a digital message input data rate is 8 Kbps and average energy per bit is 0.01 unit. Find the
bandwidth required for transmission of the message through BPSK, QPSK, BFSK, MSK, and
16PSK [Nov./Dec-2016, 8 marks] [A]

5. A data bit sequence consists of the following string of bits 10 11 10 10. Analyze and draw
the nature of waveform transmitted by BPSK transmitter[Nov./Dec-2016, 8 marks] [AZ]

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

1. A binary channel with bit rate =36000 bits/sec is available for PCM voice transmission.
Find number of bits per samples, number of quantization levels and sampling frequency
assuming highest frequency component of voice signal is 3.2 KHz. (AZ)
2. Sketch the waveform of ASK, FSK & PSK for binary sequence 1100101.(A)

3. If a digital message input data rate is 8 Kbps and average energy per bit is 0.01 unit. Find
the bandwidth required for transmission of message through BPSK, QPSK, BFSK, MSK
and 16PSK. (A)
4. Sketch the Constellation diagram & Phasor diagram for 8QAM, QPSK, 8PSK and 16
PSK. (A)
5. Sketch the QPSK signal for the binary sequence 11001100. (A)

6. For an 8-PSK, operating with an information bit rate of 24 Kbps. Determine the Bandwidth
efficiency. (A)

7. A data bit sequence consists of the following string of bits 10111010. Analyze and draw
the nature of waveform transmitted by BPSK transmitter. (AZ)
 UNIT IV INFORMATION THEORY AND CODING
PART A
1. Define simplex transmission? [R]
The data transfer takes place only in one direction.eg radio systems.

2. Define the term synchronous transmission. [R]

The transmitter and receiver both operate at common clock signal .The data is transmitted
as a block. There are no start and stop bits .Timing errors are minimum in synchronous mode.

3.Define half duplex [R]

Data transmission takes place on both direction, but not simultaneously .eg citizen band
radio

4.Define Full duplex [R]

Data transmission takes place in both directions simultaneously. Eg telephone systems
5.Define bit rate. [R]
It is the rate at which digital data changes pr buts of the digital data are received in one
second. It is expressed in bits per second (bps)

6. Define baud rate. [R]

It is the rate of change of signal on transmission medium after encoding and modulation
have occurred. Baud rate is basically symbol rate. It is expressed as symbols per second or baud.

7. Define serial interface. [R]

Serial interface is used in between DTE and DCE. It controls the flow of data, control
signals and timing information RS232, RS449.

8. Define Parallel interface. [R]

Parallel interface is used for printers, scanners or DTE and host or local machines.

9. Define Entrophy. (Apr/May 2018) [R]

Entropy is the average (expected) amount of information in a certain event.

10. What is prefix coding? (Apr/May 2018)

A prefix code is a type of code system (typically a variable-length code) distinguished by its
possession of the "prefixproperty", which requires that there is no whole code word in the system
that is a prefix (initial segment) of any other codeword in the system.

11. What are the types of common error? [R]

#Random error
#Burst error

12. What are the different types of Data communication codes? [R]
 # ASCII code # Baudot code
# EBCDIC code # BCD

13. Name some data communication standards? [R]

# ISO # IEEE
# CCITT # EIA
# ANSI

14. Define Odd parity coding. [R]

If the parity bit is added such that there are odd numbers of 1’s, then it is called odd
parity coding

15. Define Even parity coding [R]

If the parity but is added such that there are even numbers of 1’s, then it is called even
parity coding.
16. Define Hamming code [R]
It is a error correction code .It is used to correct single bit errors. Hamming bits are
inserted into character code. The combination of data bits and hamming bits inn called hamming
code

17. What is DTE and DCE? [R]

DTE  Data terminal equipment (Computer)
DCE  Data communication equipment (Modem)

18. What are the types of data modem? [R]

# Asynchronous modem
# Synchronous Modem
# Low –Speed modem
# Medium –Speed Modem
# High- Speed Modem

19. What are advantages of Parallel Transmission? [R]

# Data transfer is very fast
# Complexity of parallel transmission is less.

20.What are the advantages of serial Transmission? [R]

# Low cost for implementation
# Long distance data transfer is cheaper.

21. What is meant by cyclic codes? [R]

Cyclic codes are the subclasses of linear block codes. They have the property that a
cyclic shift of one codeword produces another code word.

22. How syndrome is calculated in Hamming codes and cyclic codes? [U]
In hamming codes the syndrome is calculated as, S=YH.T
Here Y is the received and H.is thTe transpose of parity check matrix
23. What is convolution code? [U]
Fixed number of input bits is stored in the shift register & they are combined with
the help of mod 2 adders. This operation is equivalent to binary convolution coding.

24.What are the advantages of convolutional codes? [U]

Advantages:
1 .The decoding delay is small in convolutional codes since they operate o smaller blocks of
data.
2. .The storage hardware required by convolutional decoder is less since the block sizes are
smaller.
Disadvantages:
1 .Convolutional codes are difficult to analyze since their analysis is complex.
2. .Convolutional codes are not developed much as compared to block codes.

25.Find entropy of a source emitting symbols x, y, z with probabilities of 1/5, 1/2, 1/3
respectively. [A]
p1 = 1/5, p2 = 1/2, p3 = 1/3.
H =Pklog 2 (1/Pk)
= 1/5 log25 + 1/2 log22 +1/3 log23
= 1.497 bits/symbol
26.

PART B
1. Write in detail on error detection coding techniques. [U]
2. Write in detail on Error correction coding techniques. [U]
3. Write in detail on Serial and parallel communication codes [U]
4. Write in detail on Synchronous and Asynchronous data transmission techniques. [U]
5. (i) Explain shannon's channel capacity theorem.
(ii) A transmission channel has a bandwidth of 4kHz and signal to noise power ratio of 31.

(a) how much should the bandwidth be in order to have the same channel capacity, if S/N
ratio reduced to 15?
(b) what will be the signal to noise power ratio required if the bandwidth is reduced to 3
kHz.(Apr/May 2018)
6. (i) A source produces three symbols A, B and C with probabilities p(A) = 1/2, p(B) = 1/4 and
p(C) = 1/4 . Determine the source entropy.
(ii) Find the entropy of a binary memoryless source and find when it is maximum. (Apr/ May
2018)

7.The generator polynomial of a (7,4) cyclic code is given by G(D) = 1+D+D 2. Compute all the
non – systematic codewords (May/June 2016, 8 marks) [A]
Discuss the Shannon’s channel capacity theorem in detail. (May/June 2016, 8 marks) [U]
8.Explain the concept of code generation and decoding of convolutional codes. (Nov/Dec 2016,
13 marks) [U]
9. Five source messages are probable to appear as m1=0.4, m2 = 0.15, m3 = 0.15, m4 = 0.15, m4 =
0.15. Find coding efficiency for (i) Shannon Fano coding (ii) Huffmann coding. (Nov/Dec 2016,
13 marks) [A]
10. Five source messages are probable to appear as m1 =0.4, m2= 0.15, m3 = 0.15,m4 = 0.15,
and m5 = 0.15. Determine the coding effrciency for
1) Shannon-Fano coding
2) Huffman coding (Nov/Dec 2017, 13marks) [A]
11. Derive the expression for mutual information and channel capacity.(Nov/Dec 2017, 7marks)
[U]
12.What are the types of error control coding ? Describe the working of viterbi decoding
algorithm.(Nov/Dec 2017, 6marks) [U]

13.Draw and explain the generalized

(i) (n,k) cyclic encoder to implement encoding procedure for an (n,k) cyclic code in
systematic form.
(ii) Syndrome calculator and properties of syndrome polynomial. (Apr/May 2017) [U]

14.Draw Trellis diagram and encode the given bits 10011 using the given convolution encoder
shown below (Apr/May 2017) [A]
 PART C

1. Describe the processing steps to convert a k bit message word to a n bit code word (n.k).
Introduce an error and demonstrate how a error can be corrected with an example. (Nov/Dec
2012) [U]
2. Consider a systematic block code whose parity check equation are P 1= m1+m2 +m4, P2=
m1+m3+m4, P3= m1+m2+m3, P4= m2+m3+m4 Where mi is the message bits and are the patity
digits.(1). Find the generator matrix and the parity check matrix for this code. (2). How many
errors can be detected and corrected? (3). If the received code word is 10101010, find the
syndrome. (May/June 2016, 8 marks) [A]
3. The generator polynomial of a (15,11) Hamming code is given by G(x) = 1+x+x2. Design an
encoder and syndrome calculator for this code using systematic form.Generate the code word
for the message vector(1111 1111 111) using the developed encoder. Find the output of
designed syndrome calculator for the received code (1111 1111 1111 111) (Apr/May ’17,
Nov/Dec, 2016, 15 marks) [A]
4. Briefly discuss the generation of convolution code with an example [Nov/Dec 2017, 7 marks]
[U]
5.The source of information A generates the symbol {A0,A1,A2,A3,A5}with the corresponding
probabilities {0.4,0.3,0.15,0.1,0.05}.Encoding the source symbol with the binary encoder and
Shannon fano encoder and compare its efficiency. (Apr/May ’17) [A]
 ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. Find the Hamming distance between the following code words C1 = [1000111] and
C2 = [0001011]. (A)
2. A source is emitting symbols X1, X2 and X3 with probabilities respectively 0.6, 0.3 and
0.1. What is the entropy of the source? (R)
3. What is channel capacity of binary synchronous channel with error probability of 0.2?
(R)
4. Construct a (6, 3) cyclic code whose generator polynomial is given as 𝐺 (𝑥 ) = 1 + 𝑥 for
the data 001,110,111.(systematic and non systematic form). (A)
5. A discrete memory less source has five symbols x1, x2, x3, x4, x5 with probabilities 0.4,
0.19, 0.16, 0.15 & 0.15 respectively attached to every symbol.
(i) Construct a Shannon-Fano code for the source and calculate code efficiency. (A)

(ii) Repeat for Huffman code compare the two techniques of source coding. (A)
6. For a discrete memory less source ’X’ with six symbols X1, X2, X3, X4, X5 and X6 find
a Shannon-Fano code for every symbol if the probability distribution is as follows:
p(X1)=0.3, p(X2)=0.25, p(X3)=0.2, p(X4)=0.12, p(X5)=0.08, p(X6)=0.05. Calculate the
entropy of the source, average length of the code, efficiency and redundancy of the code.
(A)
7. An event has 6 possible outcomes with probalities 1/2,1/4,1/8,1/16,1/132,1/32. Find the
entropy. (A)
8. Find the Huffman code for a discrete memory less source with probabilities
{0.1,0.1,0.2,0.2,0.4}. (A)
9. A event has six possible outcomes with probabilities 1⁄2 , 1⁄4 , 1⁄8 , 1⁄16 , 1⁄32 ,
1⁄32. Find the entropy of the system. [A]
10. Find the entropy of the source alphabet {s0, s1, s2} with respective probabilities
{1/4, 1/4, 1/2}. [A]
11. Five source messages are probable to appear as 𝑚1 = 0.4, 𝑚2 = 0.15, 𝑚3 = 0.15, 𝑚4 =
0.15 and 𝑚5 = 0.15. Find coding efficiency for
(i) Shannon-Fano coding (ii) Huffman coding [A]
12. The generator polynomial of a (15, 11) Hamming code is given by 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 .
Design encoder and syndrome calculator for this code using systematic form. [A]
100101
13. Consider a (6,3) linear code whose generator matrix is 𝐺 = [ 0 1 0 1 1 0 ]. Find all the
001011
code vectors. [A]
 UNIT-V SPREAD SPECTRUM AND MLTIPLE ACCESS
PART-A

1. Define pseudo-noise (PN) sequence. (Nov’02) [R]

A pseudo-noise sequence is defined as a coded sequence of 1s and Os with certain
autocorrelation properties. It is used in spread Spectrum communications. It is periodic in that a
sequence of 1s and 0s repeats itself exactly with a known period.

2. Mention the significance of spread spectrum modulation. [U]

An important attribute of spread-spectrum modulation is that it can provide protection
against externally generated interfering (jamming) signals with finite power. The jamming signal
may consist of a fairly powerful broadband noise or multitone waveform that is directed at the
receiver for the purpose of disrupting communications. Protection against jamming waveforms is
provided by purposely making the information bearing signal occupy a bandwidth far in excess
of minimum bandwidth necessary to transmit it.
3. What is slow frequency hopping? [R]
If the symbol rate of MFSK is an integer multiple of hop rate (multiple symbols per hop)
then it is called slow frequency hopping
4. What is fast frequency hopping? [R]
If the hop rate is an integer multiple of symbol rate (multiple hops per symbol) then it is
called fast frequency hopping.
5. What is Viterbi decoding? (Apr/May 2018)
A Viterbi decoder uses the Viterbi algorithm for decoding a bitstream that has been encoded
using convolutional code or trellis code.
There are other algorithms for decoding a convolutionally encoded stream (for example,
the Fano algorithm). The Viterbi algorithm is the most resource-consuming, but it does
the maximum likelihood decoding. It is most often used for decoding convolutional codes with
constraint lengths k≤3, but values up to k=15 are used in practice.
6. What is the aim of error control coding? List the different error control
mechanisms.(Apr/May 2018)
Noise or Error is the main problem in the signal, which disturbs the reliability of
the communicationsystem. Error control coding is the codingprocedure done to control the
occurrences of errors. ... But, historically, these codes have been classified into Linear
block codes and Convolution codes
7. What is called frequency hop spread spectrum? (Nov’03) [R]
In frequency hop spread spectrum, the frequency of the carrier hops randomly from one
frequency to another frequency
8. What are the two function of fast frequency hopping? [R]
1. Spread Jammer over the entire measure of the spectrum of Transmitted signal.
2. Retuning the Jamming signal over the frequency band of Transmitted signal.

9. What are the features of code Division multiple Accesses? [R]

1. It does not require external synchronization networks.
2. CDMA offers gradual degradation in performance when the no. of users is increased but it
is easy to add new user to the system.
 3. If offers an external interference rejection capability
9. What is the advantage of a spread spectrum technique? [U]
The main advantage of spread spectrum technique is its ability to reject interference whether
it is the unintentional interference of another user simultaneously attempting to transmit through
the channel (or) the intentional interference of a hostile transmitter to jam the transmission.
10. What is called processing gain? (May’07) [U]
Processing Gain (PG) is defined as the ratio of the bandwidth of spread message signal to
the bandwidth of unspreaded data signal i.e.).
Processing Gain = BW (spreaded signal)
----------------------------
BW (Unspreaded signal)
12. Mention the classification of multiple access protocols. (Nov’05) [U]
1. Time division multiple access
2. Frequency division multiple access
3. Code division multiple access.
13. What are the advantages of spread spectrum modulation? (May’04) [U]
Spread spectrum modulation spread the message signal over wide bandwidth with the
help of special code (key).It has following advantages.
1. It provides security of the message so that unwanted users can’t read the
message.
2. Unwanted interference is rejected.
3. Protection against antijamming signals is also provided.
4. Multipath interference rejection.
14. What is time division multiple access? (May’06) [R]
In time division multiple access, the time of the channel is shared by multiple users.
Complete bandwidth of the channel is available to the user in given time slot. The TDMA is used
for transmitting data through satellite channels.
15. List out the advantages of direct sequence spread spectrum technique. [R]
1. This system has best noise and antijam performance.
2. Unrecognised receivers find it most difficult to detect direct sequence signals.
3. It has best discrimination against multipath signals.
16. State the correlation property of maximum length sequence. [U]
Correlation property: An autocorrelation of the sequence is periodic and binary valued.
17. What is meant by spread spectrum? [R]
The spread spectrum modulation can be defined in two parts as follows.
1. The transmitted data sequence occupies a much more bandwidth than the minimum
required bandwidth and,
2. The spectrum spreading (i.e. increase of signal bandwidth) at the transmitter and
despreading at the receiver is obtained by ‘special code’ which is independent of the data
sequence (message signal).
18. What is the relationship between the bandwidth of a signal before and after it has been
encoded using spread spectrum? [U]
The bandwidth of the signal before encoding and after decoding using spread spectrum is
related by processing gain.
19. What are the two types of spread spectrum? [R]
-->Direct sequence spread spectrum
 -->Frequency hop spread spectrum
20. What is jamming margin? [R]
Average interference power (J)
Jamming Margin = ---------------------------------------------
Average signal power (Ps)

21. What is meant by PN sequence and what are the properties of PN sequence? [R]
The PN sequence is coded sequence of ones and zeros with certain auto-correlation
properties. There are three properties
-->Balance Property
-->Run Property
-->Correlation property
22. Define FDMA, TDMA and CDMA? [R]
FDMA – Overall bandwidth is shared.
TDMA – Time of Channel is shared.
CDMA – Time as well as bandwidth is shared.

PART-B

1.Compare the merits and demerits of TDMA and FDMA multiple access schemes.
[May/June-2006,8 Marks] [U]
2. List the application of spread spectrum techniques. [U]
3. Comparison of Multiple Access Techniques [May/June-2006,8Marks] [U]
4.(1)Describe the principles of TDMA AND CDMA in wireless communication system. [U]
5.What is the need for multiple access techniques? Explain the various classifications of multiple
access techniques in detail. [Apr/May 2018, May/June-2016, 10-Marks] [U]
6. Briefly discuss about the different multiple access schemes[Nov/Dec 2017, 8 marks] [U]
7. (i)What are PN sequences? What are the properties of PN sequences?
(ii) What are the differences between FHSS and DSSS?
(iii) What are the advantages of spread spectrum? (Apr/May 2018)

PART-C
1.Draw the block diagram of CDMA encoder and decoder and briefly explain
it's working. [Nov/Dec 2017, 8 marks] [U]