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AR6911 URBAN DESIGN

UNDERSTANDING AND INTERPRETING OF URBAN PROBLEMS/ISSUES
Modern urban design emerged in the late 1920s as a loose organization of European
and American architects and city planners, or Founders, who declared that they could solve
ever-worsening urban problems (defined as unhealthy housing, inefficient land use and
inadequate transportation) through enlightened city-building. Their highly conceptual work,
mainly took the form of writing and unrealized projects.

Some of the major problems of urbanisation in India are

 Urban Sprawl
 Overcrowding
 Housing
 Unemployment
 Slums and Squatter Settlements
 Transport
 Water
 Sewerage Problems
 Trash Disposal
 Urban Crimes
 Problem of Urban Pollution
Although India is one of the less urbanized countries of the world with only 35% of the
country’s population living in urban agglomerations/towns, this country is facing a serious
crisis of urban growth at the present time. Whereas urbanisation has been an instrument of
economic, social and political progress, it has led to serious socio-economic problems. The
sheer magnitude of the urban population, haphazard and unplanned growth of urban areas,
and a desperate lack of infrastructure are the main causes of such a situation. The rapid
growth of urban population both natural and through migration, has put heavy pressure on
public utilities like housing, sanitation, transport, water, electricity, health, education and so
on. By 2030, more than 50 per cent of India’s population is expected to live in urban areas.

ISSUES:
Developing countries are experiencing a rapid growth in the urbanization. As a result
of these, countries are faced with shortage of jobs. Unemployment rates rise as a result of
causing people to apply for government-funded programs and benefits. "Businesses and

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governments cannot produce enough jobs to meet the demand of a fast-growing population"
in developing countries. The problems associated with urbanization are: High population
density, inadequate infrastructure, lack of affordable housing, flooding, pollution, slum
creation, crime, congestion and poverty.

HIGH POPULATION DENSITY: This problem of high population density is caused due
to the heavy rate of migration from rural areas. The rapid population growth has led to an
acute shortage of dwelling units which resulted to; overcrowding, traffic congestion,
pollution, housing shortages (slum and squatter housing), high rents, poor urban living
conditions, low infrastructure services, poverty, unemployment, and poor sanitation which
has become pervasive and indeed high crime rate. All of these have an effect on the high
population density in developing countries.

INADEQUATE INFRASTRUCTURES: One major serious aspect of the urban problem is

the poor state of the infrastructures. Some developing countries are still faced with bad road
network, lack of power supply, inadequate water supply and some basic amenities.

LACK OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING: Lack of affordable housing has led to

confrontations with well – organized squatters, who take over unoccupied buildings to live
rent- free or prevent demolitions. Which has brought about, lack of housing vacancy rate, due
to the rapid job growth and housing costs that has increased. Problems such as insufficient
housing, especially particular for low – income families, are being faced, which resulted in
overcrowding of already congested areas, the continuing deterioration of rundown
neighbourhoods, high social cost and untold personal misery. Measures proposed to offset
rising costs in public housing include, less exclusionary zoning regulations, reduced tax
burdens, cooperation with the private builders, Encouragement of cooperative housing
organization, promotion of industrialized building techniques, Use of low- cost building
materials and cheaper mortgage credit.

FLOODING: Flooding is a very serious problem faced in urban areas, especially in

developing countries, during the rainy seasons. The drainage is poorly constructed leading to
difficulty in accessing the roads due to the flood leading to the flood disaster in some
developing countries.

CREATION OF SLUM: The growth of slums in cities is one of the serious problems
created by the rapid industrialization and urbanization. The following projects are introduced
to eliminate slums in urban societies; extensive slum clearance, rehabilitation and rebuilding,
slum improvement scheme, construction of a network of expressways to alleviate urban
decay and ensure the future propensity of the central areas, relocation of inhabitant to the
suburb, slum upgrading scheme which makes provision of some basic amenities such as
street lights, drainage, and accessible roads.

CRIME: The increase in population leads to an increase in crime rate. Due to the high level
of urban unemployment, idleness and joblessness, this has brought about a high increase in
crime rates suffered by the majority of the people in Urban cities. "Without economic
security and amid poor living conditions, crime is inevitable"

CONGESTION: It could be in traffic and overcrowding. In traffic, there is an overcrowding

of a route, leading to slow and inefficient flow which makes movement difficult. Large
increases in motor vehicle usage have resulted in congestion on the roads. Congestion within

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urban areas restricts accessibility. Traffic flow could be controlled by various rules,
regulation and signs which are used to keep traffic flow smoothly. The traffic flows helps to
avoid collisions and other hazard.

PLACE-MAKING AND IDENTITY

Place-making and Identity is a multidisciplinary approach to the planning, design, and
development of public spaces. It uses materiality, form, and context to express the uniqueness
of the place and inspire, engage, connect, and call users to action. Placemaking is the design
activity that uses communications to create experiences that connect people to place. Identity
design by creates a strong sense of “you are here” by differentiating a place or space from
others. Placemaking inspires people to collectively reimagine and reinvent public spaces as
the heart of every community. Strengthening the connection between people and the places
they share, Placemaking refers to a collaborative process by which we can shape our public
realm in order to maximize shared value. More than just promoting better urban design,
Placemaking facilitates creative patterns of use, paying particular attention to the physical,
cultural, and social identities that define a place and support its ongoing evolution. With
community-based participation at its center, an effective Placemaking process capitalizes on a
local community’s assets, inspiration, and potential, and it results in the creation of quality
public spaces that contribute to people’s health, happiness, and well being.

Placemaking is not a new idea. Placemaking gained traction in the 1960s, when Jane Jacobs
and William H. Whyte introduced groundbreaking ideas about designing cities for people, not
just cars and shopping centres. Their work focuses on the social and cultural importance of
lively neighbourhoods and inviting public spaces: Jacobs encouraged everyday citizens to
take ownership of streets through the now-famous idea of “eyes on the street,” while Holly
Whyte outlined key elements for creating vibrant social life in public spaces. Place making
focuses on the possibility of creating distinctiveness, defining traits and the uniqueness of
place, which also connects with the environment, and where the perspective of those most
involved and affected (locals) matters most.

Placemaking is Placemaking is not

 Community-driven  Top-down
 Visionary  Reactionary
 Function before form  Design-driven
 Adaptable  A blanket solution or quick fix
 Inclusive  Exclusionary
 Focused on creating destinations  Car-centric
 Context-specific  One-size-fits-all
 Dynamic  Static
 Trans-disciplinary  Discipline-driven
 Transformative  One-dimensional
 Flexible  Dependent on regulatory controls
 Collaborative  A cost/benefit analysis
 Sociable  Project-focused
MORPHOLOGY

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Urban morphology is the study of the physical form of a
city, which consists of street patterns, building sizes and
shapes, architecture, population density and patterns of
residential, commercial, industrial and other uses, among
other things. Special attention is given to how the physical
form of a city changes over time and to how different cities
compare with each other. Another significant part of this
subfield deals with the study of the social forms which are
expressed in the physical layout of a city and conversely,
how physical form produces or reproduces various social
forms. This approach challenges the common perception of
unplanned environments as chaotic or vaguely organic
through understanding the structures and processes
embedded in urbanization. Morphology studies often deal
with development of forms and pattern of the present city or
other urban areas through time, in short with evolution
(Murphy, 1966). The influences which the city exerts on the social and economic structure of
the area help in the economic structure of the area and in the formation of land use patterns.
Urban morphology seeks to understand the spatial structure and character of an urban area by
examining its patterns and the process of its development.

URBAN SPRAWL
Defined as the spreading of urban developments (such as houses and shopping centres) on
undeveloped land near a city. Urban sprawl, also called sprawl or suburban sprawl, the rapid
expansion of the geographic extent of cities and towns, often characterized by low-density
residential housing, single-use zoning, and increased reliance on the private auto-mobile for
transportation. Urban sprawl is caused in part by the need to accommodate a rising urban
population; however, in many metropolitan areas it results from a desire for increased living
space and other residential amenities. Urban sprawl has been correlated with increased
energy use, pollution, and traffic congestion and a decline in community distinctiveness and
cohesiveness. In addition, by increasing the physical and environmental “footprints” of
metropolitan areas, the phenomenon leads to the destruction of wildlife habitat and to the
fragmentation of remaining natural areas.
There are many factors that contribute to urban sprawl. As indicated by the statistics cited
above, population increases alone do
not account for increases in a
metropolitan area’s urban extent. In
many cases, urban sprawl has occurred
in areas experiencing population
declines, and some areas with rising
populations experience little urban
sprawl, especially in developing
countries. Economic growth and
globalization are often cited as the
principal macroeconomic drivers of urban sprawl; however, increased affluence, attractive
land and housing prices, and the desire for larger homes with more amenities (such as yards,
household appliances, storage space, and privacy) play significant roles at the level of the
individual. Many experts also believe that weak planning laws and single-use zoning also
contribute to urban sprawl.

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GENERIC FORM
The built environment is
essentially embedded within
natural environment. Built form
is made up of those physical
elements in the environment that
have been transformed by
humans and the relationships
between them.
The generic structure of urban
form is a hierarchy of levels
related part to whole. That is to say, one of the characteristics of urban form is that it divides
into distinct levels. The patterns found at different levels such as street/block, plot series, plot,
building, cell and structure are not interchangeable and the long term success of a design
depends on understanding not only the differences but also the relationships between levels.
The levels are interdependent. The generic structure of urban form is a hierarchy of levels
related part to whole.
Locations (neighbourhoods) can be aesthetically pleasing, but homogeneity in design
may work against developing a strong connection with the place. Therefore, beautiful,
visually pleasing aspects do not directly contribute to the artistic value of architecture. The
generic characters of urban form and architectural language are the product of generic design
guidelines. Most current design guidelines use consistent, common, and generic terms to
describe the requirements for urban design and place-making and following such design
guidelines leads to generic if consistent place-making—that is, following generic design
guidelines can lead to consistency in placemaking. However, it can also lead to a lack of
diversity and place identity, which are crucial for perceptual qualities, such as imageability
and visual enclosure.

INCOHERENCE:
Cities became conceptualized as complex, jumbled, messy and incoherent assemblies
of rough juxtapositions. Values of urban design shifted from creating the geometric purity to
embracing the haphazardly mixed urban landscapes and increasing the coherence of these
elements.
Highly complex economic, social, political and cultural designs are projected onto the
city and its transformations. It is impossible that the city be domesticated and dominated by a
single interest, even when this appears as strong, and when it avails itself of the strength of
economic and political power. The overall design always seems incoherent or, rather, is the
outcome of compromises between different interests and strong points. But from these
strengths, their compromise, their agreement or disagreement, from the conflicts, the city
takes shape and gives itself organisation, a type of order. Order that seconds evolution but, at
the same time, creates contradictions.

EFFECTS/ROLL OF REAL ESTATE:

Urbanization and economic growth are major drivers of real estate markets; the rate of
building construction is currently faster than at any time in recorded history. Real estate
defines the city architecture, city's culture and its behaviour. Real estate and the urban
infrastructure should go together. Historically, urban infrastructure and real estate were
always one phenomenon. This is even applicable to some of the latest smart cities like
Barcelona, Shanghai, Singapore and even our own Chandigarh. Urban infrastructure needs to
be built in a way that it complements the nature and needs of the people, which in turn will

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determine the development of real estate in the city. The most important aspect of this
convergence is inclusive development. It is just not the infrastructure development, there
needs to be employment generation for its long-term sustainability. Infrastructure growth
offers short term employment opportunities and unless we create long-term employment
opportunities, this will lead to speculation or such cities would fail. There are several factors
that come into the fore while we define the role real estate plays in shaping urban
infrastructure.

TRANSPORTATION:
The cities invariably exist so that people can interact with each other in person.
Interacting with each other in person requires transportation. We travel from home to work,
shopping, entertainment, and civic spaces. Transportation is, thus, fundamental to the proper
functioning of a city. A city is more likely to succeed when people can get around town
easily, quickly, inexpensively, and safely. Transportation is important to cities, but cities are
also important to transportation. Indeed, our transportation choices are heavily influenced by
urban design.
Urban designers and planners can ensure accessibility through mixed-use
development, or by connecting neighbourhoods through a rich provision of non-motorized
mobility options, like bike paths or high-quality public transportation. If cities are attentive to
non-car alternatives, they prosper in a remarkable way: Incorporating public transit systems,
bike and walking paths, and mixed-use zoning into neighbourhoods helps keep people
“connected” and does quite a bit of good for local economic vitality.
Studies from around the world show that “accessible” residential developments—
residences close to public transit, bike paths, parks, and stores—command double-digit price
premiums, and these numbers can be even higher for commercial space. These models of
smart growth cities cut emissions as people ditch cars for walkable, mixed-use,
neighbourhoods. It turns out that people actually like interesting neighbourhoods, taking a
walk, or jumping on clean, quick, reliable transit. City designers make a suite of decisions
that can organize a city around people instead of cars. Ensuring that every neighbourhood
has a mix of shops, schools, clinics, offices, and parks is a pretty brilliant alternative to
monoculture housing tracts, which require a car to get coffee, pick up laundry, or go to a
soccer game. Mixed-use neighbourhoods are more complex by nature—and thus harder to

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plan and develop. But when done well, they are lively, interesting places rewarding those
who walk or ride a bike.
The iron law of transportation is: If you build it, they will come. Build highways and
wide streets, and cars fill in. But build an efficient metro train (or MRTS), or street-car, or
bus rapid transit, and transit riders will show up. Install bike paths, and people ride bikes.
Make a street vibrant, safe, and shaded, and walkers arrive. When cities are designed for
people instead of cars, all parties prosper. The core design value about cities are not just
about decoration, or mobility: They get to the heart of liveability—and that’s the whole point.

ZONING
Zoning is a tool that most cities use to govern “uses” - residential, commercial,
institutional, and industrial, the size of buildings, and how buildings relate to their
surroundings, including other buildings, open spaces, and the street. In India, zoning began as
a tool to separate uses from one another, and in particular was used to separate more
impactful uses (manufacturing) from more sensitive uses (residential). The combination of
zoning, the mass production of the automobile, and very favorable bank loans for single
family homes are widely held as the principal factors in suburban expansion across the
country.
Best practices in urban design and zoning now look to diversity to help improve
communities: diversity of housing types to provide options to different types of people and
different-sized families; diversity of uses to get people closer to where they work or buy their
daily needs; and
diversity of
transportation
options, so that
driving is not the
only way one can
get around.

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Types of Land Use Zoning

Functional zoning: The most prevalent form of zoning where land use zones are defined
according to their function such as commercial, residential or industrial. Each zone type is
subject to specific rules and regulations concerning the type of activities that can be built.
Form-based zoning: Define zones according to their physical characteristics, mostly from a
urban identity perspective such as the down-town area. This form of zoning is usually easier
to relate to the general population since it uses zonal definitions that are well known.

Intensity zoning: Defines land use zones by the level of permitted intensity, such as the
number of residential units per unit of surface or allowed commercial surface. Such
regulation enables a level of flexibility in urban development since it permits developers to
select which types of development takes place as long as these development abide to density
constraints.

Incentive zoning: Often part of revitalization or development plans where developers are
allowed to build residential, commercial or industrial (manufacturing, warehousing) projects
in specific areas through the provision of various incentives such as tax abatement or basic
infrastructure (road, utilities, public transport services). Further, developers can be granted
lower restrictions, namely density limits, if amenities are such as park areas and
infrastructure, are developed as well.

It is common that more than one type of zoning will be applied to a city, which can lead to
some conflicts and discrepancies between stakeholders. The issue is to try to establish a

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balance between the restrictions imposed by zoning regulations and the dynamic market
forces of urban development.

GLOBALISATION
Globalization is an irreversible and a drifting trans-national phenomenon that
surpasses governments, national institutions and local societies. What are its effects on urban
development and the built environment? How does it affect the urban form?
Globalization may increase the floating population over a land mass, improves the
economical strength, changes the morphology by means of construction, networking,
industrial establishments; it may collapse the cultural as well as traditional values of that
particular area. The effects of globalization on built environment can be evaluated based on
the influences of technology on urban morphology. A historical view to these effects can be
useful. For instance governments, municipalities, etc. in the global south imported the new
transportation technologies such as cars, trams, and so on (which emerged in the western
world) to their cities in the first half of the twentieth century. To use these technologies, they
had to change their urban form to let cars move through the urban texures. The form of street
structures changed, so curvy and narrow routes were replaced by straight and wide streets. In
newer circumstances, car dependency transformed the cities hand in hand with urban sprawl
in many cities of the developing countries with little governmental control. In a more recent
trend, telecommunication technologies like smart phones, apps, etc. affected urban travel
behavior which is solely influential on urban form.

Idea of Sustainability

HERITAGE &
CONSERVATION
Globalising forces inherent in the shift from production to consumption are
influencing changes in the built environment and in their local cultures. This is most acute in
places of heritage value where the local culture with its built heritage is being transformed
into a product for tourist consumption.
Heritage is the full range of our inherited traditions, monuments, objects, and culture.
Most important, it is the range of contemporary activities, meanings, and behaviors that we
draw from them. Heritage includes, but is much more than preserving, excavating,
displaying, or restoring a collection of old things. It is both tangible and intangible, in the
sense that ideas and memories--of songs, recipes, language, dances, and many other elements
of who we are and how we identify ourselves -are as important as historical buildings and
archaeological sites.
Heritage is, or should be, the subject of active public reflection, debate, and
discussion. What is worth saving? What can we, or should we, forget? What memories can
we enjoy, regret, or learn from? Who owns "The Past" and who is entitled to speak for past
generations? Active public discussion about material and intangible heritage--of individuals,
groups, communities, and nations--is a valuable facet of public life in our multicultural world.

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Heritage is a contemporary activity with far-reaching effects. It can be an element of far-
sighted urban and regional planning. It can be the platform for political recognition, a
medium for intercultural dialogue, a means of ethical reflection, and the potential basis for
local economic development. It is simultaneously local and particular, global and shared.
Heritage is an essential part of the present we live in--and of the future we will build.
Conservation and preservation of built heritage with historic, architectural and
cultural significance is one of the major urban design attributes to enhance cultural and
historical continuity of a city. Heritage conservation enhancement generally improves the
image and environment of the city at both micro and macro levels. “The term ‘conservation’
refers to [built] heritage protection in a general sense whereas ‘preservation’ applies where a
place is kept in its existing state with a minimum of interference except to prevent or forestall
deterioration”. It is inevitable that conservation will involve certain adaptive changes of the
built heritage which will be kept in the minimum and within acceptable limit. In another
words, ‘conservation’ has the meaning to conserve for sustainability. Therefore, in order that
a built heritage is to sustain, both processes of conservation and preservation are
simultaneously in progress.

URBAN RENEWAL
Urban renewal refers to a set of plans and activities to upgrade neighbourhoods and
suburbs that are in state of distress or decay. Urban renewal programs address the physical
aspects of urban decay. Urban problems such as deteriorating housing, poor physical
infrastructure (including water and sanitation services), and poor community services such as
sports and recreational amenities are addressed through such programs. Urban renewal can be
distinguished from urban regeneration. The latter is a wider ranging, more holistic policy
intervention that incorporates physical, social, and environmental regeneration. Urban
renewal was considered as an alternative to the unpopular policy of “slum clearance”
involving demolishing decaying housing and slum areas and relocating the people living
there to other parts of a city. The renewal process can include demolishing old or run-down
buildings, constructing new, up-to-date housing, or adding in features like a theatre or
stadium. Urban renewal is usually undergone for the purposes of persuading wealthier
individuals to come live in that area. Urban renewal is often part of the gentrification process.

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URBAN CATALYST
Urban catalysts are new redevelopment strategies comprised of a series of projects that drive
and guide urban development. Redevelopment efforts in the past, such as urban renewal and
large-scale redevelopment projects, have often jeopardized the vitality of downtowns. The
difference between the catalyst and these redevelopment strategies is that catalytic
redevelopment is a holistic approach, not a clean-slate approach, to revitalizing the urban
fabric. Many cities have considered urban catalysts as a means for revitalization. Among the
most noted catalytic projects are sports stadiums and arenas: however not all catalytic
projects have to be designed at such a grand scale, nor do all cities possess a threshold of

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support to successfully sustain such developments. These factors include: morphological,
social, functional, perceptual, visual, and temporal. For the urban catalyst to respond to its
setting it also must possess a strong sense of place and authenticity. In many cities, urban
wastelands and vacant structures suddenly metamorphose in exuberant places. After city
planners and the real estate market have failed in their initial attempts to develop them, these
sites become the setting for clubs and bars, start-up firms and art galleries, migrant economies
and informal markets, recreational activities and nightlife.

TRANSIT METROPOLIS
The Transit Metropolis provides an idea how cities
can manage sprawl and haphazard highway
development by creating successful mass transit
systems. The government gives priority to the
development of transit metropolis as an important
means to improve the level of unban public transport
services, meet basic travel demands for people, as
well as, alleviate city traffic congestion and the
pressure of the resource issues will surely play a
significant roles in new urbanization strategies and
building liveable cities. Transit metropolis reflects a
kind of public transport which provides a city
development mode with comprehensive efficient and benefit of social environment. It makes
city public transport as motorized travel subjects and guides the layout structure for urban
development-oriented.

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION
Contemporary urban design theories acknowledge the value of community
participation in the development processes of our built environment, suggesting that
community involvement has the potential to achieve a more sustainable outcome. Community
participation can be loosely defined as the involvement of people in a community in projects
to solve their own problems. People cannot be forced to 'participate' in projects which affect
their lives but should be given the opportunity where possible.
 Different levels of community participation in development projects.
Level I Level II Level III Level IV Level V
Some personnel, Programme is
Participation goes
Community receives financial or material Community entirely run by the
beyond lower level
benefits from the contributions from participates in lower community, except
decision making to
service, but the community, but level management for some external
monitoring and
contributes nothing not involved in decision making financial and
policy making
decision making technical assistance
Enhancement of community participation also requires a clear understanding of the baseline
and the expected target of achievement after a certain period of time. The lack of clarity in
the concepts of participation, it is difficult to define the levels of achievement.

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