Load

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Energy Management

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Energy Management
Demand
The demand of an installation or system is the load
at the receiving terminals average over a specified
interval of time”. Here the load may be given in
kilowatts, kilovars, kilovolt amperes, kilo amperes or
amperes.
Demand Interval
• It is the period over which the load is average.
This selected Δt period may be 15 min, 30 min,
1h or even longer. Of course, there may be
situations where 15 and 30 min demands are
identical.

• The demand statement should express the

demand interval Δt used to measure it. Fig shows
a daily demand variation curve, or load curve, as
a function of demand intervals. Note that the
selection of both Δt and total time t in arbitrary.
Load Curve/ Demand Variation Curve
• The load is expressed in per unit (pu) of peak
load of the system. For example, the maximum of
15 min demand is 0.940pu, and the maximum of
1h demand is 0.884, whereas the average daily
demand of the system is 0.254.
Load Duration Curve
• The data given by the curve of Fig. 2.1 can be expressed
as shown in Fig. 2.2. Here the time is given in pu of the
total time. The curve is constructed by selecting the
maximum peak points and connecting them by a curve.
This curve is called the load- duration curve. The load
duration curve can be daily, weekly, monthly or annual.
Load Duration Curve
• If the curve is the plot of all the 8760 hourly load during the
year, it is called an annual load duration curve. In that
case, the curve shows the individual hourly load during the
year, but not in the order that they occurred, and the
number of hours in the year that load exceeded the value
shown.

• The hour-to-hour load on a system changes over a wide

range. For example, the daytime peak load is typically
double the minimum load during the night. Usually, the
annual peak load is, due to seasonal variations about
three times the annual minimum.
Maximum Demand
• The maximum demand of an installation or system is the
greatest of all demand which have occurred during the
specific period of time.

• The maximum demand statement should also express the

demand interval used to measure it. For example, the
specific demand might be the maximum of all demands
such as daily, weekly, monthly or annual.
Diversified Demand (or Coincident Demand)
• It is the demand of the composite group, as a whole, of
somewhat unrelated load over a specific period of time.
Here, the maximum diversified demand has an
importance. It is the maximum sum of the contribution of
the individual demands over the diversified demand over a
specific time interval.
• If test location can, in the aggregate, be considered
statistically representative of the residential customer as a
whole, a load curve for the entire residential class of
customer can be prepared.
• If this same technique is used for other classes of the
customers, similar load curve can be prepared. As shown
in Fig 2.4 if these load curves are aggregated, the system
load curve can be developed. The interclass coincidence
relationship can be observed by comparing the curve.
Diversified Demand (or Coincident Demand)
Diversified Demand (or Coincident Demand)
Non-Coincident Demand
• The sum of the demand of the group of load with
no restrictions on the interval to each demand is
applicable. Here, again the maximum of the non
coincident demand is the value of some
importance.
Demand Factor
• It is the “ratio of the maximum demand of a system to the
total connected load of the system”. Therefore the demand
factor (DF) is

• The DF can also be found for the part of the system, for
example, an industrial or commercial customer, instead of
for the whole system. In either case, the DF is usually less
than 1.0. It is an indicator of the simultaneous operation of
the total connected load.
Connected Load
• It is “the sum of the continuous rating of the load-
consuming apparatus connected to the system or
any part thereof”. When the maximum demand
and the total connected demand have the same
units, the DF is dimensionless.
Energy Management (Actual System)
Energy Management (Generation Side)
Energy Management (Load Side)
Utilization Factor
• It is “the ratio of the maximum demand of a system to the
rated capacity of the system”. Therefore the utilization
factor (Fu) is

• The utilization factor can also be found for a part of the

system. The rated system capacity may be selected to be
the smaller of thermal-or voltage- drop capacity
Plant Factor
• It is the ratio of the total actual energy produced or served
over a designated period of time to the energy that would
have been produced or served if the plant(or unit) had
operated continuously at maximum rating. It is also known
as the capacity factor or the use factor therefore,
Load Factor
• It is the ratio of the average load over a designated period
of time to the peak load occurring on that period.
Therefore, the load factor FLD is the ratio of the average
load to the peak load.
Load Factor
• Where T is the time, in days, weeks, months, or years. The
longer the period T the smaller the resultant factor. The
reason for this is that for the same maximum demand, the
energy consumption covers the larger time period and
result in the smaller average load. Here, when time T is
selected to be in days, weeks, months or years, use it in
24, 168, 730, 8760 h respectively. It is less than or equal to
1.0. Therefore, for example, the annual load factor is

Load
Diversity Factor
• It is the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum
demands of the various subdivisions of a system to the
maximum demand of the whole system. Therefore, the
diversity factor (FD) is
Diversity Factor
• Where Di is the maximum demand of load i, disregarding time of
occurrence and Dg = D 1+2+3+…+n is the coincident maximum demand of
group of n loads. The diversity factor can be equal to or greater than
1.0.

• Because, Maximum demand = total connected demand x DF

• Where TCDi is the total connected demand of group, or class, i load

and DFi is the demand factor of group, or class, i load.
Coincident Factor
• It is the ratio of maximum coincident demand of a group of
consumers to the sum of the maximum power demands of
individual consumers comprising the group both taken at
the same point of supply for the same time. Therefore the
coincident factor (FC )is

• Thus, the coincidence factor is the reciprocal of diversity

factor; that is,
Advantages of Diversity and Coincidence
• These ideas on the diversity and coincidence are the basis
for the theory and practice of north-to-south and east-to-
west interconnections among the power pools in this
country.

• For example, during winter time, energy comes from south

to north, and during summer, just the opposite occurs.
Also, east –to-west interconnections help to improve the
energy dispatch by means of sunset or sunrise
adjustments, that is , the setting of clock 1h late or early.
Load Diversity
• It is the difference between the sum of the peaks of two or
more individual loads and the peak of the combined load.
Therefore, the load diversity (LD) is
Contribution Factor
• ci is defined as “the contribution factor of the ith load to the
group maximum demand”. It is given in pu of the individual
maximum demand of the ith load.
Contribution Factor
• CASE – I
D1 = D2 = D3 =….= Dn = D

That is , the coincidence factor is equal to the average

contribution factor

• CASE – II
c1= c2=c3=….=cn = c

That is , the coincidence factor is equal to the contribution

factor
Loss Factor
• It is “the ratio of the average power loss to the peak load
power loss during a specific period of time”. Therefore the
loss factor (FLS) is

• Which is applicable for the copper losses of the system but

not for the iron losses.
Relationship between The Load and Loss
Factors
Relationship between The Load and Loss
Factors
Relationship between The Load and Loss
Factors
Relationship between The Load and Loss
Factors
Relationship between The Load and Loss
Factors
Relationship between The Load and Loss
Factors
Relationship between The Load and Loss
Factors
Thank You