NETWORKING:

Networking is a method of communication which comprises of two or more computers that

are linked to each other by using cables, hubs or wireless communications. This is designed to
give every computer an access to other computers. Internet, photos, music and other multimedia
files may be shared through a network.

PROTOCOL:
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating.

REPEATERS:
A repeater is a network device that is used to regenerate or replicate signals that are
weakened or distorted by transmission over long distances and through areas with high levels of
electromagnetic interference (EMI).
The purpose of a repeater is to extend the LAN segment beyond its physical limits (e.g.
Ethernet is 500m for 10Base5). Unlike bridges and switches, repeaters do not have physical
addresses on the network. It operates at the physical layer.

HUBS:
A hub is an element of hardware for centralizing network traffic coming from multiple
hosts, and to propagate the signal. The hub has a certain number of ports (it has enough ports to
link machines to one another, usually 4, 8, 16 or 32). Its only goal is to recover binary
data coming into a port and send it to all the other ports. As with a repeater, a hub operates on
layer 1 of the OSI model, which is why it is sometimes called a multiport repeater.

CONNECTING MULTIPLE HUBS:

It is possible to connect several hubs together in order to centralize a larger number of

machines; this is sometimes called a daisy chain. To do this, all that is needed is to connect the
hubs using crossover cable, a kind of cable which links the in/out ports on one end to those on
the other.
Hubs generally have a special port called an "uplink" for connecting two hubs together using a
patch cable. There are also hubs which can cross or uncross their ports automatically depending
on whether they are connected to a host or a hub.
If you want to connect multiple machines to your Internet connection, a hub is not
enough. You'll either need to have a router or a switch, or to leave the computer connected
directly as a gateway (it will stay on constantly for as long as the other computers on the network
want to access the Internet.)
Bridges

A bridge is a hardware device for linking two networks that work with the
same protocol. Unlike a repeater, which works at the physical level, a bridge works at
the logical level (on layer 2 in the OSI model), which means that it can filter frames so
that it only lets past data whose destination address corresponds to a machine located
on the other side of the bridge.
The bridge is used to segment a network, holding back the frames intended for the local
area network while transmitting those meant for other networks. This reduces traffic
(and especially collisions) on all networks, and increases the level of privacy, as
information intended for one network cannot be listened toon the other end.
On the other hand, the filtering carried out by the bridge can cause a slight delay when
going from one network to another, and this is why bridges must be carefully placed
within a network.

A bridge's normal role is to send packets between two networks of the same type.

Concept

A bridge has two connections to two distinct networks. When the bridge receives a
frame on one of its interfaces, it analyses the MAC address of both the sender and
recipient. If a bridge doesn't recognise the sender, it stores its address in a table in
order to "remember" which side of the network the sender was on. This way, the bridge
can find out if the sender and receiver are found on the same side or opposite sides of
the bridge. If it's the former, the bridge ignores the message; if it's the latter, the bridge
sends the frame along to the other network.

How a bridge works

A bridge works at the data link layer of the OSI model, meaning that it operates using
the physical addresses of the machines. In reality, the bridge is linked to several local
area networks, called segments. The bridge creates a function table with the machines'
addresses and the segments they belong to, and "listens" to the data running through
the segments.
When data is transmitted, the bridge checks the function table for the segment the
sending and receiving computers belong to (using their physical address, called the
MAC address, and not their IP address). If they belong to the same segment, the bridge
does nothing; otherwise, it switches the data over to the destination computer's
segment.

What use is a bridge?

The bridge is used to segment a network, meaning that in the diagram shown above,
communication between the three computers on top will not obstruct the lines running
between the three computers on the bottom. The information will only pass through
when a computer on one side of the bridge sends data to a computer on the other side.
What's more, these bridges can be linked to a modem, so they can work with a remote
local area network as well.
Here is a diagram of a bridge:

Switches
A switch is a multi-port bridge, meaning that it is an active element working on layer 2
of the OSI model.
The switch analyses the frames coming in on its entry ports and filters the data in order
to focus solely on the right ports (this is called switching and is used in switched
networks). As a result, the switch can act as both a port when filtering and as a hub
when handling connections. Here is a diagram of a switch:
Switching

The switch uses a filtering/switching mechanism that redirects data flow to the most
suitable machines, based on certain elements found in the data packets.
A layer-4 switch, operating on the transport layer of the OSI model, inspects the source
and destination addresses of the messages, and creates a table that lets it find out
which machine is connected to which port on the switch (in general this process is done
automatically, but the switch manager can work differently if the right adjustments are
made).
Once it knows the destination port, the switch only sends the message to the right port,
and the other ports are then free for other transmissions which may be taking place at
the same time. Consequently, each data exchange can run at the nominal transfer rate
(more bandwidth sharing), without collisions, with the end result being a very significant
increase in the network's bandwidth (at an equal nominal speed).
The most advanced switches, called layer 7 switches (corresponding to the application
layer of the OSI model) can redirect data based on advanced application data contained
in the data packets, such as cookies for HTTP, the type of the file being sent for FTP,
etc. For this reason, a layer 7 switch can be used for load balancing, by routing the
incoming data flow to the most appropriate servers, which have a lower load or are
responding more quickly.

Router

A router is a device for connecting computer networks to one another, used for
handling the routing of packets between two networks, or to determine the path that a
data packet shall take.
When a user enters a URL, the Web client (the browser) queries the domain name
server, which shows it the IP address of the desired machine.
The workstation sends the request to the nearest router, i.e. to the default gateway on
the network it is located on. This router determines the next machine to which the data
will be forwarded, in such a way as to choose the best pathway possible. To do so, the
routers keep up-to-date routing tables, which are like maps showing the paths that can
be taken to get to the destination address. There are numerous protocols designed to
handle this process. In addition to their routing function, routers are also used to
manipulate data traveling in the form of datagram’s so that they can go from one kind of
network to another. As not all networks are able to handle the same size of data
packets, routers are tasked with fragmenting packets so they can travel freely.
Physical design of routers

The first routers were simply computers with multiple network cards, with each one
linked to a different network. Current routers are mostly hardware designed for routing,
generally in the form of 1U servers.

A router has several network interfaces, with each one connected to a different network.
Therefore, it has one IP address for every network it is connected to.

Wireless router

A wireless router is the same in principle as a traditional router, the difference being that
it lets wirelessdevices (such as WiFi stations) connect to the networks which the router
is connected to by wired connections (usually Ethernet).

Routing protocols

There are two major types of routing protocols:

• Distance vector routers generate a routing table that calculates the "cost" (in
terms of the number of hops) of each route, then sends that table to nearby routers.
Each time a connection request is made, the router chooses the least costly route.
 • Link state routers listen to the network continuously, in order to identify the
various elements surrounding it. With this information, each router calculates the
shortest pathway (in terms of time) to each neighbouring router, and sends this
information in the form of update packets. Finally, each router builds its own routing
table by calculating the shortest pathways to all other routers (using
theDijkstra algorithm).

Bridge/routers

A bridge/router is a hybrid element that joins the features of a router and those of
a bridge. Therefore, this kind of hardware is used for transferring non-routable protocols
from one network to another, and to route the others. More precisely, the bridge/router
acts first and foremost as a bridge if it can, and routes the packets if that isn't possible.
A bridge/router can, in some architectures, save more money and space than having
both a router and a bridge.

What is a local area network?

A local area network (LAN) is a network used for connecting a business or

organisation's computers to one another. With a LAN, a concept that goes back to 1970,
a company's employees can:
• Exchange information
• Communicate
• Access various services
A local area network usually links computers (or resources such as printers) using a
wired transmission medium (most frequently twisted pairs or coaxial cables) over a
circumference of about a hundred metres. For larger spaces, the network is considered
to be part of a network called a MAN (metropolitan area network), in which the
transmission medium is better suited to sending signals over great distances.

Hardware components of a local area network

A local area network is made of computers linked by a set of software and hardware
elements. The hardware elements used for connecting computers to one another are:
• The network card: This is a card connected to the computer's motherboard,
which interfaces with the physical medium, meaning the physical lines over which the
information travels.
• The transceiver: This is used to transform the signals travelling over the
physical support into logical signals that the network card can manipulate, both when
sending and receiving data.
 • The socket: This is the element used to mechanically connect the network card
with the physical medium.
• The physical connection medium: This is the support (generally wired,
meaning that it's in the form of a cable) used to link the computers together. The
main physical support media used in local area networks are:
• Coaxial cable
• Twisted pair
• Fibre optics

Local area network topologies

The hardware devices alone are not enough to create a usable local area network. It is
also necessary to set a standard access method between computers, so that they know
how the computers are exchanging data, especially when more than two computers are
sharing the same physical support. This access method is called a logical topology.
The logical topology is carried out using an access protocol. The most common
access protocols are:
• Ethernet
• Token ring
The way the computers are physically connected is called physical topology. The
basic physical topologies are:
• Ring topology
• Bus topology
• Star topology

OSI Protocol Stack

DETAIL EXPLANATION ABOUT OSI MODEL

Introduction to the ISO - OSI Model

The ISO (International Standards Organization) has created a layered model,

called the OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) model, to describe defined layers
in a network operating system. The purpose of the layers is to provide clearly
defined functions that can improve Internetwork connectivity between
"computer" manufacturing companies. Each layer has a standard defined
input and a standard defined output.

Understanding the function of each layer is instrumental in understanding data

communication within Local, Metropolitan or Wide networks.

OSI Model Explained

This is a top-down explanation of the OSI Model. It starts with the user's PC
and it follows what happens to the user's file as it passes though the different
OSI Model layers. The top-down approach was selected specifically (vs.
starting at the Physical Layer and working up to the Application Layer) for
ease of understanding. It is used here to show how the user's files are
transformed (through the layers) into a bit stream for transmission on the
network.

Since computer networks can be very complex in their design, a model was created to show
network protocol in a series of layers which are each built upon its predecessor. The OSI model
(Open Systems Interconnection) is a protocol stack which was designed by the ISO
(International Standards Organization) in 1984 as a replacement for the then existing protocols
such as SNA from IBM. This was a reference model which the ISO developed for worldwide
communication between end users. The model is a seven layer protocol stack which passes
control downward from top to bottom. At each layer, the specific duties are carried out while the
layer below prepares to receive information from the above layer. The OSI model consists of
seven layers. Each layer from top to bottom is a collection of related functions that provide the
above layer with services. The upper four layers are used when a message is passed to or from a
user; these layers of the protocol handle matters related to software such as encryption, format,
etc. The lower three layers are used to pass messages through the host computer. These layers
deal more with the physical communication between the systems such as network connections
with an Ethernet cable, etc.
The seven layers of the OSI model are Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network,
Data Link, and Physical.

At the application layer, communication partners are identified, user authentication is considered
and the quality of service and any errors in data syntax are identified. When communication
partners are identified, the application layer must find out if the sufficiency of network resources
exists for communication to take place. The application layer is the coordinator for
synchronization and other processes and manages the communication between applications.
Application services such as emailing and file transfer such as FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
exists entirely at this layer.

The next layer in the model is the presentation layer. The presentation level is usually a part of
the OS and converts in and outgoing data from presentation format to another which is ordered
and meaningful. Here, data is converted to a form which the application layer can accept. Data
compression schemes allow for compressed or encrypted data to be easily decompressed or
decrypted upon arrival at its destination. A variety of changes such as encryption and ACSII
conversion occur at this layer so that information can be sent across a network with ease then
presented to the host computer in a form which is understandable and can be used by that host.
This function is usually the conversion of data into standard image, sound or text formats.

The next layer in the model is the session layer. An example of this layer is token management
where the layer controls who has the token. This layer manages and coordinates communication
sessions, establishes, manages and terminates conversations, and handles exchanges and dialogs
between applications at each end as timely as possible. Communication sessions are requests
from the applications in the several network devices.

The transport layer is responsible for reliable transmission of information across the network
which involves end-to-end error recovery. It does a transparent transfer of data between end
users or hosts. It ensures complete data transfer and it also handles the type of connection to be
created. Upper layer data packets are converted into smaller network sized packets which are
then transported across the network to the other end user as fast as possible while maintaining the
reliability of the data being sent. Due to the conditions present, the layer will create more than
one network connections.

The next layer in the OSI model is the network layer. This layer is the first of the
hardware based layers to receive control. This layer allows for the connection of routers and
other physical devices which support the connectivity of the network. These create logical paths
known as virtual circuits which allow the transmission of data from node to node (station to
station). In addition to routing, etc the network layer performs the function of addressing,
internetworking, error handling, congestion control and packet sequencing.

The data link layer is responsible for encoding and decoding data into bits. Also, it provides for
reliable transfer of data from one end to the other at an electronic and mechanical level.
Hardware devices such as hubs, switches and bridges operate at the data link layer. It also
handles tasks such as flow regulation, error detection and control. This layer is responsible for
creating and managing the packets which are sent out on the network. The data link layer is
responsible for sending packets of data out, however it does not cater for the receipt of data at the
other end of the network. The network data packets consist of a checksum, source address,
destination address and the data which is the message being sent. The Maximum Transmission
Unit (MTU) is a term related to the data link layer and is the largest set of packets or frames
which can be sent.
The data link layer consist of two sub layers, these are the logical Link Control (LLC) and the
Medium Access Control (MAC). The Logical Link Control defines how data can be transferred
over cablewire connections and also provides the data link services to the above layers. Next, the
Medium Access Control defines who is allowed to use the network when many systems are
trying to simultaneously access it. This involves token passing, Ethernet and other protocols for
networking; some of these protocols include Serial Line IP (SLIP), Point to Point Protocol (PPP)
and Multiple Transmission Unit (MTU).

The last layer in the OSI model is the physical layer which literally deals entirely with the
physical components of the network. This layer is responsible for the physical transfer of data in
the form of bits from station to station. Items which operate at this level are for example cables
voltages (CAT5, etc) or pin outs. The physical layer is concerned with (1) physical device
interfaces such as mechanical and electronic specifications; (2) the transmission type (duplex or
half duplex) and (3) the amount of bits which are transmitted per second.

A graphical illustration of how the OSI model is intended to work

Despite the introduction of the OSI model the TCPIP protocol is the one which is more
commonly used in the real life. This may be because the TCPIP protocol has fewer layers and is
easier on the eye and mind and also, the TCPIP protocol was designed to solve problems which
actually occur with networks.

Layer 7 - Application Layer

Fig. 1. Basic PC Logical Flowchart

A basic PC logic flowchart is shown in Fig. 1. The Keyboard & Application are
shown as inputs to the CPU (requesting access to the hard disk). The
Keyboard requests accesses through user inquiries (such as "DIR"
commands) and the Application seeks access through "File Openings" and
"Saves". The CPU, through the Disk Operating System, sends and receives
data from the local hard disk ("C:" in this example).
Fig. 2. Simple Network Redirection

A PC setup as a network workstation has a software "Network Redirector"

(the actual name depends on the network - we will use a generic term here)
placed between the CPU and DOS (as shown in Fig 2.). The Network
Redirector is a TSR (Terminate and Stay Resident) program: it presents the
network hard disk as another local hard disk ("G:" in this example) to the CPU.
All CPU requests are intercepted by the "Network Redirector". The Network
Redirector checks to see if either a local or a network drive is requested. If a
local drive is requested, the request is passed on to DOS. However, if a
network drive is requested, the request is then passed on to the network
operating system (NOS).

Electronic mail (E-Mail), client-server databases, games played over the

network, print and file servers, remote logons, and network management
programs (or any "network aware" applications) are all aware of the network
redirector. They have the ability to communicate directly with other "network
applications" on the network. The "Network Aware Applications" and the
"Network Redirector" make up Layer 7 (the Application layer of the OSI
Model, as shown in Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. PC Workstation with Network Aware Software

Layer 6 - Presentation Layer

The Network Redirector sends CPU operating system native code to the
network operating system: the coding and format of the data is not
recognizable by the network operating system. The data consists of file
transfers and network calls by network aware programs.

For example, when a dumb terminal is used as a workstation (in a mainframe

or minicomputer network), the network data is translated into (and from) the
format that the terminal can use. The Presentation layer presents data to and
from the terminal using special control characters to control the screen display
(LF-line feed, CR-carriage return, cursor movement, etc..). The presentation
of data on the screen would depend on the type of terminal that's used:
VT100, VT52, VT420, etc.
Similarly, the Presentation layer strips the pertinent file from the workstation
operating system's file envelope. The control characters, screen formatting,
and workstation operating system envelope are all stripped or added to the file
(if the workstation is receiving or transmitting data to the network). This could
also include translating ASCII file characters from a PC world to EBCDIC in an
IBM Mainframe world.

The Presentation Layer also controls security at the file level: this provides
both file locking and user security. The DOS Share program is often used for
file locking. When a file is in use, it is locked from other users to prevent 2
copies of the same file from being generated. If 2 users both modified the
same file, and User A saved it, then User B saved it, then User A's changes
would be erased!

At this point, the data is contiguous and complete (i.e. one large data file). See
Fig. 4.

Layer 5 - Session Layer

The Session layer manages the communications between the workstation and
the network. The Session layer directs the information to the correct
destination, and identifies the source to the destination. The Session layer
identifies the type of information as data or control. The Session layer
manages the initial start-up of a session, and the orderly closing of a session.
The Session layer also manages Log on procedures and Password
recognition (See Fig. 5).
Fig. 5. Session Layer

Layer 4 - Transport Layer

In order for the data to be sent across the network, the file must be broken up
into usable small data segments (typically 512 - 18K bytes). The Transport
layer breaks up the file into segments for transport to the network, and
combines incoming segments into a contiguous file. The Transport layer does
this logically, not physically, and it is done in software as opposed to
hardware.

The Transport layer provides error checking at the segment level (frame
control sequence). This makes sure that the datagrams are in the correct
order: the Transport layer will correct out of order datagrams. The Transport
layer guarantees an error-free host to host connection. It is not concerned with
the path between machines.

Layer 3 - Network Layer

The Network layer is concerned with the path through the network. It is
responsible for routing, switching, and controlling the flow of information
between hosts. The Network layer converts the segments into smaller
datagrams than the network can handle: network hardware source and
destination addresses are also added. The Network layer does not guarantee
that the datagram will reach its destination.

Fig. 7. Network Layer

Layer 2 - Data Link Layer

The Data Link layer is a firmware layer of the network interface card. The Data
Link layer puts the datagrams into packets (frames of bits: 1s & 0s) for
transmission, and assembles received packets into datagrams. The Data Link
layer works at the bit level, and adds start / stop flags and bit error checking
(CRC or parity) to the packet frame. Error checking is at the bit level only:
packets with errors are discarded and a request for re-transmission is sent
out. The Data Link layer is primarily concerned with bit sequence.

Fig. 8. Data Link Layer

Layer 1 - Physical Layer

The Physical layer concerns itself with the transmission of bits. It also
manages the network card's hardware interface to the network. The hardware
interface involves the type of cabling (coax, twisted pair, etc.), frequency of
operation (1 Mbps, 10Mbps, etc.), voltage levels, cable terminations,
topography (star, bus, ring, etc.), etc. Examples of Physical layer protocols are
as follows: 10Base5 - Thicknet, 10Base2 - Thinnet, 10BaseT - twisted pair,
ArcNet, FDDI, etc. (see Fig. 9).

Layer-Specific Communication

Each layer may add a Header and a Trailer to its Data (which consists of the
next higher layer's Header, Trailer and Data as it moves through the layers).
The Headers contain information that specifically addresses layer-to-layer
communication. For example, the Transport Header (TH) contains information
that only the Transport layer sees. All other layers below the Transport layer
pass the Transport Header as part of their Data.

PDU - Protocol Data Unit (a fancy name for Layer Frame)

 Explanation of router, switch, hub

The functions of a router, hub and a switch are all quite different from one another, even
if at times they are all integrated into a single device. Let's start with the hub and the
switch since these two devices have similar roles on the network. Each serves as a
central connection for all of your network equipment and handles a data type known as
frames. Frames carry your data. When a frame is received, it is amplified and then
transmitted on to the port of the destination PC. The big difference between these two
devices is in the method in which frames are being delivered.

In a hub, a frame is passed along or "broadcast" to every one of its ports. It doesn't
matter that the frame is only destined for one port. The hub has no way of distinguishing
which port a frame should be sent to. Passing it along to every port ensures that it will
reach its intended destination. This places a lot of traffic on the network and can lead to
poor network response times.

Additionally, a 10/100Mbps hub must share its bandwidth with each and every one of its
ports. So when only one PC is broadcasting, it will have access to the maximum
available bandwidth. If, however, multiple PCs are broadcasting, then that bandwidth
will need to be divided among all of those systems, which will degrade performance.

A switch, however, keeps a record of the MAC addresses of all the devices connected
to it. With this information, a switch can identify which system is sitting on which port. So
when a frame is received, it knows exactly which port to send it to, without significantly
increasing network response times. And, unlike a hub, a 10/100Mbps switch will
allocate a full 10/100Mbps to each of its ports. So regardless of the number of PCs
transmitting, users will always have access to the maximum amount of bandwidth. It's
for these reasons why a switch is considered to be a much better choice then a hub.

Routers are completely different devices. Where a hub or switch is concerned with
transmitting frames, a router's job, as its name implies, is to route packets to other
networks until that packet ultimately reaches its destination. One of the key features of a
packet is that it not only contains data, but the destination address of where it's going.

A router is typically connected to at least two networks, commonly two Local Area
Networks (LANs) or Wide Area Networks (WAN) or a LAN and its ISP's network . for
example, your PC or workgroup and EarthLink. Routers are located at gateways, the
places where two or more networks connect. Using headers and forwarding tables,
routers determine the best path for forwarding the packets. Router use protocols such
as ICMP to communicate with each other and configure the best route between any two
hosts.

Today, a wide variety of services are integrated into most broadband routers. A router
will typically include a 4 - 8 port Ethernet switch (or hub) and a Network Address
Translator (NAT). In addition, they usually include a Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP) server, Domain Name Service (DNS) proxy server and a hardware
firewall to protect the LAN from malicious intrusion from the Internet.

All routers have a WAN Port that connects to a DSL or cable modem for broadband
Internet service and the integrated switch allows users to easily create a LAN. This
allows all the PCs on the LAN to have access to the Internet and Windows file and
printer sharing services.

Some routers have a single WAN port and a single LAN port and are designed to
connect an existing LAN hub or switch to a WAN. Ethernet switches and hubs can be
connected to a router with multiple PC ports to expand a LAN. Depending on the
capabilities (kinds of available ports) of the router and the switches or hubs, the
connection between the router and switches/hubs may require either straight-thru or
crossover (null-modem) cables. Some routers even have USB ports, and more
commonly, wireless access points built into them.

Some of the more high-end or business class routers will also incorporate a serial port
that can be connected to an external dial-up modem, which is useful as a backup in the
event that the primary broadband connection goes down, as well as a built in LAN
printer server and printer port.

Besides the inherent protection features provided by the NAT, many routers will also
have a built-in, configurable, hardware-based firewall. Firewall capabilities can range
from the very basic to quite sophisticated devices. Among the capabilities found on
leading routers are those that permit configuring TCP/UDP ports for games, chat
services, and the like, on the LAN behind the firewall.

So, in short, a hub glues together an Ethernet network segment, a switch can connect
multiple Ethernet segments more efficiently and a router can do those functions plus
route TCP/IP packets between multiple LANs and/or WANs; and much more of course.