Chemistry IX M PART 1 PDF

ck-X{¥w
Ãm≥tU¿Uv IX
`mKw˛1
NT-249-1-CHEMISTRY-9-M-VOL.1
tIc-f-k¿°m¿
s]mXphnZym-`ym-kh
- I
- p∏v
kwÿm\ hnZym-`ymk Kth-jW ]cn-io-e\ kanXn (SCERT), tIcfw

2019
tZio-b-Km\w
P\-K-W-a-\- -A-[n-\m-bI Pbtl
`mc-X -`m-Ky-hn-[mXm,
]©m-_-kn‘p KpP-dmØ admTm
{ZmhnU DXv°e - - _w-Km,
hn‘y-ln-am-N-e -b-ap\mKwKm,
D—e Pe-[nX-cwKm,
Xh-ip-`\ - mta PmtK,
Xh-ip` Bin-j -am-tK,
Kmtl Xh- P-b- KmYm
P\-KW- a- w-Ke- Z- m-bI Pbtl
`mc-X- `m-Ky-hn-[mXm,
Pb-tl, Pb-tl, Pb-tl,
Pb Pb Pb Pbtl!
{]Xn⁄
C¥y Fs‚ cmPy-am-Wv. F√m C¥y-°mcpw Fs‚
ktlm-Z-co- ktlmZc-∑m-cm-Wv.
Rm≥ Fs‚ cmPysØ kvt\ln-°p∂p; kºq¿Whpw
sshhn-[y-]q¿W-hp-amb AXns‚ ]mc-ºc
- y-Øn¬ Rm≥
A`n-am\w sIm≈p∂p.
Rm≥ Fs‚ amXm-]n-Xm-°-sfbpw Kpcp-°-∑m-scbpw
apXn¿∂-hscbpw _lp-am-\n-°pw.
Rm≥ Fs‚ cmPy-Øn-s‚bpw Fs‚ \m´p-Im-cp-sSbpw
t£a-Øn\pw sFiz-cy-Øn-\pw- th≠n {]bXv\n°pw.
State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)

Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram 695012, Kerala
Website : www.scertkerala.gov.in, e-mail : scertkerala@gmail.com
Phone : 0471 - 2341883, Fax : 0471 - 2341869
Typesetting and Layout : SCERT
Printed at : KBPS, Kakkanad, Kochi-30
© Department of Education, Government of Kerala
{]nb-s∏´ hnZ-ym¿Yn-Itf,
]co-£-W-Øn-eq-sSbpw \nco-£W-Øn-eq-sSbpw hni-I-e-\-Øn-eq-sSbpw a\p-jy≥
ssIh-cn® Adn-hmWv imkv{Xw. \mw B¿Pn® F√m t\´-ßƒ°pw ImcWw
imkv{X-cw-K-Øp-≠mb hf¿®-bm-Wv. IqSp-X¬ ]ptcm-K-Xnbpw t\´-ßfpw e£y-
an-Sp∂ F√m-h¿°pw imkv{X]T\w Kuc-hamb hnj-b-am-Wv. AXn-\p≈ D]m-[n-
I-fmWv imkv{X ]mT]pkvX-I-ßƒ. imkv{X-]-T-\-Ønse ASn-ÿm\ coXn-I-fmb
]co-£Ww, \nco-£Ww, A]-{K-Y\w, \nK-a-\-cq-]o-I-cWw F∂n-hbv°v Du∂¬
\¬In imkv{X]T\w B\-μI - c
- a
- mb Hc-\p-`h
- a
- mbn amd-Ww. ]pXnb Bi-bß
- fpw
taJ-e-Ifpw ]cn-N-b-s∏-Sp-tºmgpw \mw Nne Pohn-X-aq-ey-ßfpw at\m-`m-h-ßfpw
hf¿Øn-sb-Sp-t°-≠-Xm-bn-´p-≠v. ap≥¢mkp-I-fn¬ t\Snb Adn-hp-I-fp-sSbpw Ign-
hp-I-fp-sSbpw XpS¿®bpw hf¿®bpw Dd∏phcpØn IqSp-X¬ Db-c-ß-fn¬ FtØ-
≠-Xp-≠v. Cu e£y-ß-sf√mw ap∂n¬ I≠p-sIm-≠m-Wv Cu ck-X{¥]mT-]p-
kvXIw Xbm-dm-°n-bn-cn-°p-∂-Xv.
am\hkwkvIm-c-Øn\p ]pXnb am\-ßƒ \¬Ip-Ibpw a\p-jy-cpsS PohnXkuI-
cy-ßƒ sa®-s∏-Sp-Øp-∂X- n¬ \n¿Wm-bIamb ]¶ph-ln-°p-Ibpw sNbvX imkv{X-
im-J-bmWv ck-X-{¥w. a\p-jy-Po-hn-XsØ C{X-am{Xw kzm[o-\n-® as‰mcp imkv{X-
im-J-bn-s√∂p Xs∂ ]d-bmw. Irjn, hymh-km-bw, sshZy-imkv{Xw XpSßn F√m
taJ-e-I-fnepw ck-X-{¥Øns‚ kw`m-h-\-Iƒ \nkvXp-e-am-Wv. AXp-sIm-≠p-Xs∂
ck-X-{¥-]-T\w a\p-jy-]p-tcm-K-Xn-bpsS ]T-\-am-sW∂v ]d-bmw.
ka{K F∂ hnZym-`ymk t]m¿épw Iyq.B¿.-tImUv tcJ-s∏-Sp-Ønb ]mT-]p-kvX-
I- ß fpw ¢mkv d qw ]T- \ - { ]- h ¿Ø- \ - ß ƒ Bbm- k - c - l n- X hpw ck- I chpw
B°nØo¿°pw. tZio-bs - Xm-gn¬ ss\]pWn N´-°q-Spw (F≥.-Fk - v.I
- yq.-F^v) Imen-
I-{]-k-‡n-bp-ff Zpc-¥-\n-hm-c-Wam¿§-ßfpw sF.kn.Sn km[y-X-Ifpw Cu ]mT-]p-
kvX-I-Øn¬ ]cn-K-Wn®n´p-≠v.
]mT-]p-kvX-I-Øn¬ \¬In-bn-´p≈ ]T\{]h¿Ø-\-ßfpw ]T-\m-\p-`-h-ßfpw
N¿®mkqNIßƒ ]c-am-h[n D]-tbm-K-s∏-Sp-Ønbpw kvIqfnepw ]cn-k-c-ß-fnepw
et_m-d-´-dn-I-fnepw e`y-amb kuI-cy-ßƒ {]tbm-P-\-s∏-Sp-Ønbpw imkv{X]T\w
a[p-cX
- c
- a
- mb Hc-\p-`h
- a
- m-°n-am-‰m≥ {ian-°p-at- √m. hn⁄m-\k
- º
- m-Z\
- t- ØmsSm∏w
imkv{Xo-b- at\m-`m-hhpw aqey-ßfpw hf¿Øn-sb-Sp-°p-∂-Xn-\v Cu ]pkvXIw
hgn-Im-ń-bm-Ipw.
kvt\lmiw-k-I-tfm-sS,
tUm.sP.-{]-kmZv
Ub-d-IvS¿
Fkv.-kn.-C.-B¿.Sn.
`mc- X - Ø ns‚ `c- W - L - S \
`mKw IV I
auenI I¿Ø- h y- ß ƒ
51 I. auenI I¿Ø-hy-ßƒ ˛ Xmsg-∏-d-bp-∂h `mc-X-Ønse Hmtcm

]uc-s‚bpw I¿Øhyw Bbn-cn-°p-∂-XmWv:
(I) `c- W - L - S - \ sb A\p- k - c n- ° p- I bpw AXns‚ BZ¿i- ß - s fbpw ÿm]- \ - ß - s fbpw

tZiob]Xm-I-sbbpw tZiobKm\-sØbpw BZ-cn-°p-Ibpw sNøpI;
(J) kzmX-{¥y-Øn-\p-th-≠n-bp≈ \ΩpsS tZiobka-c-Øn\v {]tNm-Z\w \¬Inb al-\o-bm-
Z¿i-ßsf ]cn-t]m-jn-∏n-°p-Ibpw ]n≥Xp-S-cp-Ibpw sNøpI;
(K) `mc-X-Øns‚ ]c-am-[n-Im-chpw sFIyhpw AJ-fi-Xbpw \ne-\n¿Øp-Ibpw kwc-£n-°p-
Ibpw sNøpI;
(L) cmPysØ ImØp-kq-£n-°p-Ibpw tZiob tkh\w A\p-jvTn-°p-hm≥ Bhiy-s∏-Sp-tºmƒ
A\p-jvTn-°p-Ibpw sNøpI;
(M) aX-]-chpw `mjm-]-chpw {]mtZ-in-Ihpw hn`m-Ko-b-hp-amb sshhn-[y-ßƒ°Xo-X-ambn `mc-
X-Ønse F√m P\-ßƒ°p-an-Sb - n¬, kulm¿Zhpw s]mXp-hmb kmtlm-Zc - y-at- \m-`m-hhpw
]pe¿Øp-I. kv{XoI-fpsS A¥- n\v Ipdhp hcp-Øp∂ BNm-c-ßƒ ]cn-Xy-Pn-°pI;
(N) \ΩpsS kwkvIm-cka-\zb-Øns‚ kº-∂-amb ]mc-º-cysØ hne-a-Xn-°p-Ibpw \ne-\n-dp-
Øp-Ibpw sNøpI;
(O) h\-ßfpw XSm-I-ßfpw \Zn-Ifpw h\yPo-hn-Ifpw Dƒs∏-Sp∂ {]IrXym D≈ ]cn-ÿnXn
kwc-£n-°p-Ibpw A`n-hr-≤n-s∏-Sp-Øp-Ibpw Pohn-I-tfmSv ImcpWyw ImWn-°p-Ibpw
sNøpI;
(P) imkv{Xo-b-amb ImgvN-∏mSpw am\-hn-I-Xbpw, At\z-j-W-Øn\pw ]cnjvIcWØn\pw D≈
at\m-`m-hhpw hnI-kn-∏n-°pI;
(Q) s]mXp-kzØv ]cn-c-£n-°p-Ibpw i]Yw sNbvXv A{Iaw Dt]-£n-°p-Ibpw sNøpI;
(R) cmjv{Sw bXv\-Øn-s‚bpw e£y-{]m-]vXn-bp-sSbpw D∂-X-X-e-ß-fn-te°v \nc¥cw Db-c-Ø-
°-hÆw hy‡n-]-chpw Iq´m-b-Xp-amb {]h¿Ø-\-Øns‚ F√m afi-e-ß-fnepw D¬Ir-
jvS-X-bv°p-th≠n A[zm-\n-°p-I.
(S) Bdn\pw ]Xn-\m-en\pw CSbv°v {]mb-ap≈ Xs‚ Ipńt°m Xs‚ kwc-£-W-bn-ep≈
Ipń-Iƒt°m, AXXp kwKXn t]mse, amXm-]n-Xm-°tfm c£mI¿Ømthm hnZym-`ym-k-
Øn-\p≈ Ah-k-c-ßƒ G¿s∏-Sp-Øp-I.
D≈S°w
1. B--‰Øns‚ LS\ ................................................................................... 7
2. cmk_-‘\w .......................................................................................... 26
3. dntUmIvkv {]h¿Ø\ßfpw cmk-{]-h¿Ø-\ thKhpw....43
4. ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_nƒ ........................................................................ 63

Cu ]pkvXI - Ø
- n¬ kuI-cy-Øn-\mbn
Nne ap{Z-Iƒ D]-tbm-Kn-®n-cn-°p∂p
A[n-I-hm-b-\bv°v
(hn-e-bn-cp-Ø-en\v hnt[-b-am-t°-≠-Xn-√)
Bi-b-hy-‡X hcp-Øp-∂-Xn\v ICT km[yX
hne-bn-cpØmw
XpS¿{]-h¿Ø-\-ßƒ
Nn{Xw - 1.1
\½psS Npäp]mSnÂ sshhn[yapÅ F{Xsb{X hkvXp¡fmWv DÅXv!
{]IrXnbpsS Cu sshhn[y¯n\p ImcWsa- ´ mbncn¡pw?
F§s\bmWv ]cn-k-c-§-fnÂ C{Xtbsd hkvXp¡fpm-bn«pÅXv?
\½psS Bhiya\pkcn¨v ]pXnb hkv X p¡Ä Dm¡m³
Ignbp¶sX§s\bmWv?
Nn{Xw - 1.2
Npäp]mSnepÅ FÃm ]ZmÀY§fpw X·m{XIÄ F¶p ]dbp¶
AXnkq£va IW§Ä sImmWv \nÀ½n¨n«pÅXv F¶v \mw
a\Ênem¡nbn«pv. X·m{XIsf¡pdn¨v Fs´ms¡ [mcWIfmWv
Ct¸mÄ \ap¡pÅXv?
$ F´mWv X·m{X?
$ Hcp ]ZmÀY¯nsâ X·m{XIfpsS {]tXyIXIÄ Fs´ms¡-
bmWv?
Bä-¯nsâ LS\ 7
X·m{XIsf hopw sNdpXm¡m\mIpsa¶pw, At¸mÄ In«p¶
AXnkq£va IW§fmWv Bä§Ä F¶pw \mw ]Tn¨n«pv.
AXmbXv Hmtcm ]ZmÀ°¯nsâbpw X·m{XIÄ Dmbncn¡p¶Xv
AXnkq£va§fmb Bä§ÄsImmWv.
Bäs¯¡pdn¨pw, ]ZmÀY§Ä Dmbncn¡p¶sX§s\
F¶Xns\¡pdn¨psams¡ ]Tn¡p¶Xn\mbn 1807þÂ tPm¬
UmÄ«¬ 'AtämanIkn²m´w' BhnjvIcn¨p. AtämanIkn²m-
´¯nÂ apt¶m«psh¨ Bib§Ä, GXmv Hcp \qämtmfw
\ne\n¶p. ImcWw CXns\ imkv{Xobambn \ncmIcn¡m\pXIp¶
\nco£W§tfm, ]co£Wê§tfm \nKa\§tfm
BhnjvIcn¡m³ imkv{XtemI¯n\v A¶v Ignªncp¶nÃ.
UmÄ«sâ AtämanIkn²m´¯nse {][m\ Bib§Ä
Fs´ÃmamWv ? Xmsg \ÂInbncn¡p¶ Ipdn¸v {i²n¨p
hmbn¨pt\m¡q.
UmÄ«sâ AtämanIkn²m´w
bpànNn´bne[njv T nXamb Nne Imgv N ¸mSpIfmWv tPm¬
UmÄ«¬ apt¶m«psh¨Xv. CXn\v ]co£W\nco£W§fpsStbm,
imkv { Xobamb sXfnhpIfpsStbm ]n³_eapmbncp¶nÃ.
F¶ncp¶mepw ]ZmÀY\nÀanXnbpsS ASnØm\s¯¡pdn¨pw
tPm¬ UmÄ«¬ AhbpsS khntijXIsf¡pdn¨pw, Gsd¡psd bpànklamb
(1766 þ 1844) hniZoIcWw \ÂIm³ Cu kn²m´¯n\p Ignªp. AXpsImv
Bäw kn²m´¯nsâ Cu kn²m´w imkv{XtemI¯v hÀj§tfmfw kzoImcyambn \n¶p.
D]ÚmXmhv. Ct±l¯n\v AtämanIkn²m´¯nse {][m\ Bib§Ä
\nd§Ä Xncn¨dnbm³ Ign-
bm¯ AkpJ-apm-bncp¶p. $ FÃm ]ZmÀY§fpw Bäw F¶p ]dbp¶ AXnkq£va
AXn\mÂ Cu AkpJw IW§fmÂ \nÀanXamWv
UmÄ-«\nkw (Daltanism) $ cmk{]hÀ¯\thfbnÂ Bäs¯ hn`Pn¡m³ IgnbnÃ.
F¶pw ]dbpw. AXpt]mse \nÀan¡mt\m \in¸n¡mt\m IgnbnÃ.
$ Hcp aqeI¯nsâ Bä§sfÃmw KpW¯nepw hep¸¯nepw
amknepw kam\ambncn¡pw.
$ hyXykvX aqeI§fpsS Bä§Ä hyXykvX KpW§fpw
amkpw DÅhbmbncn¡pw.
$ cmk{]hÀ¯\¯nteÀs¸Sm³Ignbp¶ Gähpw sNdnb
IWnIbmWv Bäw.
$ ctm AXne[nItam aqeI§fpsS Bä§Ä efnXamb
A\p]mX¯nÂ kwtbmPn¨mWv kwbpà§Ä DmIp¶Xv.
8 ck-X{- ´w IX
Ø AtämanIkn²m´{]Imcw Hcp aqeIBä¯nsâ {]tXyIXIÄ
Fs´ms¡bmWv?
Ø hyXykv X aqeI§fpsS Bä§Ä X½nÂ Fs´ms¡
hyXymk§fmWpffXv?
\n§Ä¡p a\Ênemb Imcy§Ä Ipdn¨phbv¡pI. AXv Iq«pImÀ
Is¯nbhbpambn XmcXayw sNbvXv sa¨s¸Sp¯n IrXyX
hcp¯pI.
Bät¯¡mÄ sNdnb IW§Ä
AtämanIkn²m´w \ne\nÂ¡pt¼mÄ¯s¶ ]ZmÀY§-sf¡pdn¨pw
Bäs¯ hn`Pn¡m\mIptam F¶Xns\¡pdn¨p-sams¡-bpÅ
At\zjW§fpw, ]T\§fpw XpSÀ¶psImncp¶p. imkv{X-ÚÀ
\S¯nb Ht«sd ]co£Wþ\nco£Wê§Ä AtämanIkn-
²m´¯n\p hncp²amb Bib§fnte¡p \bn¡p¶ hn[¯n-
epÅXmbncp¶p. A¯c¯n-epÅ Nne {]hÀ¯-\-§fmWv ChnsS
sImSp¡p¶Xv.
$ Hcp Nos¸Sp¯v F®abanÃm¯ apSnbnÂ \Ãh®w DckpI.
Dc-knb No¸v, hfsc sNdnb t]¸À Ij-W-§Ä¡v kao]w
sImp-h-cn-I. F´mWv \nco-£n-¨Xv?
$ hoÀ¸n¨ Hcp _eq¬ F®abanÃm¯ apSnbnÂ \Ãh®w
DckpI. _eq¬ Hcp Npa-cnÂ tNÀ¯p-h-¨-tijw ssIsb-Sp-
¡p-t¼mÄ F´mWv \nco-£n-¡p-¶Xv?
$ \nXy- P o- h n- X - ¯ nÂ\n¶v C¯cw IqSp- X Â kµÀ`- § Ä
Nn{Xw - 1.3 Is¯n Fgp-Xp-I.
F§s\bmWv No¸v, _eq¬ F¶o hkvXp¡Ä¡v BIÀjn¡m\pÅ
IgnhpmbXv? BIÀjW¯n\p ImcWamb Fs´ms¡bmWv Cu
hkvXp¡fnepÅXv? CXnsâ hkvXpXIfnte¡p \bn¨, GXm\pw
imkv { XÚcpsS ]co£W \nco£W§fpw \nKa\§fp-
sams¡bmWv NphsS ]cmaÀin¡p¶Xv. Zim-_vZ§Ä \op \n¶
\ncćhpw, XpSÀ¨bpÅXpamb ]co£W\nco£W§fneqsSbmWv
]ZmÀY§sf¡pdn¨v C¶v \ap¡pÅ [mcWIÄ cq]s¸«Xv.
Bä-¯nsâ LS\ 9
imkv{XÚ·mÀ, ]co£W§Ä, Is¯epIÄ
kÀ lw{^n tUhn (1778þ-1829)
sshZypXn D]tbmKn¨v kwbp-à-§-fnÂ \n¶pw Ht«sd aqeI§Ä
thÀXncns¨Sp¯p. s]m«mkyw, tkmUnbw, ImÂkyw aKv\o--jyw,
kvt{äm¬jyw, t_cnbw, t_mtdm¬ F¶nh-sbms¡ CXnÂ-s¸Sp¶p.
{ZmhI§fneqsS sshZypXn IS¶p t]mIp¶Xpambn _Ô-s¸«
]co£W§fmWv Ct±lw GsäSp¯Xv. Cu ]co£W-§fpsS-bpw
Is¯epIfpsSbpw ASnØm\¯nÂ ]ZmÀY§fnÂ sshZypX
kÀ lw{^n tUhn NmÀPp-I-fpsS km¶n²yap-s¶v a\Ênembn. cp Xcw sshZypX
P\\w : 17þ12þ1778
NmÀPpI-fmWpÅsX¶pw (t]mknäohv NmÀPpw, s\Käohv NmÀPpw)
acWw : 29þ05þ1829
Cu sshZypX NmÀPp-If
- mWv Hcp ]ZmÀY-¯n\v asämcp ]ZmÀYhpambn
{]hÀ¯n¡m\pÅ Ignhpm¡p¶Xv, F¶pw At±lw kaÀYn¨p.
ssa¡Â ^mcsU (1791þ-1867)
sshZypXnbpsS ]nXmhv F¶mWv ssa¡Â ^mcsU Adnb-s¸-

Sp¶Xv. kÀ lw{^n tUhnbpambn tNÀ¶v \S¯nb ]co£W-§fnÂ
{ZmhI§fneqsS sshZypXn {]hln-¡psa¶v Xncn-¨-dnªp.
sshZypXn IS¯nhn«v Nne {ZmhI]ZmÀY§sf AhbpsS LSI§-
fm¡n amämsa¶v Is¯n (sshZypX-hntÇjWw). XpSÀ¶v CXp
kw_Ôn¨ \nba§fpw (sshZypXhn-tÇjW\nbaw) BhnjvIcn¨p.
ssa¡Â ^mcsU F¶mÂ CXn\pImcWamb hkvXpXIsfs´¶v hyàam¡p¶Xn\v
P\\w : 22-þ09þ1791
ChÀ¡v IgnªnÃ.
acWw : 25þ08þ1867
slâ vdn¨v KoÉÀ ( 1814 -þ 1879 )
1857-þÂ PÀa³ ùXnIimkv{XÚ\pw ¥mkv t»mhdpamb ( ¥mkv

\nÀan¡p¶XnÂ sshZKv²yw t\Snb BÄ) slâ vdn¨v KoÉÀ
cq]w sImSp¯ UnkvNmÀPv Syq_nsâ (hmIzw Syq_v) Bhn-À-`m-h-
- t ¯msS hmXI§fneqsSbpw sshZypXn IS- ¶ p- t ]- I p- s a¶v
Xncn¨dnªp. KoÉdpw Pqenbkv ¹¡dpw tNÀ¶v \S¯nb
]co£W§Ä ]ZmÀY§fpsS LS\bpambn _Ôs¸« ]T\§-
Ä¡v thKw Iq«n.
slâvdn¨v KoÉÀ
KoÉdpsS hmIzw Syq_v
P\\w x 26-þ05þ-1814
acWw x 24-þ01-þ1879
10 ck-X{- ´w IX
Pqenbkv ¹¡À ( 1801-þ1868 )
hfsc Xmgv¶ aÀZ¯nemWv hmXI§fnÂ sshZypXn IS¶p

t]mIp- ¶ Xv . CXv sshZypX Unkv N mÀPv F¶- d n- b - s ¸- S p- ¶ p.
hmXI§fneqsS UnkvNmÀPv \S¡pt¼mÄ Syq_n\pÅnse aÀZw
Hcp ]cn[nbnÂ IpdªmÂ ¥mkvSyq_nsâ hi-§-fnÂ {]tXyI
Xnf¡w DmIp¶Xmbn Ip. Cu Xnf¡¯n\Sp¯v Hcp Im´w
sImph¶mÂ (Xnf¡w Im´¯nsâ BIÀjWhe- b ¯n\p-
ÅnemIpt¼mÄ) Xnf¡¯nsâ Øm\w amdpsa¶pw At±lw
Is¯n. UnkvNmÀPv Syq_nse hmXI§fnÂ \n¶v ]pd¯ph¶,
Xnf¡¯n\p ImcWamb civ a nIfnÂ sshZypX NmÀPnsâ
Pqenbkv ¹¡À
km¶n²y¯n\pÅ sXfnhmbncp¶p CXv.
P\\w : 16-þ06þ-1801
acWw : 22þ05þ1868 hneyw {IqIvkv (1832þ-1919)
1875þÂ KoÉdpsS UnkvNmÀPv Syq_v \hoIcn¨v hneyw {IqIvkv \S¯nb

]co£W§Ä hmXI§fpsS kz`mhs¯¡pdn¨v IqSpXÂ hyàX
\ÂIn. ImtYmUv þ- td þ- Syq_v ]co£W§fnÂ (Cathode Ray Tube
CRT) aÀZw Ipdbv¡pt¼mÄ Syq_n\pÅnÂ \nco-£n¨ amä§fpw,
ImtYmUv civanIfpsS khntijXIsf¡pdn-¨pÅ ]T\hpamWv
CXnte¡p \bn¨Xv (Nn{Xw A ,Nn{Xw B). CXnsâ XpSÀ¨bmWv
Bäs¯ hn`Pn¡m\mIpsa¶pw, Bä§Ä AXnt\¡mÄ kq£vaamb
k_v AtämanIIW§Ä sImv \nÀanXamsW¶psams¡bpÅ
hneyw {IqIvkv Is¯ente¡v \bn¨Xv. (Sn hnbpsS ]nIvNÀ Syq_pw FIvkvþtd
P\\w x 17-þ06þ-1832 Syq_psaÃmw ImtYmUv þ- td þ- Syq_pIfmWv.)
acWw x 04þ-04þ-1919
bqK³ tKmÄUvÌo³ (1850þ-1930)
Bä-¯nsâ LS\ 11
Nn{Xw A Nn{Xw - B
bqK³ tKmÄUvÌo³ (1850þ-1930)
UnkvNmÀPv Syq_v ]co£W§fneqsS hmXI§fnse t]mknäohv

NmÀPnsâ km¶n²yw Xncn¨dnª imkv{XÚ\mWv Ct±lw. 1886
Â UnkvNmÀPvSyq_v D]tbmKn¨v Bt\mUv civanIÄ Dm¡pIbpw
AXnsâ khntijXIÄ ]Tn¨v t]mknäo-hv NmÀPnsâ km¶n²yw
Is¯pIbpw sNbv X p. C¯cw ]co£W§fpw \nco£-
Wê§fpw UmÄ«sâ AtämanI- k n²m´¯ns\XnscbpÅ
bqK³ tKmÄUvÌo³ Ht«sd sXfnhpIÄ imkv{XtemI¯n\p \ÂIn.
P\\w x 05þ09þ1850
acWw x 25þ12þ1930
UnkvNmÀPv Syq_v
hneyw tdm¬SvP³ (1845þ-1923)

{IqIvkv UnkvNmÀPv Syq_v D]tbmKn¨v hneyw tdm¬SvP³ \S¯nb
]co£W§fmWv 1895 \h¼À 8 \v FIvkvþtdbpsS Ip]nSp-
¯¯nte¡v \bn¨Xv . ImtYmUv civ a nIfpsS ]mXbnÂ Hcp
Aepan\nbw XInSv sh¨v civanIsf {]Xnên¸n¨p. At¸mÄ Hcp
{]tXyI hnIncW§Ä ]pd¯p hcp¶XpIp. AXns\ FIvkv-td
F¶v hnfn¨p. ]n¶oSv Cu civanIÄ FIvkv þ td F¶pXs¶
Adnbs¸«p. ]ZmÀY§fpsS khntijXIsf¡pdn¨pÅ
hneyw tdm¬SvP³ ]T\¯n\nSbnÂ A{]Xo£nXambmWv C¯csamcp Is¯ep-
P\\w x 27þ03þ1845 mbXv . sshZyimkv { XcwK¯pw, hyhkmbnI \nÀ½mW-
acWw x 10-þ02þ1923 cwK¯psam¡ FIvkv-þtd hym]Iambn D]tbmKn¨phcp¶p.
12 ck-X{- ´w IX
sP sP tXmwk¬ (1856þ-1940)
sP sP tXmwk¬ \S¯nb ]co£W§fmWv Bäs¯¡pdn¨v
AXphscbpmbncp¶ [mcWIÄ Xncp¯m\pw ]pXnb [mcWIÄ
cq]Iev ] \ sN¿m\pw CSbm¡nbXv Unkv N mÀPv Syq_nse
ImtYmUnÂ \n¶v hcp¶ civanIfnÂ s\Käohv NmÀPpÅ IW§-
fmWp- Å sX¶v At±lw sXfnbn¨p. Cu IW§Ä¡v amkpw
DuÀPhpaps¶pw hyàam¡n. GXv hmXIsaSp¯v UnkvNmÀPv
sP sP tXmwk¬ \S¯nbmepw AhbnÂ \ns¶Ãmw Htc-bn\w s\Käohv NmÀPpÅ
P\\w x 18þ12þ1856 IW§fpmIp¶Xn\mÂ FÃm ]ZmÀY§fnepapÅ s]mXp-
acWw x 30þ08þ1940 LSIamWnsX¶v kaÀ°n¨p. Ch Bät¯¡mÄ kq£v a
IW§fmsW¶pw, Bä¯nsâ `mKam-sW¶pw sXfnbn¨p.
IT@School Edubuntu hnse 1897 Â sP sP tXmwksâ Ip]nSp¯§Ä imkv { XtemIw
School Resources Â DÅ AwKoIcn¨p. AtXmsS Bäs¯ hn`Pn¡m\mIpsa¶v sXfnªp.
Â
Resource for VI and VIII
\n¶pw. ASn-Øm\ imkv{Xw Bä¯nepÅ s\Käohv NmÀPpÅ Cu IWamWv CeIvt{Sm¬.
Ìm³tUÀUv 8 → ck-X{´w
→ Bä-¯nsâ LS\ →
UnkvNmÀPv Syq_v ]co-£Ww GWÌv dqYÀt^mÀUv (187-1þ-1937)
CeIvt{SmWnsâ Is¯temSpIqSn Bä¯nse aäp IW§sf¡p-
dn¨pÅ At\zjWw DuÀPnXambn. ]ZmÀY§fnÂ t]mknäohv
NmÀPnsâ km¶n²yaps¶v hfsc ap¼pXs¶ Xncn¨dnªncp
s¶¦nepw, B[nImcnIambn sXfnbn¨Xv dqYÀt^mÀUmWv. hfsc
t\À¯ kzÀ®¯InSneqsS t]mknäohv NmÀPpÅ BÂ^m IW-
§Ä IS¯nhn«mWv At±lw ]co£Ww \S¯nbXv. kzÀ®¯-
InSneqsS ]pd¯phcp¶ BÂ^m IW§Ä hr¯m-Ir-Xn-bnÂ {Iao-
GWÌv dqYÀt^mÀUv I-cn¨ Hcp t^mt«m{Km^nIv ^nenanÂ ]Xn¸n¨p (Nn{Xw 1.4 A) . CXnsâ
P\\w x 30þ08þ1871 \nco£Wê§Ä hniIe\w sNbvXmWv \nKa\§Ä
acWw x 19þ10þ1937
cq]oIcn¨Xv. Bä¯nÂ `qcn`mKhpw iq\yamsW¶pw t]mknäohv
NmÀPv apgph³ tI{µoIcn¨ Hcp `mKaps¶pw At±lw kaÀYn¨p.
Cu tI{µamWv Bä¯nsâ \yq¢nbk .v 1911þÂ Bä-¯nÂ t]mknäohv
NmÀPpff tI{µ-ap-s-¶Xv imkv{XtemIw AwKoIcn¨p. XpSÀ¶v
At±lw \S¯nb ]co£W§fpsS ASnØm\¯nÂ 1920-þÂ t]mkn-
äohv NmÀPn\v Imc-W-amb IW-§Ä t{]mt«m¬ BsW¶v sXfn-
IT@School Edubuntu hnse bn¡s¸«p. CXnsâ NmÀPv Hcp Cet{ÎmWnsâ NmÀPn\pXpeyhpw
School Resources Â DÅ
Â
Resource for VI and VIII hn]coXhpamsW¶p Is¯n. t{]mt«mWnsâ amkv Hcp
\n¶pw. ASn-Øm\ imkv{Xw

Ìm³tUÀUv 8 → ck-X{´w ssl{UP³ Bä¯nsâ amkn\p XpeyamsW¶pw \nÀWbn¨p.
→ Bä-¯nsâ LS\ →
kzÀW-¯I- nSv ]co-£Ww AtXm-sSm¸w \yq¢nbknÂ NmÀPnÃm¯ Hcp IW¯nsâ km¶n[y
F¶ {Ia-¯nÂ t\m¡pI apmImsa¶v {]hNn¡pIbpw sNbvXp.
Bä-¯nsâ LS\ 13
tKmÄUv t^mbnÂ
BÂ^m IW-§Ä
Nn{Xw 1.4 A Nn{Xw - 1.4 B
sPbnwkv NmUv hn¡v (1891 -þ -1974)
dqYÀt^mÀUnsâ in£W¯nÂ ]Tn¡pIbpw ]co£W§-fnteÀ-

s¸SpIbpw sNbvX sPbnwkv NmUv hnIv 1932þÂ Bä¯nsâ \yq¢nb-
-ÊnÂ NmÀPnÃm¯Xpw F¶mÂ t{]mt«mWnt\mfw amkpÅXpamb-
IWaps¶v imkv{Xobambn sXfnbn¨p. NmÀPnÃm¯ Cu IW-
amWv \yqt{Sm¬. amkpÅ IW§fmb t{]mt«mWpIfpw \yqt{Sm-
Wp-Ifpw \yq¢nbÊnembXn\mÂ Hcmä¯nsâ amkv apgph³
\yq¢nbÊnÂ tI{µo-Icn-¨ncn¡p¶p.
sPbnwkv NmUv hn¡v GsXmcp aqeI¯nsâbpw Bä§Ä \nÀ½n¨ncn¡p¶Xv

P\\w x 20þ-10-þ1891 {][m\ambpw CeIvt{Sm¬, t{]mt«m¬, \yqt{Sm¬ F¶o IW§Ä
acWw x 24þ07þ1974 sImmWv. ChbpsS F®¯nepÅ hyXymkamWv Hcp apeIs¯
aäp aqe-I-§-fnÂ \n¶v hyXykvXam¡p¶Xv.
CeIvt{Sm¬, t{]mt«m¬, \yqt{Sm¬ F¶nhbpsS khntijXIÄ

CeIvt{Sm¬ t{]mt«m¬ \yqt{Sm¬
$ s\Käohv NmÀPv $ t]mknäohv NmÀPv $ NmÀPnÃ
$ amkv Xosc Ipdhv $ amkv ssl{UP³ $ amkv ssl{UP³
(ssl{UP³ Bä¯nsâ Bä¯n\v Xpeyw Bä¯n\v Xpeyw
amknsâ 1837 Â Hcp $ \yq¢nbknÂ ImWp $ \yq¢nbknÂ ImWp¶p
ÿ `mKw) ¶p
$ \yq¢n-bk
- n\v ]pd-¯mbn
ImW-s¸-Sp¶p
]«nI 1.1
Bäw sshZypX]cambn DZmko\amWv
Bä¯nÂ sshZypXNmÀPpff IW-§fpv. s\Käohv NmÀPpÅ
CeIvt{SmWpIfpw t]mknäohv NmÀPpÅ t{]mt«mWpIfpw. F¶mÂ
Bä¯nt\m, Bä§Ä tNÀ¶pmb X·m-{X-IÄt¡m NmÀPnsâ
km¶n²yw A\p`hs¸Sp¶nÃ. F´psImmWnXv?
14 ck-X{- ´w IX
dqYÀt^mÀUnsâ kucbqYamXrI
Planetary Model of Atom)
(Rutherford's
Bä¯n\v Hcp tI{µaps¶pw, amkv apgph³ tI{µoIcn¨ncn¡p¶Xv

\yq¢nbknemsW¶pw dqYÀt^mÀUv Xsâ ]co£W§fneqsS
Is¯nbncp¶p. Bä-¯n\v Gsd¡psd kzoImcyamb amXrI
\nÀt±in¨Xv Ct±lamWv. Cu amXrI kucbqYamXrI (
F¶dn-bs¸Sp¶p. AXmbXv Bä¯nse LSI§Ä
Planetary
{IaoIcn-¨ncn¡p¶Xv kucbqYs¯-t¸msebmsW¶v IcpXmw..

Model of Atom)
* kucbqY¯n\v Hcp * Bä¯n\pw Hcp tI{µ-

tI{µapv. apv.
* tI{µ`mK¯v kqcy³ * tI{µ`mK¯v \yq¢nbkv
* {Kl§Ä HmÀ_näneqsS * Cet{ÎmWpIÄ sjÃnÂ
kqcys\ Npäp¶p \yq¢nbkns\ Npäp¶p.
Nn{Xw 1.5 A Nn{Xw 1.5 B
s]mXpth dqYÀt^mÀUnsâ Bäw amXrI kzoImcyambncp¶p.

F¦nÂ Cet{ÎmWpIÄ \yp¢nbknsâ BIÀjWheb¯nÂ
Npäpt¼mÄ DuÀÖw \ãamhpIbpw, {ItaW AXv \yq¢nbknÂ
]Xn¡pIbpw sNt¿-Xpv. F¶mÂ C§s\ kw`-hn-¡p-¶n-Ã.
imkv{X-temI¯nsâ Cu kwib¯n\v, hyàamb hymJym\w
\ÂIm³ dqYÀt^mÀUn\p IgnªnÃ. AXpsImv Cu amXrI
AwKoIcn¡s¸«nÃ.
Ce-Ivt{Sm¬
\yq¢n-bkv
dqYÀt^mÀUv amXrIbpsS ]cn-anXn Nn{Xo-I-cWw

Nn{Xw 1.6
Bä-¯nsâ LS\ 15
t_mÀ Bäw amXrI (Bohr's model of Atom)
dqYÀt^m-ÀUnsâ Bäw amXrIbv¡v IqSpXÂ hyà-amb hniZo-
I-cWw \ÂIn ]pXnb Hcp amXrI \nÀt±in¨Xv \oÂkv t_mÀ
F¶ imkv{X-Ú-\m-Wv. Cu amXrI t_mÀ amXrI F¶dnb-
s¸Sp¶p.- Bä¯nsâ khn-ti-j-X-IÄ Gähpw efnXambn hniZo-
Icn¡m³ t_mÀ amXrI D]-tbm-K-s¸-Sp¯p¶p. t_mÀ amXrI
\oÂkv t_mÀ A\p-k-cn¨v CeIvt{SmWpIfpsS k©mc]mXsb HmÀ-_näv (sjÂ)
P\\w x 07-þ10þ1885 F¶p-hn-fn-¡p-¶p.
acWw x 18þ11þ1962
t_mÀ amXrIbnse {][m\ Bib§Ä
$ Bä¯nÂ \yq¢nbkn\p Npäpw CeIvt{SmWpIÄ {]Z£nWw
sN¿p¶Xv \nÝnX HmÀ_näpIfnÂ (sjÃpIfnÂ) BWv.
$ Hmtcm sjÃnsebpw CeIv t {SmWpIÄ¡v Hcp \nÝnX
DuÀPapv. AXn\mÂ sjÃpIsf DuÀP\neIÄ (Energy
levels) F¶p ]dbpw.
$ Hcp \nÝnX sjÃnÂ {]Z£nWw sN¿p¶nSt¯mfw Imew
CeIv t {SmWpIÄ¡v DuÀPw IqSpItbm IpdbpItbm
sN¿p¶nÃ.
$ \yq¢nbknÂ \n¶pÅ AIew IqSpt´mdpw sjÃpIfpsS
DuÀPw IqSnhcpw
$ sjÃpIÄ¡v \yq¢nbknÂ \n¶p XpS§n 1,2,3,4,5....F¶v \¼À
\ÂIntbm K,L,M,N,O...... F¶n§s\ t]cp \ev I ntbm
kqNn¸n¡mhp¶XmWv.
amkv \¼dpw Atäm-anI \¼dpw

(Mass Number & Atomic Number)
IW-¯nsâ Bä-¯nse {]mtbm-KnI Bh-iy§Ä¡v
t]cv Øm\w D-]-tbmKn¡p¶ amkv
t{]mt«m¬ \yq¢n-b-knÂ 1u
Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ .................. 0
\yqt{Sm¬ .................. 1u
]«nI 1.2
]«nI 1.2 ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡p-I. hni-I-e\w sN¿p-I.
Bä-¯nsâ amkv {][m-\a - mbpw GsXÃmw IW-§f
- psS amkn-s\-bmWv
B{i-bn-¨n-cn-¡p¶Xv? Imc-W-sa´v?
$ Hcp t{]mt«m-Wnsâ amkv F{X-bmWv?
$ \yqt{Sm-Wn-sâtbm?
16 ck-X{- ´w IX


Bä-¯nse aäp IWnI- I- Ä
Atäm-anI \¼À, amkv \¼À F¶nh IqSn {]Xo-I-t¯m-
sSm¸w tNÀ¯mÂ Bäs¯¡pdn¨p IqSp-XÂ hyàX ssIh-
auenI IW-§f - mb t{]mt«m cp-a-tÃm. CXn\mbn {]Xo-I-¯nsâ CS-Xp-h-i¯p apI-fnepw
¬, Ce-Ivt{Sm¬, \yqt{Sm¬ Xmsg-bp-ambn bYm{Iaw amkv \¼dpw Atäm-anI \¼dpw
F¶n- h bv ¡ v ]pdsa aäp Fgp-Xp-¶p. Cu coXn-bnÂ tkmUnbw Bäs¯ (Z=11, A=23)
Nne kq£va IW-§Ä IqSn {]Xn-\n-[o-I-cn-¨n-cn-¡p-¶Xp t\m¡q.
Bä- ¯ nsâ \yq¢n- b - k nÂ 23

Ds¶v Is-¯n-bn-«p-v. 11 Na
aotkmWp- I Ä, \yq{Sn- t \m,
Nne Bä-§-fpsS {]Xo-I-§Ä \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶Xv
Bâ n\yq{Sn- t \m, t]mkn-
t{Sm¬ apX- e m- b h C¡q- « - (]«n-I 1.3) t\m¡q. ]«nI ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡q.
¯nÂ DÄs¸-Sp-¶p.
{]XoIw Atäm-anI \¼À amkv \¼À t{]mt«m- W p- I Ä Ce- I v t {Sm- W p- I Ä \yqt{Sm- W p- I Ä
1
1 H
4
2 He
7
3 Li
12
6 C
20
10 Ne
40
18 Ar
]«nI 1.3
Bä¯nse Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw
Atäm-anI \¼À 1 apXÂ 18 hsc-bpÅ aqe-I-§-fpsS Bä-§-fnse
Ce- I v t {Sm¬ hn\ymkw ]«nIs¸Sp- ¯ n- b n- c n- ¡ p- ¶ Xv (]«nI 1.4)
hn-i-I-e\w sN¿q.
aqeIw Atäm-anI Ce-Ivt{SmWpI-fpsS Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ym-kw sjÃp-I-fnÂ
\¼À F®w K L M N O
H 1 1 1
He 2 2 2
Li 3 3 2 1
Be 4 4 2 2
B 5 5 2 3
C 6 6 2 4
18 ck-X{- ´w IX
N 7 7 2 5
O 8 8 2 6
F 9 9 2 7
Ne 10 10 2 8
Na 11 11 2 8 1
Mg 12 12 2 8 2
Al 13 13 2 8 3
Si 14 14 2 8 4
P 15 15 2 8 5
S 16 16 2 8 6
Cl 17 17 2 8 7
Ar 18 18 2 8 8
]«nI 1.4
$ KsjÃnÂ DÄs¡m-Åm-hp¶ ]c-am-h[n Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS
F®w F{X-bmWv?
$ LsjÃnÂ DÄs¡m-Åm-hp¶ ]c-am-h[n Ce-Iv-t{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS
F®tam?
sjÃp- I fnse Ce- I v t {Sm¬ ]qcWw Xmsg- ¸ - d - b p¶ XXz- § Ä
]men-¨mWv \nÝ-bn-¡-s¸-Sp-¶-Xv.
1 GsXmcp sjÃnepw DÄs¡m-Åm-hp¶ ]c-am-h[n Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp
I-fpsS F®w 2n2 BWv (n = sjÃnsâ kwJy).
sjÃp-I-fnse Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ ]qc-W-hp-ambn _Ô-s¸«p \ÂIn-bn-«pÅ
]«nI 1.5 ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡q.
sjÃnsâ t]cv sjÃnsâ kwJy ]c-am-h[n Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS F®w
K 1 2 x 12 = 2
L 2 2 x 22 = 8
M 3 ........................
N ........ ........................
]«nI 1.5
2 Xmgv¶ DuÀP\ne-bn-epÅ Hcp sjÃnÂ DÄs¡m-Åm-hp¶ ]c-
am-h[n Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ \nd-ª-Xn\p tijw am{Xsa ASp¯
DuÀP\ne-bn-epÅ sjÃnÂ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ ]qcWw \S-¡p-I-bpÅq.
Bä-¯nsâ LS\ 19
3 GsXm-cm-ä-¯n-sâbpw _mly-XasjÃnÂ DÄs¡m-Åm-hp¶
]c-am-h[n Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS F®w F«v (8) Bbn-cn-¡pw.
Nne aqe-I Bä-§-fpsS t_mÀ amXr-I-IÄ (Nn{Xw 1.7) \Â-In-bn-cn-
¡p-¶p. Ch-bpsS Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ym-kw hnebncp¯q.
3p
4n
1p 2p
0n 2n
ssl{U-P³ loenbw enXnbw

1 2 2, 1
4p 5p 6p
5n 6n 6n
s_dn-enbw t_mtdm¬ ImÀ_¬

2, 2 2, 3 2, 4
10p 11p 18p

10n 12n 22n
\ntbm¬ tkmUnbw BÀtKm¬

2, 8 2, 8, 1 2, 8, 8
Nn{Xw 1.7
NphsS \ÂIn-bn-«pÅ Bä-§fpsS Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw Is¯n
t_mÀ amXrIIÄ Nn{Xo-I-cn-¡q.
14 24 32
7 N 12 Mg 16 S
Aep-an-\nbw Bä-¯nsâ {]XoIw - 1327Al F¶mWv. Bä¯nsâ t_mÀ

amXrI Nn{Xo-I-cn-¨n-cn-¡p-¶p (Nn{Xw 1.8). CXp hni-I-e\w sNbvXp
NphsS sImSp-¯n-«pÅ ]«nI 1.6 ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡q.
20 ck-X{- ´w IX
+
Nn{Xw 1.8
Atäm-anI \¼À
amkv \¼À
t{]mt«m-Wp-I-fpsS F®w
Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS F®w
\yqt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS F®w
Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ym-kw.
]«nI 1.6
sFtkm-tSm-¸p-IÄ (Isotopes)
Hcp aqeIw GsX¶v \nÀW-bn-¡p-¶Xv AXnsâ Hcm-ä-¯n-epÅ

t{]mt«m-Wp-I-fpsS F®-am-sW¶v a\Ên-em-¡n-b-tÃm. NphsS \ÂIn-
bn-cn-¡p¶ (Nn{Xw 1.9) t_mÀ amXr-I-IÄ hni-I-e\w sN¿q.
1p 1p 1p
0n 1n 2n
t{]m«nbw Uyqäocnbw {Snjnbw

Nn{Xw 1.9
Cu Bä- § - f p- a mbn _Ô- s ¸«p \ÂIn- b n- « pÅ ]«nI 1.7
]qÀ¯n-bm¡q.
Bä¯nsâ t]cv t{]m«nbw Uypäocnbw {Snjnbw
t{]mt«m-WpI-fpsS F®w
\yqt{Sm-WpI-fpsS F®w
Ce-Ivt{Sm-WpI-fpsS F®w
Atäm-anI \¼À
amkv \¼À
]«nI 1.7
Bä-¯nsâ LS\ 21
$ Cu Bä-§Ä X½nÂ GXp IW-¯nsâ F®-¯n-emWv hyXym-
k-ap-ÅXv?
$ Ch-bpsS Atäm-anI \¼À, amkv \¼À F¶nh ]cn-tim-[n-¨mÂ
hyà-am-Ip-¶-sX-´mWv?
t{]mt«m-Wp-I-fpsS F®w Xpey-am-b-Xn-\mÂ Ch aq¶pw Htc
aqeI¯nsâ Bä§Ä Xs¶-bm-WtÃm.
Htc Atäm- a nI \¼dpw hyXy- k v X - amkv \¼- d p- a pÅ Htc
aqeI¯nsâ hyXykvX Bä-§sf sFtkm-tSm-¸p-IÄ F¶v
]dbp¶p.
t{]m«nbw, Uypäo-cnbw, {Snjnbw F¶nh ssl{U-Psâ sFtkm-tSm-
¸p-I-fm-Wv. Chsb {]Xo-I-ap-]-tbm-Kn¨v kqNn-¸n-¨n-cn-¡p-¶Xv t\m¡q.
1 2 3
1
H 1
H 1
H
t{]m«nbw Uypäo-cnbw {Snjnbw
Hcp aqe-I-¯nsâ sFtkm-tSm-¸p-IÄ X½nÂ ùXnI kz`m-h-¯nÂ

sNdnb hyXym-k-§Ä ImWn-¡p-¶p-s-¦nepw Ah-bpsS cmk
kz`mhw Hcp-t]m-se-bm-Wv.
an¡ aqe-I-§Ä¡pw sFtkm-tSm-¸p-Ifpv. sFtkm-tSm-¸p-IÄ Xncn-
¨-dn-bp-¶-Xn-\mbn t]cn-s\m¸w amkv \¼À IqSn ]dbm-dp-v.
DZm: ImÀ_-Wnsâ sFtkm-tSm-¸p-I-fmWv ]«nI 1.8 Â \ÂIn-bn-cn-
¡p-¶Xv.
sFtkm-tSm¸v {]XoIw
ImÀ_¬ - 12
12
6
C
ImÀ_¬ - 13
13
6
C
ImÀ_¬ - 14
14
6
C
]«nI 1.8
hfscb[nIw {]m[m\yapÅhbmWv sFtkmtSm¸pIÄ. ssl{UPsâ
sFtkmtSm¸mb Uypäocnbw BWh\neb§fnÂ D]tbmKn¡p¶p.
ImÀ_Wnsâ sFtkmtSm¸mb ImÀ_¬þ14 t^mknepIfpsSbpw
Ncn{XmXoXImes¯ hkvXp¡fpsSbpw Ime¸g¡w \nÀWbn¡m³
D]tbmKn¨p hcp¶p.
t^mkv^dknsâ sFtkmtSm¸mb t^mkv^dkvþ31 kky§fnse
]ZmÀYhn\nabw Xncn¨dnbm\pÅ s{Sbvkdmbn ( T r a c e r )
D]tbmKn¨phcp¶p.
22 ck-X{- ´w IX
AbUn³- þ 131, sIm_mÄ«vþ60 apXembh
sFtkm-_m-dp-IÄ sshZyimkv{X cwK¯v Im³kÀ, SyqaÀ apXemb
sFtkm-tSm-Wp-IÄ tcmK§fpsS NnInÂkbv¡pw tcmK\nÀWb¯n\pw
Htc amkv \¼dpw hyXykv X D]tbmKn¨phcp¶p.
AtämanI \¼dpapÅ Bä§
fpapv . Ch sFtkm_mdpIÄ bptd-\nbwþ235 BWh\ne-b§fnÂ CÔ-\-ambn
(Isobars) F¶mWdnbs¸Sp¶Xv. D]-tbm-Kn-¡p¶p.
40 40
Ca , Ar F¶nh sFtkm_m
20 18 GXm\pw sFtkm-tSm-¸p-I-fpsS {]Xo-I-§Ä \ÂIn-
dpIfmWv.
bn-cn-¡p-¶p (]-«nI 1.9). Atäm-anI \¼À, amkv \¼À,
Htcsb®w \yqt{SmWpIÄ
AS§nb Bä§Ä sFtkm t{]mt«m-Wp-IÄ, Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ, \yqt{Sm-Wp-IÄ
tSmWpIÄ (Isotones) F¶dnb F¶n-h-bpsS F®w ]«n-I-s¸-Sp-¯q.
s¸Sp¶p.
15 14
N , 6C
F¶nh sFtkm-tSm-Wp-I-
7
fmWv
sFtkm_mdpIfpw sFtkm
tSmWpIfpw hyXykvX aqeI
§fpsS Bä§fmWv.
{]XoIw Atäm-anI \¼À amkv \¼À t{]mt«m-Wp-IÄ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ \yqt{Sm-Wp-IÄ

15
8
o
16
8
o
17
8
o
]«nI 1.9
lnKvkv t_mtkm¬ F¶ ssZh-IWw

Poh-im-kv{X-¯nse ]cn-Wmakn²m´w t]mse {]]-t©mÂ¸-¯n-sb-¡p-dn¨v hf-sc-b-[nIw
{]m[m\yw \ÂI-s¸« Hcp kn²m-á
- mWv ÌmtâÀUv tamUÂ kn²m´w. CX-\p-kc
- n¨v s^Àan-
tbm-Wp-IÄ (Fermions) F¶p hntijn¸n-¡s
- ¸-Sp¶ ]ZmÀYLS-I§
- fpw t_mtkm-Wp-IÄ (Bosons)
F¶v hnti-jn-¸n-¡s
- ¸-Sp¶ DuÀPhmln-\n-Ifpw DÄs¸-Sp¶ 17 auenIIW-§Ä tNÀ¶mWv
{]]©w cq]-s¸-«n-«p-ÅX
- v. IWn-II
- Ä¡v amkv e`n-¡p-¶Xv F{]-Im-cs
- a¶v kao-]I
- mew hsc
hni-Zo-Ic
- n-¡m³ Ign-ªn-cp-¶n-Ã. AXn-\mbn apt¶m«phbv¡s
- ¸« ASn-Øm\ IW-amWv lnKvkv
IWw. 2012 Pqsse 4\v ÌmtâÀUv tamUÂ {]h-Nn-¨X
- n\v kam-\a
- mb lnKvkv t_mtkm¬
BäwLS-\-sb-¡p-dn-¨pÅ [mcWIÄ cq]-s¸« hn[hpw Bä-¯nsâ

Is-¯n-bX
- mbn P\o-hb
- nse CERN et_m-d«
- dnbnse imkv{XÚÀ {]Jym-]n-¨p.
hnhn[ amXr-I-Ifpw ]cn-N-b-s¸-«-tÃm.

]nÂ¡me ]T-\-§fpw ]co-£-W-§fpw Bä-¯nse ASn-Øm\
IW-§sf Ipdn¨pw LS-\-sb¡p-dn¨pw IqSp-XÂ hyà-amb [mc-W-
IÄ cq]o-I-cn-¡p-¶-Xn\v klm-b-I-am-bn-«p-v. Bä-¯nsâ LS-\-sb-
¡p-dn-¨pÅ IqSp-XÂ hnhc-§Ä DbÀ¶ ¢mkp-I-fnÂ a\-Ên-em-¡mw.
Bä-¯nsâ LS\ 23
1. NphsS ]«n-I-bnÂ Nne imkv{X-Ú-cpsS t]cp-Ifpw Ah-cpsS
kw`m-h-\-Ifpw {Ia-c-ln-X-ambn \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶p. icn-bmb coXn-
bnÂ tNÀs¯-gp-XpI.
imkv{X-Ú³ kw`m-h\
tPm¬ UmÄ«¬ sshZypX hntÇ-jW \nbaw
ssa¡Â ^mctU Bä-¯nsâ kuc-bqY amXrI
sP.sP. tXmwk¬ Bäw kn²m´w
dqYÀt^mÀUv Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ Is¯n
2. Hcm-ä-¯nsâ Atäm-anI \¼À Z = 17, amkv \¼À A = 35 F¶n-
§-s\-bm-Wv.
a) Bä-¯nse t{]mt«m¬, Ce-Ivt{Sm¬, \yqt{Sm¬ F¶n-h-
bpsS F®w Is¯q.
b) Bä-¯nsâ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw Fgp-XpI.
c) Bä-¯nsâ t_mÀ amXrI Nn{Xo-I-cn-¡p-I.
3. Hcm-ä-¯nsâ amkv \¼À 31. Cu Bä-¯nse M sjÃnÂ 5 Ce-
Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fp-v.
a) Bä-¯nsâ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ym-k-sa-gp-XpI.
b) Bä-¯nsâ Atäm-anI \¼À F{X-bmWv?
c) Bä-¯nse \yqt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS F®w F{X-bmWv?
d) Bä-¯nsâ t_mÀ amXrI Nn{Xo-I-cn-¡p-I.
4. A, B, C F¶o Bä-§-fpsS t_mÀ amXr-I-IÄ \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶p
({]Xo-I-§Ä bYmÀY-a-Ã).
a) Bä-§-fpsS Atäm-anI \¼À, amkv \¼À, Ce-Ivt{Sm¬
hn\ymkw F¶nh Fgp-Xp-I.
b) Ch-bnÂ sFtkm-tSm-¸p-IÄ GsXÃm-amWv? Imc-W-sa´v?
6p 7p
6n 8n
(A) (B)
24 ck-X{- ´w IX
6p
8n
(C)
5. Nne Bä-§-fpsS {]Xo-I-§Ä (b-YmÀY-a-Ã) \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶p.
17 40 16 40
8 P 18 Q 8 P 20 R
a) Ch-bpsS Atäm-anI \¼À, amkv \¼À F¶nh Is-¯p-I.
b) Ch-bnÂ sFtkm-tSm¸v tPmUn-IÄ GsX-Ãm-amWv?
c) Q F¶ Bä-¯nsâ t_mÀ amXrI Nn{Xo-I-cn-¡p-I.
1. Bäw Ncn-{X-hp-ambn _Ô-s¸« XXzNn´-I-cp-sSbpw imkv{X-
Ú-cp-sSbpw Nn{X-§Ä, Poh-Nc

- n{X Ipdn-¸v, kw`m-h\
- I
- Ä F¶nh
DÄs¸-Sp¯n Hcp imkv{X ]Xn¸v Xbm-dm-¡q.
2. hnhn[ Bä-§-fpsS t_mÀ am-Xr-I-IÄ hyXykvX ]ZmÀY-§Ä
(D-Zm. ap¯p-IÄ, hn¯p-IÄ) D]-tbm-Kn¨v \nÀan¨v {]ZÀin-¸n¡q.
3. 1 apXÂ 18- hsc Atäm- a nI \¼- d pIfpÅ aqe- I - § - f psS
CeIvt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw FgpXn ]«nI Xbm-dm-¡q.
4. 1 apXÂ 10 hsc Atäm-anI \¼-dpI-fpÅ aqe-I-§-fpsS t_mÀ
amXrI Nn{Xo-I-cn¨v {]ZÀin-¸n-¡q.
Bä-¯nsâ LS\ 25
\½psS Npäp-]m-SnÂ sshhn-[y-amÀ¶ Ht«sd ]ZmÀY-§-fp--tÃm.
Cu ]ZmÀY-§-sfÃmw Bä-§Ä IqSn--t¨À¶ X·m-{X-I-fmÂ \nÀanX-
am-sW¶v \n§Ä a\-Ên-em-¡n-bn-«p--tÃm. ]ZmÀY-§sf Ah-bpsS
X·m-{X-I-fnse Bä-§Ä¡-\p-k-cn¨v aqe-I-§Ä F¶pw kwbp-à-
§-sf¶pw cmbn Xcw-Xn-cn-¨n-«p-v. hy-X-ykvX aqe-I-§-fpsS Bä-
§Ä IqSn--t¨À¶mWv kwbpà X·m-{X-IÄ Dm-bn-cn-¡p-¶-sX¶v
\n§Ä¡-dnbmw. F¦nÂ
$ F§-s\-bmWv Bä-§Ä X½nÂ IqSn--t¨-cp-¶Xv?
$ Fń-\mWv Bä-§Ä X½nÂ IqSn--t¨-cp-¶Xv?
$ FÃm--bvt¸mgpw Bä-§Ä Htc coXn-bn-emtWm IqSn-t¨-cp-¶Xv?
$ X·m-{XIfnÂ Bä-§Ä tNÀ¶p \nÂ¡m-\pÅ ImcWw F´v?
C¯cw Imc-y-§-sf-¡p-dn¨v \n§Ä Ft¸m-sg-¦nepw Nnń¨p t\m¡n-
bn-«ptm?
Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\-ym-khpw Ønc-Xbpw
Bä-§Ä tNÀ¶v X·m-{X-bp-m-Ip-¶Xv ØncX ssIh-cn-¡m³ thn-
bmW.v ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnsâ Nn{Xw \n§Ä In-cn-¡pw. CXnÂ
18þmw {Kq¸nÂ hcp¶ aqe-I-§-fmWv DÂIrjvS hmX-I-§Ä AYhm
Aek-hm-X-I-§Ä. Chsb A§s\ hnfn-¡m-\pÅ ImcWw F´m-
bn-cn¡pw?
26 ck-X{- ´w IX
DÂIrjvS hmX-I§ - fpsS Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\-ymkw kqNn-¸n-¡p¶ ]«nI
2.1 \nco-£n-¡p-I.
aqeIw Atäm-anI \¼À Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw
loenbw (He) 2 2
\ntbm¬ (Ne) 10 2, 8
BÀtKm¬ (Ar) 18 2, 8, 8
{In]vtäm¬ (Kr) 36 2, 8, 18, 8
kot\m¬ (Xe) 54 2, 8, 18, 18, 8
dtUm¬ (Rn) 86 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8

]«nI 2.1
loenbw Hgn-sI-bpÅ aäp aqe-I-§-fpsS _ml-y-X-a-sj-ÃnÂ F{X
Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ Dv?
GsXmcp aqe-I¯ - nsâbpw _ml-yX- a- s- j-ÃnÂ DÄs¡m-Åm-hp¶ ]cam-
h[n Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS F®w F{X?
_mly-XasjÃnÂ F«v Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hcp¶ {Iao-Ic- Ww AjvSI
Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw F¶-dn-bs- ¸-Sp-¶p.
(Octet configuration)
Hcp Bä-¯nse AjvSI Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ kwhn-[m\w ØncXbpÅ

LS-\-bm-Wv. DÂIrjvS hmX-I-§Ä¡v Cu LS-\-bp-Å-Xn-\mÂ
Ahbv¡v ØncX Dv. AXn-\mÂ Ah km[m-cWbmbn cmk-{]-
hÀ¯-\-¯nÂ GÀs¸-Sp-¶n-Ã.
loen-bw Bä¯nÂ Hcp sjÂ am{X-ta-bp-Åq. H¶mw sjÃnÂ
DÄs¡m-Åm-hp¶ ]c-am-h[n CeIvt{SmWp-I-fpsS F®w 2 BWv.
AXn-\mÂ loen-b-¯nsâ Imcy-¯nÂ cv Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ kwhn-[m\w
Ønc-X-bp-f-f-Xm-Wv.
]«nI 2.2 se aqe-I-§-fpsS Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw hni-I-e\w sN¿q.
aKv\ojyw 12 2, 8, 2
HmIvkn-P³ 8 2, 6
tkmUnbw 11 2, 8, 1
t¢mdn³ 17 2, 8, 7
]«nI 2.2
$ ]«nI 2.2 se aqe-I-§-fpsS Bä-§Ä¡v Ønc-X-bptm? F´p-
sImv?
cmk-_Ô
- \w 27
$ CsÃ¦nÂ Ch ØncX t\Sp¶Xv F§-s\-bm-bn-cn¡pw?
\ap¡v t\m¡mw.
cmk-_-Ô-\-¯n-eqsS Bä-§Ä _mly-Xa sjÃnÂ F«v Ce-
Ivt{Sm¬ {Iao-I-cWw t\Sn ØncX ssIh-cn-¡p¶p.
]«nI 2.2 se aqe-I-§Ä D-m-¡p¶ kwbp-à-§Ä \n§Ä¡v ]cn-
N-b-ap--tÃm. GXm\pw kwbp-à-§-fpsS t]cv FgpXpI.
þþ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-þ-
C¯cw X·m{X-I-fnÂ A-ä-§sf X½nÂ tNÀ¯p \nÀ¯p-¶-
sX´mWv?
Hcp X·m-{X-bnÂ AXnse Bä-§sf ]c-kv]cw tNÀ¯p \nÀ¯p¶-
_e-s¯ cmk-_Ô - \w (Chemical Bond) F¶p ]d-bp¶p.
Atbm-WnI _Ô\w (Ionic Bonding)
GsXÃmw Bä§Ä tNÀ¶mWv tkmUnbw t¢mssdUv DmIp¶Xv?

Hmtcm Bä¯nsâbpw CeIvt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw (]«nI 2.2) hni-I-
e\w sN¿q.
$ tkmUn-b-¯nsâ _mly-X-a-sj-Ãn-epÅ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS
F®w F{X-bm-Wv?
$ t¢mdnsâ _mly-X-a-sj-Ãn-epÅ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS F®tam?
$ tkmUn-b-¯n\pw t¢mdn\pw ØncX ssIh-cn-¡m³ F´mWv
amÀKw?
$ tkmUnbw t¢mssdUv cq]o-I-c-W-
¯nÂ Hmtcm aqeI Bä-¯nepw
\S-¡p¶ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ ssIamäw
Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ tUm«v Ub{Kw t_mÀ amXr-I-bnÂ Nn{Xo-I-cn-¨n-cn-
¡p-¶Xv (Nn{Xw 2.1) hni-I-e\w
aqeI¯nsâ {]XoI¯n\p Npäpw
sN¿q.
(tUm«v ) D]- t bm- K n¨v Nn{Xo- I - c n- $ Ce--Ivt{Sm¬ ssIamäw \S¶p Ign-
Ce- I v t {Sm- W p- I sf Ip¯p- I Ä
ªmÂ tkmUnbw, t¢mdn³ F¶o

¡p¶ coXn BZy-ambn Ah-ew-_n-
¨Xv KnÄ_À«v F³. eqbnkv F¶ Bä-§-fpsS NmÀPn\v Fs´-¦nepw
Ata-cn-¡³ ckX{´Ú-\m-Wv. amäw kw`-hn-¡ptam? NÀ¨ sN¿q.
KnÄ_À«v F³.eqbnkv Ip¯p-IÄ¡p ]pdta KpW-\- Nn-
1875 þ 1946 Ó§ fpw D]-tbm-Kn-¡mdpv. aqe-
I- ¯ nsâ {]Xo- I - ¯ n\p Npäpw
_mly-Xa- - sj-Ãnse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Isf am{X-amWv tcJ-
s¸-Sp-¯p¶Xv.
28 ck-X{- ´w IX
11p 17p 11p 17p
12n 18n 12n 18n
2,8,1 2,8,7 2,8 2,8,8

tkmUnbw (Na) t¢mdn³ (Cl) tkmUnbw t¢mssdUv (Na Cl ) +
Nn{Xw 2.1
tkmUnbw Bähpw t¢mdn³ Bähpw Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ ssIamäw sN¿p-
¶-hn[w Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ tUm«v Ub{Kw D]-tbm-Kn¨v Nn{Xo-I-cn-¨n-cn-
¡p-¶p (Nn{Xw 2.2). cmk-_-Ô-\-¯nÂ ]s¦-Sp-¡p-¶Xv _mly-Xa
sjÃnse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ Bb-Xn-\mÂ Ah-bpsS F®w am{Xw
kqNn-¸n-¡p¶ Nn{Xo-I-c-W-am-WnXv.
Na Cl
(2, 8, 1) (2, 8, 7)
Nn{Xw 2.2
tkmUnbw t¢mssdUv cq]o-I-c-W-hp-ambn _Ô-s¸«v cmk-{]-hÀ¯-
\-¯n\p ap³]pw ti-j-hp-apÅ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ {Iao-I-cWw ]cn-tim-
[n¨v ]«nI 2.3 ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡p-I.
tkmUnbw t¢mdn³
cmk-{]h- apÀ¯-
³]v\¯- n\p cmk-{]h- t- ijw
À¯-\¯- n\p cmk-{]h- apÀ¯-
³]v\¯- n\p cmk-{]h- t- ijw
À¯-\¯- n\p
Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw
CeIvt{Sm-Wnsâ F®w
t{]mt«m-Wnsâ F®w
NmÀPv
]«nI 2.3
$ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn«p-sIm-Sp-¯ Bäw GXv? F{X Ce-Ivt{Sm¬?
$ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ kzoI-cn¨ Bäw GXv? F{X Ce-Ivt{Sm¬?
$ Bä-§Ä¡v NmÀPv e`n-¨p-Ig- n-ªmÂ Ah GXp t]cn-ed- n-bs¸Spw
$ tkmUnbw t¢mssdUv cq]o-Ic- W- h- p-ambn _Ô-s¸« CeIvt{Sm¬
ssIamäw kahmIyambn FgpXmw.
Na → Na+ + 1e−
Cl + 1e− → Cl−
tkmUnbw t¢mssdUv cq]o-I-c-W-¯nÂ tkmUnbw Hcp Ce-Ivt{Sm-

Wns\ hn«p-sIm-Sp¯v tkmUnbw Atbm¬ (Na+) Bbn amdp-¶p.
cmk-_Ô
- \w 29
t]mkn-äohv Atbm-Wp-Isf Imä-tbmWpIÄ (Cations) F¶p ]d-bp¶p.
B\-tbmWpIÄ
t¢mdn³ Hcp Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wns\ kzoI-cn¨v t¢mssdUv Atbm¬ (Cl-)
Bbn amdp-¶p. s\K-äohv Atbm-Wp-Isf (Anions)
F¶p ]d-bp-¶p. Cu {]hÀ¯-\¯

- n-eqsS tkmUnbw Bähpw t¢mdn³
Bähpw _mly-XasjÃnÂ AjvSI ]qÀ¯o-I-cWw hgn ØncX
ssIh-cn¡p¶p. C{]ImcapmIp¶ hn]coX NmÀPpÅ Atbm-
WpIÄ X½nÂ sshZyp- X m- I ÀjW¯nÂ (Electrostatic force of
Atbm-WnI _Ô-\-
attraction) GÀs¸-Sp-Ibpw Ahsb ]c-kv]cw _Ôn-¸n¨v \nÀ¯p-
Ibpw sN¿p-¶p. C¯cw _Ô\s¯ sa¶v
]dbp¶p. tkmUnbw t¢mssd-UnÂ Atbm-WnI_Ô-\-am-Wp-Å-Xv.
CeIv t {Sm¬ ssIamäw aqeapmIp¶ cmk_Ô\amWv

AtbmWnI _Ô\w. hn]coX NmÀPpIfpÅ AtbmWpIÄ
X½nepÅ sshZypXmIÀjWamWv AtbmWnI _Ô\¯nÂ
Atbm-Wp-Isf tNÀ¯p\nÀ¯p¶Xv.
aKv\o-jyhpw HmIvkn-P\pw tNÀ¶v aKv\ojyw HmIvsskUv (MgO)
Dm-Ip-¶Xv F§s\sb¶v t\m¡mw.
NphsS X¶n-cn-¡p¶ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ tUm«v Ub{Kw (Nn{Xw 2.3) ]cn-

tim-[n¨v ]«nI 2.4 ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡p-I.
2+ 2
Mg O Mg O
(2, 8, 2) (2, 6)
(2, 8) (2, 8)
aKv\ojyw HmIvknP³ aKv\ojyw HmIvsskUv
Nn{Xw 2.3
aKv\ojyw HmIvknP³
cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯n\p cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯n\p cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯n\p cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯n\p
ap³]v - t ijw ap³]v - t ijw
Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw
CeIvt{Sm-Wnsâ F®w
t{]mt«m-Wnsâ F®w
NmÀPv
]«nI 2.4
ØncX ssIh- c n- ¨ - t ¸mÄ aKv \ o- j y- ¯ nsâbpw HmIv k n- P sâbpw
_mly-XasjÃnse Ce-Ivt{Sm-WpI-fpsS F®¯nepmb amäw {i²n-
¡pI. aKv\o-jyhpw HmIvkn-P\pw ØncX ssIh-cn-¨Xv F§-s\-sb¶v
Ct¸mÄ t_m[y-s¸-«tÃm. aKv\ojyw HmIvsskUnteXv Atbm-Wn-
I-_-Ô-\-am-sW¶v CXnÂ\n¶pw a\-kn-em-¡mw.
30 ck-X{- ´w IX
CXp-t]mse tkmUnbw HmIvssk-Unse (Na O) Atbm-WnI _Ô\w
Nn{Xo-I-cn-¨n-cn-¡p-¶Xp (Nn{Xw 2.4) t\m¡q.
2
2
Na O Na Na O Na
Nn{Xw 2.4
NphsSbpÅ kwbpà§fnse AtbmWnI _Ô\w Ce-Ivt{Sm¬
tUm«v Ub{Kw D]-tbm-Kn¨v Nn{XoIcn¡pI.
kqN\ (AtämanI \¼À Na = 11, F = 9, Mg = 12)
$ tkmUnbw ^vfqssdUv (NaF)
$ aKv\ojyw ^vfqssdUv (MgF2)
AtbmWnI _Ô\w hgnbpmIp¶ kwbpà§Ä AtbmWnI

kwbpà§Ä (Ionic Compounds) F¶dnbs¸Sp¶p.
kl-kw-tbm-PI _Ô\w (Covalent bonding)
^v f qdn³ (F ), t¢mdn³ (Cl ), HmIv k n- P ³ (O ), ss\{S- P ³ (N )

apX-embh Zzb-mtäm-anI X·m-{X-I-fmWv. ChbpsS X·m{Xm cq]o-I-
2 2 2 2
cWw F§-s\-sb¶v ]cn-tim-[n-¡mw.

^vfqdn³ Bä-¯nsâ t_mÀ am-XrI Nn{Xw 2.5 Â \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p¶p.
9p
10n
^vfqdn³
Nn{Xw 2.5
$ ^vfqdnsâ Atäm-anI \¼À F{X?
$ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw Fgp-Xq

$ AjvSI Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ kwhn-[m\w e`n-¡m³ Hcp ^vfqdn³ Bä-
¯n\v F{X Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ IqSn thWw?
Hcp ^vfqdn³ Bäw asämcp ^vfqdn³ Bä-¯n\v Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn«p-
sIm-Sp-¡m³ km[y-X-bptm? Nnń¨p t\m¡q. Cu X·m-{X-bnÂ
Atbm-WnI _Ô\w km[y-amtWm? NÀ¨ sN¿p.
cv ^vfqdn³ Bä-§Ä¡pw AjvSI kwhn-[m\w t\Sm³ F´mWv
amÀKw?
Hcp ^vfqdn³ X·m{Xbnse cv ^vfqdn³ Bä§Ä cmk_Ô\¯n
cmk-_Ô
- \w 31
teÀs¸«ncn¡p¶ hn[w Nn{XoIcn¨ncn¡p¶Xp (Nn{Xw 2.6)
hni-I-e\w sN¿pI.
Nn{Xw 2.6
$ ^vfqdn³ X·m{Xm cq]o-Ic
- W
- ¯
- nÂ Ce-Itv {Sm¬ ssIam-äa
- mtWm
]¦p-hb- ¡
v e
- mtWm \S¡p¶Xv?
$ F{X tPmUn Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ ]¦p-h¨p?
Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ ]¦p-h-bv¡Â aqe-ap-m-Ip¶ cmk-_-Ô-\s¯
kl-kw-tbm-PI _Ô\w F¶p ]d-bp-¶p.
_Ô-\-¯nÂ GÀs¸« Ce-Ivt{SmWpIsf km[m-c-W-bmbn \mw

tPmUn-I-fm-bmWv {]kvXm-hn-¡p-¶-Xv. ^vfqdn³ X·m{Xmcq]o-I-c-W-
¯nÂ Hcp tPmUn Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ ]¦p-h-¨-Xn-\mÂ CsXmcp GI-_-
Ô-\- (Single bond) am-Wv. cmk-_-Ô-\-¯nÂ GÀs¸-«n-cn-¡p¶ aqe-I-
§- f psS {]Xo- I - § Ä¡n- S - b nÂ Hcp sNdnb hc- s Im- mWv
GI_Ô\w kqNn-¸n-¡p-¶Xv (F F)
t¢mdnsâ Atäm-anI\¼À 17 BWv.
Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw Fgp-Xq.
t¢mdn³ Bä-¯nsâ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ tUm«v Ub{Kw hc¡q. cv t¢mdn³
Bä§Ä tNÀ¶pÅ t¢mdn³ X·m{Xmcq]oIcW¯nsâ
CeIvt{Sm¬ tUm«v Ub{Kw hc¨p t\m¡q.
F{X tPmUn Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ ]¦p-h-bv¡p-¶p-sh¶p Is-¯p-I.
C\n HmIvkn-P³, ss\{S-P³ F¶o X·m-{X-I-fnse cmk_-Ô\w
Nn{Xo-I-cn-¨n-cn-¡p-¶Xp (Nn{Xw 2.7) t\m¡q.
N N N N
Nn{Xw 2.7
Ch-bnÂ Hmtcm¶nepw F{X tPmUn Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fmWv ]¦p-h-¨n-
«p-ÅXv? cp tPmUn Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ ]¦p-h-¨p-m-Ip¶ kl-kw-
tbm-PI _Ô\w Zzn_-Ô\w (Double bond) F¶pw aq¶p tPmUn
Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ ]¦p-h¨
- p-m-Ip¶ kl-kw-tbm-PI _-Ô\ - w {Xn_-
Ô-\w (Triple bond) F¶pw Adn-b-s¸-Sp-¶p. HmIvkn-P³ X·m-{X-
bnÂ Zzn_-Ô-\hpw ss\{S-P³ X·m-{X-bnÂ {Xn_-Ô-\-hp-am-sW¶v
a\-Ên-em-bntÃ. Chsb {]XoIw D]-tbm-Kn¨v bYm-{Iaw O = O, N ≡ N
32 ck-X{- ´w IX

C 4 Cl
ImÀ_¬ t¢mdn³ ImÀ_¬sS{Smt¢mssdUv

Nn{Xw 2.9
$ ImÀ_¬ Bäw Hmtcm t¢mdn³ Bä-hp-ambn F{X tPmUn Ce-
Ivt{Sm-Wp-Isf ]¦p-h-bv¡p¶p?
$ ImÀ_¬ Bäw FÃm t¢mdn³ Bä-§-fp-ambn BsI F{X
tPmUn Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Isf ]¦p-h-bv¡p¶p?
$ {]XoI§Ä D]tbmKn¨p X·m{Xsb F§s\ kqNn¸n¡mw?
klkwtbmPI _Ô\w hgn DmIp¶ kwbp-à§

- sf kl-
kw-tbm-PI kwbp-à§
- Ä F¶p hnfn-¡mw.
Ateml aqe-I§- Ä X½nÂ kwtbm-Pn-¡p-t¼mÄ km[m-cW
- b- mbn
(Covalent compounds)
kl-kw-tbm-PI kwbp-à§- f- mWv Dm-Ip-¶Xv.

kl- k w- t bm- P I kwbp- à - § Ä¡v Nne DZm- l - c - W - § Ä
\ÂInbncn¡p¶p. Ch-bnse cmk-_-Ô-\w Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ tUm«v
Ub{Kw D]-tbm-Kn¨p Nn{Xo-I-cn-¡p-I.
CH4, HF, H2O
CeIvt{Sms\K-än-hnän (Electronegativity)
klkwtbmPI _Ô\¯nÂ ]¦phbv ¡ s¸« CeIv t {Sm¬

tPmUnIsf cmä§fpw BIÀjn¡patÃm. klkwtbmPI -_-
Ô-\-¯nÂ GÀs¸« cmä-§Ä¡n-S-bn-Â ]¦p-sh¨ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬
tPmUn-Isf BIÀjn-¡m-\pÅ AXXv Bä-¯nsâ Ign-hmWv
CeIvt{Sm-s\-K-än-hn-än.
aqe-I-§-fpsS CeIvt{Sms\K-än-hnän Xmc-X-ayw sN¿p-¶-Xn\mbn
eo\kv t]mfnMv
hyXykvX CeIvt{Sms\K-än-hnän kvsIbn-ep-IÄ Bhn-jvI-cn-¨n-«pv.
(1901 þ 1994) Ch-bnÂ eo\kv t]mfnMv (Linus Pauling) F¶ Ata-cn-¡³ imkv{X-
Ú-³ Bhn-jvIc- n¨ CeIvt{Sms\K-än-hnän kvsIbnÂ BWv Gähpw
{]Nm-c-¯n-ep-ÅXv. CsXmcp Bt]-£nI kvsIbnemWv. ]qPy-¯n\pw
\men\pw CS-bn-epÅ kwJy-I-fmWv CXnÂ aqe-I-§-fpsS CeIvt{Sm
s\K-än-hnän hne-I-fmbn \ÂIn-bn-«p-Å-Xv. Cu kvsIbnenÂ Ce-Ivt{Sm-
s\-K-än-hnän Gähpw IqSnb aqeIw ^vfqdn³ BWv.
34 ck-X{- ´w IX
t]mfnMv CeIv t {Sms\Känhnän kv s Ibnensâ Hcp `mKw
Nn{XoIcn¨ncn¡p¶Xv hniIe\w sN¿q (Nn{Xw 2.10).
t]mfnMv CeIvt{Sms\Känhnän kvsIbnÂ

Nn{Xw 2.10
NphsS ]«nI 2.6- þÂ Nne kwbpà§fpw Ah-bpsS kz`mhpw \ÂIn-
bn-cn-¡p-¶p. Ahbnse LSIaqeI§fpsS CeIvt{Sms\K-än-hnän
hyXym-kw Is¯n ]«nI ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡p-I.
kwbp-à-§Ä LS-I-aq-e-I-§-fpsS CeIvt{Sm kwbp-à-¯nsâ
s\K-än-hn-än-bnse hyXymkw kz`mhw
ImÀ_¬ tamtWm-IvsskUv (CO) kl-kw-tbm-PIw
3.44 - 2.55 = 0.89
tkmUnbw t¢mssdUv (NaCl) Atbm-WnIw

aosXbv³ (CH4) kl-kw-tbm-PIw
aKv\ojyw t¢mssdUv(MgCl2) Atbm-WnIw
tkmUnbw HmIvsskUv (Na2O) Atbm-WnIw
]«nI 2.6
Hcp kwbp-à-¯nse LSIaqe-I-§-fpsS Ce-Ivt{Sm-s\-K-än-hn-än-
hneIÄ X½nepÅ hyXymkw 1.7 Hm AXnÂ IqSp-X-tem BsW-
¦nÂ s]mXpsh Atbm-WnI kz`mhhpw 1.7 Â Ipd-hm-sW-¦nÂ
kl-kw-tbm-PI kz`mhhpw Bbn-cn-¡pw DmhpI.
t]mfmÀ kz`mhw (Polar Nature)
ZzbmtämanI aqeI X·m-{X-I-fnse cv Bä-§Ä¡pw CeIvt{Sms\K-
än-hnän Xpey-am-b-Xn-\mÂ ]¦phbv¡s¸Sp¶ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ tPmUnsb
Ah Xpey-ambn BIÀjn-¡p¶p. DZm. H2, N2 F¶nh.
F¶mÂ kwbpàX·m-{X-If
- nÂ C§-s\-bÃ. ssl{U-P³ t¢mssdUv
(HCl) X·m{X ]cn-K-Wn-¡q.
$ ssl{U-Psâ CeIvt{Sms\K-än-hnän F{XbmWv?
$ t¢mdnsâ CeIvt{Sms\K-än-hnän F{X?
$ kl-kw-tbm-PI_Ô-\-¯nÂ GÀs¸« Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ tPmUnsb
GXp aqe-I -Bä¯nsâ \yq¢n-b-kmWv IqSp-XÂ BIÀjn-¡m³
km[yX?
cmk-_Ô
- \w 35
CeIvt{Sms\Känhnän IqSnb Cl Bäw ]¦phbv¡s¸«
Pew Hcp t]mfmÀ X·m{X CeIvt{Sm¬ tPmUnsb AXnsâ \yq¢nbkn\Spt¯¡v
IqSpXÂ BIÀjn¡pw. CXnsâ êambn kl-kw-tbm-
Pew Hcp t]mfmÀ X·m-{X-bm-Wv. Pe- PI kwbp-à-amb ssl{U-P³ t¢mssd-UnÂ t¢mdnsâ
¯nsâ hn`n¶ khn-ti-j-X-IÄ¡v `mK¯v `mKn-I-amb s\K-äohv NmÀPpw (sUÂäm s\K-
ASn-Øm\w AXnsâ t]mfmÀ kz`m-
h-am-Wv. s]mXpsh tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkv äohv - ) ssl{U-Psâ `mK¯v `mKn-I-amb t]mkn-äohv
Ipd-ªn-cp-¶n«pw Pew {Zmh-Im-hØ - - NmÀPpw (sUÂäm t]mkn-äohv ) kwPm-X-am-Ip-¶p.
+
bn- e m- b n- c n- ¡ m³ Imc- W - a n- X m- W v . CXns\ NphsS sImSp¯n«pÅ coXnbnÂ kqNn¸n¡mw.

ImÀ_-Wn-Ihpw AImÀ_-Wn-I-hp-
amb At\Iw kwbp-à-§sf ebn-
¸n¨v kmÀhnI emb-I-am-Im³ Pe- ssl{U-P³ t¢mssdUv
¯n\v Ign-bp-¶X - nsâ Imc-Whpw Cu
t]mfmÀ kz`mhw Xs¶.
`mKnIamb sshZypXNmÀPpIfpÅ C¯cw kl-kw-tbm-PI kwbp-
à-§sf t]mfmÀ kwbp-à-§Ä F¶p hnfn¡p¶p. HF, HBr, H O
F¶nh t]mfmÀ kwbp-à-§Ä¡v DZm-l-c-W-§-fm-Wv. _lp Atäm-
2
anI X·m-{X-I-fnÂ t]mfmÀ kz`mhw \nÀW-bn-¡p-¶-XnÂ X·m-{X-

bpsS Pyman-Xob B-Ir-Xnbpw Hcp LS-I-am-Wv. Pew (H O), Atam-
Wnb (NH ) XpS-§n-bh C¯cw kwbp-à-§-fm-Wv.
2
cmk_Ô-\-¯n-ep-m-Ip¶ hyXymkw kwbp-à-§-fpsS kz`m-h-

¯nepw {]I-S-am-Ipw. Atbm-WnI kwbp-à-§-fp-sSbpw kl-kw-tbm-
P-I kwbp-à-§-fp-sSbpw KpW-§Ä ]«n-I- 2.7 Â \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶Xv
hniIe\w sN¿q. tkmUnbw t¢mssdUv AtbmWnI kwbpàhpw
sagpIv klkwtbmPI kwbpàhpamWv. ]«nIbnse hnhc§Ä
ChbpsS KpW§fpambn H¯pt\m¡q.
KpW-§Ä Atbm-Wn-I- kw-bpàw kl-kw-tbm-PI kwbpàw

AhØ Jcw Jcw, {Zmh-Iw, hmXIw F¶o
aq¶v Ah- Ø - I - f nepw
ImWs¸-Sp-¶p.
Pe-¯nse tebXzw Pe-¯nÂ ebn-¡p-¶p. Pe-¯nÂ s]mXpsh ebn-¡p-
¶n-Ã. HmÀKm-\nIv emb-I-§-
fnÂ (a-s®-®, CCl , s_³-
ko³ apXembh) ebn-¡p-¶p.
4
sshZypXNme-IX emb\n Bbn-cn-¡p-t¼mgpw Dcp- s]mXpsh sshZypXn IS-¯n-

Inb Ah-Ø-bnepw sshZypXn hn-Sp-¶nÃ.
IS¯n hnSp-¶p.
{Zh-Wm¦w (Melting Point)
DbÀ¶Xv
Xnf-\ne (Boiling Point) s]mXpsh Xmgv¶Xv.
]«nI 2.7
36 ck-X{- ´w IX
kwtbm-P-IX (Valency)
aqe-I-§Ä cmk-_-Ô-\-¯nÂ GÀs¸«p ØncX ssIh-cn-¡p-¶p. Ah

kwtbm-Pn-¡p-t¼mÄ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ ssIamäw \S-¯p-Itbm ]¦p-hb
- v¡p-
Itbm sN¿p-¶p.
cmk{]hÀ¯-\-¯nÂ GÀs¸Spt¼mÄ Hcp Bäw hn«p-sIm-Sp-¡p-
Itbm kzoI-cn-¡p-Itbm ]¦p-h-bv¡p-Itbm sN¿p¶ Ce-Ivt{Sm-
Wnsâ F®w BWv AXnsâ kwtbm-PI - X
tkmUnbw t¢mssdUv cq]o-I-c-W-¯nÂ tkmUnbw Hcp Ce-Ivt{Sm-
Wns\ hn«p-sIm-Sp-¡p-Ibpw t¢mdn³ Cu Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wns\ kzoI-cn-
¡p-Ib
- p-amWv sN¿p-¶X- v. Cu aqe-I§
- f
- p-sS kwtbm-PI
- X F{XbmWv?
$ aKv\ojyw HmIvssk-Unsâ cq]o-I-c-W-¯nÂ aKv\ojyw F{X
Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn«p-sIm-Sp-¯p?
$ HmIvkn-P³ F{X Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ kzoI-cn-¨p?
$ Ch- b psS kwtbm- P - I - X bpw Ce- I v t {Sm¬ ssIam- ä - h p- a mbn
F§s\ _Ô-s¸-«n-cn-¡p-¶p?
$ ssl{U-P³ t¢mssdUv cq]o-I-c-W-¯nÂ ]¦p-h¨ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬
tPmUn-I-fpsS F®w F{X?
$ Hmtcm Bä¯nsâbpw kwtbmPIXtbm?
NphsS sImSp- ¯ n- c n- ¡ p¶ ]«nI 2.8 ]qÀ¯nbm¡p. Hmtcm
kwbpàcq]o-Ic- W
- ¯
- nepw AXnse aqe-I§ - f
- psS Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ {Iao-
I-c-W-¯nse amäw hniIe\w sN¿pI. Ch kwtbm-P-I-X-bp-ambn
F§s\ _Ô-s¸-«n-cn-¡p¶psh¶v Is¯pI.
kwbp-à-§Ä LSI AtämanI CeIvt{Sm¬ ssIamäwsN¿p-Itbm ]¦p-sh-bv¡p-Itbm kwtbm-P-IX

aqe-I-§Ä \¼À hn\ymkw sN¿p¶ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wnsâ F®w
Na 11 ......... 1 1
NaCl
Cl 17 ......... ......... .........
Mg 12 ......... 2 2
MgO
O 8 ......... ......... .........
H 1 ......... 1 1
HF
F ...... 2,7 ......... .........
CCl4 C 6 ......... 4 4
Cl ...... 2,8,7 ......... .........

]«nI 2.8
cmk-_Ô
- \w 37
cmk-kq-{X-¯n-te¡v
aáo-j-yhpw (12 Mg) t¢mdn\pw (17 Cl) IqSn--t¨-cp¶p F¶v Icp-Xp-I. CX-
\p-k-cn¨v Xmsg \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p¶ ]«nI ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡p-I.
aqeIw Atäm-anI Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn«psImSp-¡p-Itbm

\¼À hn\-ymkw kzo-I-cn-¡p-Itbm sN¿p¶
Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS
F®w
Mg 12 ---------- -------------
Cl 17 ----------- --------------
]«nI 2.9
aáojyw hn«p-sIm-Sp-¡p¶ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Isf kzoI-cn-¡m³ F{X
t¢mdn³ Bä-§Ä Bh-iy-amWv?
At¸mÄ aáo-jyw t¢mssdUv Dm-Ip--t¼mÄ B X·m-{X-bnÂ Hcp

aáo-jyw Bähpw cp t¢mdn³ Bä-§-fp-a-tÃ Dm-hp-I. AXp-
sImv aáo-jyw t¢mssd-Unsâ cmk-kq{Xw MgCl2 Bbn-cn-¡p-atÃm.
{]Xo-I-§Ä D]-tbm-Kn¨v Hcp X·m-{X-bnse B-ä-§-fpsS F®-s¯
kqNn-¸n-¡p¶ coXn-bn-epÅ Npcp-s¡-gp-¯mWv cmk-kq{Xw
Aeq-an-\nbw ^vfpdn-\p-ambn kwtbm-Pn-¨v Aep-an-\nbw ^vfqssdUv
Dm-Ip¶ hn[w t\m¡q.
aqeIw Atäm-anI Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn«psImSp-¡p-Itbm

\¼À hn\-ymkw kzo-I-cn-¡p-Itbm sN¿p¶
Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS
F®w
Al 13 ---------- -------------
F 9 ----------- --------------
]«nI 2.10
Aep-an-\nbw hn«p-sIm-Sp-¡p¶ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Isf kzo-I-cn-¡m³
Bhiy-amb ^vfqdn³ B-ä-§-fpsS F®w ?...........................
Aep-an-\nbw ^vfqssdUnsâ cmk-kq{Xw Fgp-Xq ...........................
Xmsg ]d-bp¶ kwbp-à-§fpsS cmk-kq{Xw Fgp-Xn-t\m-¡q..
$ tkmUnbw HmIvsskUv
$ Aeqan\nbw t¢mssdUv
38 ck-X{- ´w IX
$ Aep-an-\nbw HmIvsskUv
Hcp kwbp-à-¯nsâ cmk-kq{Xw Fgp-Xp-¶XnÂ kwtbm-P-I-X¡v
\nÀWm-b-I-amb Øm\-ap-v.
$ Aep-an-\nbw HmIvssk-Unsâ cmk-kq{Xw kwtbm-P-I-X-IÄ D]-
tbm-Kn¨v Fgp-Xp-¶-Xn-\p-ff Ffp-¸-hgn Is-¯mw.
$ Aep-an-\nbw HmIvssk-Unse LS-I-aq-e-I-§Ä GsXm-s¡-
bmWv?
$ Aep-an-\nbw, HmIvkn-P³ Ch-bpsS kwtbm-PIX F{X?
þþþ-þ-þþ-þþ-þþ-þþ-þþ-þþ-þþ-þþ-þþ-þþ-þþ-þþ-þþ-þþ-þþ-þþ
$ CeIvt{Sm s\K-än-hnän Ipdª aqe-I-¯nsâ {]XoIw BZyw
hcp¶ hn[-¯nÂ LSI aqe-I-§-fpsS {]Xo-I-§Ä ASp-¯-
Sp¯v Fgp-Xp-I.
Al O
$ Hmtcm aqe-I-¯n-sâbpw kwtbm-P-I-X-IÄ ]c-kv]cw amän ]mZm-
¦-ambn Fgp-Xp-I.
Al2 O3
Aep-an-\nbw HmIvssk-Unsâ ck-kq{Xw Al O BsW¶p I-
tÃm. 2 3
$ ImÀ_¬ ssUHm-Ivssk-Unsâ cmk-kq{Xw FgpXn t\m¡mw.

$ LSI aqe-I-§Ä GsXÃmw?.. . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . .
$ Ce-Ivt{Sm-s\-K-än-hnän Ipdª aqeIw ImÀ_¬ BW-tÃm.
F¦nÂ {]Xo-I-§Ä ASp-¯-Sp-¯mbn Fgp-Xq.
$ ImÀ_-Wnsâ kwtbm-P-IX 4 Dw HmIvkn-P-tâXv 2 Dw BbmÂ
C O Fs¶-gp-Xmw.
$ ]mZm-¦-§-fpsS s]mXp-L-SIwsImv ]mZm-¦§sf lcn-¡pI
2 4
C 2 O 4 = C1O 2
]mZm-¦w H¶m-sW-¦nÂ tcJ-s¸-Sp-t¯--Xn-Ã. At¸mÄ C O = CO
2 2
Fs¶gp-Xmw 1 2 2
aqeI§Ä
]«nI ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡pI. kwbpàw
t]cv kwtbm- t]cv kwtbm- t]cv cmk-kq{Xw
PIX PIX
s]m«mkyw 1 HmIvkn-P³ 2 s]m«mkyw HmIvsskUv K2O
kn¦v 2 t{_man³ 1 .......... ..........

ImÀ_¬ ...... t¢mdn³ ....... ImÀ_¬ sS{Sm t¢mssdUv CCl4
aKv\ojyw 2 ^vfqdn³ 1 ......... .....
]«nI 2.11
cmk-_Ô
- \w 39
Nne aqe-I§
- f- psS {]Xo-I§
- fpw Ah-bpsS kwtbm-PI- X- I- fpw NphsS
\ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶p. Ch D]-tbm-Kn¨v 4 kwbp-à-§-fpsS cmk-kq-{X-
§Ä Fgp-Xp-I.
aqeIw kwtbmPIX
O 2
Cl 1
Li 1
Zn 2
40 ck-X{- ´w IX
1. NphsS sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p¶ ]«nI ]qÀ¯o-I-cn¨v tNmZy-§Ä¡v
D¯cw Is-¯p-I ({]-Xo-I-§Ä bYmÀY-a-Ã).
P 9 2, 7
Q 17 ...........
R 10 ...........
S 12 ...........
a) apI-fnÂ sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p¶ aqe-I-§fnÂ ØncX Gähpw
IqSnb aqeIw GXv? D¯cw km[q-I-cn-¡p-I.
b) cmk{]hÀ¯-\-§-fnÂ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ hn«p-sIm-Sp-¡p-¶

aqeIw GXv?
c) SF¶ aqeIw P bpambn kwtbm-Pn¨v DmIp¶ kwbp-

à-¯nsâ cmk-kq{Xw Fgp-Xp-I.
2. Nne aqe-I-§-fpsS CeIvt{Sms\K-än-hnän hne-IÄ \ÂIn-bn-cn-

¡p-¶p. Ch hne-bn-cp¯n Xmsg sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p¶ kwbp-à-
§Ä Atbm-Wn-Itam klkwtbm-P-Itam F¶p Is¯n
FgpXp-I.
(Ce-Ivt{Sm-s\-K-än-hnän Ca = 1.0, O = 3.5 C = 2.5, S = 2.58,
H = 2.2, F = 3.98)
kÄ^À ssUHmIvsskUv (SO2)
Pew (H2O)
ImÂkyw ^vfqssdUv (CaF2)
ImÀ_¬ ssUHm-IvsskUv (CO2)
3. Nne aqe-I§
- fpw Ah-bpsS kwtbm-PI
- X
- Ifpw \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p¶p.
aqeIw kwtbm-P-IX
Ba 2
Cl 1
Zn 2
O 2
a) t_cnbw t¢mssd-Unsâ cmk-kq{Xw Fgp-XpI
b) kn¦v HmIvssk-Unsâ cmk-kq{Xw Fgp-Xp-I.
c) ImÂkyw HmIv s sk- U nsâ cmk- k q{Xw CaO F¶mWv .
ImÂ-ky-¯nsâ kwtbm-P-IX F{X?
cmk-_Ô
- \w 41
1. aosXbv³ (CH4) CusXbv³ (C2H6) F¶n-h-bnse cmk-_-Ô\w
Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ tUm«v Ub{Kw D]-tbm-Kn¨v Nn{Xo-I-cn-¡q.
2. Nn{X-§-fnÂ ImWn-¨n-cn-¡p-¶Xv t]mse D]-I-c-W-§Ä {Iao-I-
cn¨v ]co-£Ww sN¿pI.
KmÂh-t\m-ao-äÀ KmÂh-t\m-ao-äÀ
Idn-bp¸v ]©-kmc
emb\n emb\n
\nco-£Ww tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯q. \nco-£-W-¯n-sâ ASn-Øm-\-¯nÂ

Idn-bp¸v, ]©-kmc F¶n-h Hmtcm¶pw GXv Xcw kwbp-à-am-
sW¶v Xncn-¨-dn-bp-I.
3. P, Q,R,S F¶nh \mep- aq-e-I-§-fmWv. Ch-bpsS Atäm-anI \¼-
dp-IÄ bYm-{Iaw 8, 17, 12, 16 F¶n-§-s\-bm-Wv. F¦nÂ Xmsg
¸d-bp¶ aqe-I-tPm-Un-IÄ X½nÂ kwtbm-Pn-¨p-m-Ip¶ kwbp-
à-§-fnÂ Hmtcm-¶nepw GXv Xcw cmk-_-Ô-\-am-sW¶v Is-
¯p-I. Ch-bnse _Ô-\w hnhn[ hkvXp-¡Ä (D-Zm: ap¯p-IÄ,
[m\y§Ä) D]-tbm-Kn¨p \nÀan¨p {]ZÀin-¸n-¡p-I.
(CeIvt{Sms\Känhnän hneIÄ P= 3.44, Q= 3.16,R=1.31,S=2.58)
1. P, R
2. P, S
3. Q, R
42 ck-X{- ´w IX
\ap¡p Npäpw [mcmfw amä-§Ä \S-¡p-¶p-v. Ch-bnÂ ùXn-I-am-ä-
§fpw cmk-am-ä-§fpw DÄs¸-Sp-¶p. cmk-amäw \S-¡p-t¼mÄ ]pXnb
]ZmÀY-§Ä Dm-Ip-¶p.
ssl{U-P³ t¢mdn-\p-ambn {]hÀ¯n¨v ssl{U-P³ t¢mssdUv Dm-
Ip¶ cv kµÀ`-§-fnÂ A`n-Im-c-I-§-fp-sSbpw DÂ¸-¶-§-fp-sSbpw
amkp-IÄ kw_-Ôn¨ Hcp ]«nI Xmsg sImSp-¡p-¶p.
kµÀ`w A`n-Im-c-I-§-fpsS amkv DÂ]-¶¯
- nsâ amkv
ssl{U-P³ t¢mdn³ ssl{U-P³ t¢mssdUv
1. 2g 71g 73g
2. 4g 142g 146g
]«nI 3.1
* Cu ]co-£-W-¯nÂ A`n-Im-c-I-§-fpsS BsI amkpw DÂ¸-¶-
¯nsâ BsI amkpw F{X-sb¶v FgpXpI?
kµÀ`w 1 : ........................................., .........................................
kµÀ`w 2 : ........................................., .........................................
ssl{U-P\pw HmIvkn-P-\p-ambn {]hÀ¯-\-¯n-teÀs¸«v Pew Dm-
Ip¶ cv kµÀ`-§-fnÂ A`n-Im-c-I-§-fp-sSbpw DÂ¸-¶-§-fp-tSbpw
amkp-IÄ kw_-Ôn¨ Hcp ]«n-I-bmWv Xmsg sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p-¶Xv.
kµÀ`w A`n-Im-c-I-§-fpsS amkv DÂ¸-¶¯
- nsâ amkv
ssl{U-P³ HmIvkn-P³ Pew
1. 2g 16g 18g
2. 4g 32g 36g
]«nI 3.2
* Cu ]co-£-W-¯nÂ A`n-Im-c-I-§-fpsS BsI amkpw DÂ¸-¶-
¯nsâ BsI amkpw F{X-sb¶v FgpXpI?
kµÀ`w 1 : ........................................., .........................................
Atâm-bn³ emthm-knb kµÀ`w 2 : ........................................., .........................................
(1743-þ1794)
Pze\{]-{In-b-bnÂ HmIv * A`n-Im-c-§-fpsS BsI -amkpw DÂ¸-¶-§-fpsS BsI amkpw
knPsâ ]¦v Is¯n. X½n-ep-ff _Ô-sa-´m-Wv.
izk\{]{InbbnÂ HmIv -------------------------------------------------------------------
knP³ BKncWw sN¿ Hcp cmk{]hÀ¯-\-¯nÂ amkv \nÀ½n-¡-s¸-Sp-Itbm \in-¸n-¡-
s¸SpIbpw ImÀ_¬ s¸-Sp-Itbm sN¿p-¶n-Ã. CXmWv amkv kwc£--W-\n-b-aw.
ssUHmIv s skUv ]pd CXv {]kv X m- h n- ¨ Xv Atâm- b n³ emthmknsb F¶ imkv { X-
¯p hnSpIbpw sN¿psa Ú\mWv.
¶v BZyambn Is¯n. AXm-bXv A`n-Im-c-I-§-fpsS BsI amkpw DÂ¸-¶-§-fpsS BsI
ss\{SnIv, kÄ^yqcnIv, amkpw Xpey-am-bn-cn-¡pw.
t^mkvt^mdnIv Bkn
UpIfnÂ HmIvknPsâ A§-s\-sb-¦nÂ Hcp cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯nse Hmtcm aqe-I-¯n-sâbpw
km¶n[yw a\knem¡n. A`n-ImcI `mKs¯ BsI Bä-§-fp-sSbpw DÂ¸¶ `mKs¯ BsI
HmIvknP\pw ssl{U- Bä-§-fp-sSbpw F®w Xpey-am-bn-cn-¡patÃm.
P\pw t]cpIÄ \ÂIn. cmk-k-ao-I-cWw
Hcp IjWw aáojyw hmbp-hnÂ I¯n-¡p-¶p. F´mWv \nco-£-
Ww?
----------------------------------------------
Dmb shfp-¯-s]mSn F´mWv?
----------------------------------------------
Cu cmk-{]-hÀ¯\w F§s\ tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯mw?
aáojyw+ HmIvkn-P³ → aáojyw HmIvsskUv
{]Xo-I-§fpw X·m-{Xm-kq-{Xhpw D]-tbm-Kn¨v tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯n-bmÂ
Mg + O2 → MgO
44 ck-X{- ´w IX
CXv cmk-k-a-hmIyw BWv.
* CXnse A`n-Im-c-I-§Ä GsXÃmw?
----------------------------------------------
* CXnse DÂ¸¶w GXv?
----------------------------------------------
A`n-Im-cI `mKs¯ Bä-§-fpsS F®hpw DÂ¸-¶ `mKs¯ Bä-
§-fpsS F®hpw NphsS ]«n-I-bnÂ tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯p-I.
A`n-Im-c-I`mKs¯ BsI Bä-§- DÂ¸¶-`mKs¯ BsI Bä-§f- psS

fpsS F®w F®w
Mg O Mg O
............. ............. ............. .............
]«nI 3.3
* Ct¸mÄ FÃm aqe-I- Bä§-fp-sSbpw F®w Xpey-amtWm?
----------------------------------------------
* FXv aqeI Bä-¯nsâ F®-¯n-emWv hyXymkw?
----------------------------------------------
* Ccp-`m-K¯pw HmIvkn-P³ Bä-§-fpsS F®w Xpey-am-¡m³ F{X
DÂ¸-¶-X·m-{X-IÄ thWw?
----------------------------------------------
* cv aáojyw HmIvsskUv X·m-{X-Isf F§s\ tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯mw?
----------------------------------------------
* Ct¸mÄ Ccp `mK¯pw aáojyw Bä-§f
- psS F®w Xpey-amtWm?
----------------------------------------------
* Ccp `mK¯pw aáojy¯nsâ F®w Xpey-am-¡m³ A`n-Im-c-I-
`m-K¯v F{X aáojyw Bä-§Ä thWw?
* F¦nÂ apI-fnse ka-hm-Iys¯ F§s\ amän-sb-gp-Xmw.
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
Cu ka-hm-Iy-¯nÂ A`n-Im-cI `mKs¯ -X-·m-{X-bnse Bä-§-fpsS

BsI F®hpw DÂ¸¶ `mKs¯ -X-·m-{X-bnse Bä-§-fpsS BsI
F®hpw Xpey-am-tWm?
----------------------------------------------
Ct¸mÄ Ccp-`m-K-s¯bpw amÊp-IÄ Xpey-am-Ip-a-tÃm.
C¯-c-¯nÂ Hcp cmk-k-a-hm-Iy-¯nse A`n-Im-c-I `mK-s¯ -X-·m-

{X-I-fnse Hmtcm aqe-I-¯n-sâbpw Bä-§-fpsS BsI F®hpw DÂ¸-
¶ `mKs¯ -X-·m-{X-I-fnse Bä-§-fpsS BsI F®hpw Xpey-am¡n
FgpXp-¶-XmWv cmk-k-ao-I-c-Ww.
dntUmIvkv {- ]-hÀ¯-\§fpw cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\t- h-Khpw 45

C\n asämcp DZm-l-cWw t\m¡mw.
Zn + HCl → ZnCl2+H2
Cu cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯nse A`n-Im-cI `mKs¯ Bä-§-fp-sSbpw

DÂ¸¶ `mKs¯ Bä-§-fp-sSbpw BsI F®w ]«n-I-s¸-Sp-¯pI.
A`n-Im-c-I`mKs¯ BsI DÂ¸¶- `mKs¯ BsI
Bä-§fpsS F®w Bä-§fpsS F®w
Zn H Cl Zn H Cl
1 1 1 1 2 2
]«nI 3.4
* A`n-Im-c-I- `mKs¯bpw DÂ¸-¶ `mKs¯bpw Zn Bä-§-fpsS
F®w F{X?
----------------------------------------------
* GsXms¡ Bä-§-fpsS F®-¯n-emWv hyXymkw?
----------------------------------------------
* CXv Ccp-h-i-§-fnepw Xpey-am-¡m³ F{X HCl X·m-{X-IÄ A`n-
Im-c-I-ambn FSp-¡-Ww?
----------------------------------------------
Cu ka-hm-Iys¯ amän-sb-gpXq
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2+H2
H2 + O2 → H2O F¶ cmk-k-a-hm-Iys¯ kao-I-cn¨v t\m¡mw.
A`n-Im-c-I`mKs¯ BsI DÂ¸-¶`mKs¯ BsI
Bä-§-fpsS F®w Bä-§-fpsS F®w
H O H O
2 2 2 1
]«nI 3.5
DÂ¸¶-¯nse HmIvkn-P³ Bä-§-fpsS F®w 2 BIp-t¼mÄ
H2 + O2 → 2H2O
A`n-Im-c-I`mKs¯ BsI DÂ¸-¶`mKs¯ BsI

H O H O
2 2 4 2
]«nI 3.6
A`nIm-c-I- `mKs¯ ssl{U-P³ Bä-§-fpsS F®w 4 B¡m³
cv ssl{U-P³ X·m-{X-IÄ FSp-t¡t?
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
46 ck-X{- ´w IX
Al + O2 → Al2O3 F¶ ka-hm-Iys¯ kao-I-cn¨p t\m¡mw.
A`n-Im-c-I`mKs¯ BsI DÂ¸¶`mKs¯ BsI
Al O Al O
1 2 2 3
]«nI 3.7
Aep-an\nbw Bä-§-fpsS F®w 2 B¡n-bmÂ
2 Al + O2 → Al2O3
Ccp-`m-K-s¯bpw HmIvkn-³ Bä-§-fpsS F®w Xpey-amtWm? CsX-
§s\ Xpey-am¡mw?
A`n-Im-cI `mKs¯ BsI HmIvkn-P³ Bä-§Ä 2 Dw DÂ¸¶
`mKs¯ BsI HmIvkn-P³ Bä-§Ä 3 Dw BWtÃm? Xpey F®w
B¡-W-sa-¦nÂ Ccp-`m-K¯pw 6 B¡n-bmÂ t]mtc? 6 HmIvkn-P³
Bä-§Ä¡v A`n-Im-c-I-`m-K¯v F{X O X·m-{X-IÄ thWw? 2
----------------------------------------------
2 Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
Ct¸mÄ Aep-an-\n-bw Bä-§-fpsS F®w Ccp-`m-K¯pw Xpey-amtWm?
----------------------------------------------
F¦nÂ Aep-an-\nbw Bä-§-fpsS F®w Xpey-am-¡q.
.....+ 3O2 → 2 Al2O3
CXv kao-IrX ka-hm-Iy-amtWm?
Nne cmk-k-a-hm-Iy-§Ä \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶p. Ch-bnse A`n-Im-cI
`mKs¯ Bä-§-fp-sSbpw DÂ¸¶ `mKs¯ Bä-§-fp-sSbpw BsI
F®w ]«n-I-s¸-Sp-¯p-I.
1. C + O2 → CO2
2. N2 + H2 → NH3
3. 2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2
4. SO2 + O2 → SO3
5. BaCl2 + H2SO4 → BaSO4 + 2HCl
\¼À A`n-ImcI `mKs¯ Bä-§Ä DÂ¸¶ `mKs¯ Bä-§Ä
1. C-1, O - 2 C-1, O - 2
2.
3.
4.
5.
]«nI 3.8
kao-I-cn-¡m¯ ka-hm-Iy-§Ä Hmtcm-¶mbn kao-I-cn-s¨-gpXq.
1.
2.
3.
HmIvko-I-c-Whpw \ntcm-Ivko-I-c-Whpw
(Oxidation and Reduction)
aKv\ojyw t¢mdn\pambn kwtbm-Pn¨v aKv\ojyw t¢mssdUv Dm-

Ip¶ {]hÀ¯\w ]cnNbaptÃm. Cu {]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ cmk-k-
a-hmIyw \ÂInbncn¡p¶Xp t\m¡q.
Mg + Cl2 → MgCl2
$ aKv\ojy¯nsâbpw t¢mdnsâbpw CeIvt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw bYm-

{Iaw 2,8,2 Dw 2,8,7 Dw BWv. aKv\ojyw Bäw F{X Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-
Isf hn«p- s Im- S p- ¡ pw? AXn\v F{X NmÀPv e`n¡pw?
$ Cu {]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ ka-hmIyw ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡nbmtem?

Mg → Mg2+ + ...
$ Hmtcm t¢mdn³ Bähpw F{X Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wns\ kzoI-cn-¡p¶p?

Hmtcm-¶n\pw e`n-¡p¶ NmÀPv F{X?
$ Cu {]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ ka-hmIyw ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡p-I.

Cl + 1e-→
Cu {]hÀ¯-\-¯nÂ aKv\ojyw Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wns\ hn«p-sIm-Sp-¡p-¶p;

t¢mdn³ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wns\ kzoI-cn-¡p-¶p.
Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ \jvS-s¸-Sp¶ {]hÀ¯-\a- mWv HmIvko-I-cWw.

Ce-Ivt{SmWns\ kzoI-cn-¡p¶ {]hÀ¯-\a- mWv \ntcm-Ivko-Ic- W
- w.
Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ \jvSs
- ¸-Sp¶ Bäw \ntcm-Ivkn-Im-cnbpw Ce-Ivt{Sm¬
kzoI-cn-¡p¶ Bäw HmIvko-Im-cnbpw BWv.
$ taÂ¸-dª cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯nÂ GXv Bä-¯n-\mWv HmIvko-
I-cWw kw`-hn-¨Xv?
----------------------------------------------
$ GXv Bä-¯n-\mWv \ntcm-Ivko-I-cWw kw`-hn-¨X v?
----------------------------------------------
48 ck-X{- ´w IX
$ Cu cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯nse HmIvko-Imcn GXv?
----------------------------------------------
$ Cu cmk{]hÀ¯-\-¯nse \ntcm-Ivko-Imcn GXv?
----------------------------------------------
X¶n-cn-¡p¶ cmk ka-hm-Iy-§-fnÂ HmIvko-I-cWw kw`-hn¨ Bäw,
\ntcm-Ivko-I-cWw kw`-hn¨ Bäw, HmIvko-Im-cn, \ntcm-Ivko-Imcn
F¶nh ]«n-I-s¸-Sp-¯p-I.
1) Mg + F2 → MgF2
HmIvko-I-cWw kw`-hn¨ Bäw ..............................

HmIvko-I-cW ka-hmIyw Mg → Mg2++ 2e-
\ntcm-Ivko-I-cWw kw`-hn¨ Bäw ..............................
\ntcm-Ivko-I-cW ka-hmIyw F + 1e- → F-
HmIvko-Imcn ..............................
\ntcm-Ivko-Imcn ..............................
]«nI 3.9
2) 2Na + Cl2 → 2 NaCl
HmIvko-I-cWw kw`-hn¨ Bäw ..............................

HmIvko-I-cW ka-hmIyw ..............................
\ntcm-Ivko-I-cWw kw`-hn¨ Bäw ..............................
\ntcm-Ivko-I-cW ka-hmIyw ..............................
HmIvko-Imcn ..............................
\ntcm-Ivko-Imcn ..............................
]«nI 3.10
NphsS sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p¶ ka-hm-Iy-§Ä hni-I-e\w sNbvXv ]«nI
(3.11) ]qÀ¯nbm¡p-I.
1. Mg → Mg2+ + 2e
F + 1e- → F
2. Na →Na+ + 1e
Cl + 1e- → C1
3. Fe → Fe2+ + 2e
O + 2e- → O2
HmIvko-I-cW \ntcm-Ivko-Imcn \ntcm-Ivko-I-cW HmIvko-Imcn
ka-hmIyw ka-hmIyw
Mg →Mg2++2e- Mg F +1e- → F- F
................ ............... ...................... ................

................ ............... ...................... ................
]«nI 3.11

HmIvkntU-j³ \¼À (Oxidation number)
Hcp ]ZmÀY-¯nse FÃm _Ô-\-§fpw Atbm-Wn-I-ambn ]cn-K-Wn-

¨mÂ AXnse Hmtcm Bä-¯nepw cq]w sImÅp¶ NmÀPn-s\-bmWv
B Bä-¯nsâ HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À F¶p-]-d-bp-¶-Xv.
ssl{U-P\pw t¢mdn\pw X½nÂ {]hÀ¯n¨v ssl{U-P³ t¢mssdUv
Dm-Ip¶ {]hÀ¯\w {i²n-¡q.
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
ChnsS ssl{U-P-sâbpw t¢mdn-sâbpw Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ ]¦p-sh-

bv¡s- ¸-«v kl-kw-tbm-PI- _
- Ô
- \ - a- mWv Dm-Ip-¶Xv F¶-dn-bm-atÃm?
$ Hcp kl-kw-tbm-P-I-kw-bp-à-¯nÂ FÃm-bvt¸mgpw Ce-Ivt{Sm-
Wp-IÄ Ce-Ivt{Sm-s\-K-än-hnän IqSnb Bä-¯n-te¡v Øm\-amäw
sN¿-s¸-Sp-I-bm-sW¶v k¦-Â¸n-¨mWv HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À
Is-¯p-¶-Xv.
$ aqe-I-X-·m-{X-IfnÂ Bä-§Ä Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Isf Xpey-ambn ]¦p-
sh-bv¡p-¶X - n-\mÂ aqe-Im-hØ
- b - nÂ HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À ]qPy-
ambn ]cn-K-Wn-¡p-¶p.
$ Hcp X·m-{Xbnse LS-I- Bä§-fpsS HmIvko-I-c-Wm-h-Ø-I-fpsS
BsI XpI ]qPyw BWv.
ssl{U-P³ t¢mssdUv cq]o-I-c-W-¯nÂ t¢mdn³ Hcp Ce-Ivt{Sm¬
kzoI-cn¨v Hcp s\K-äohv NmÀPpw ssl{U-P³ Hcp Ce-Iv-t{Sm¬ \jvS-
s¸Sp¯n Hcp t]mkn-äohv NmÀPpw t\SnbXmbn k¦Â¸n-¨n-cn-¡p-
¶p. ssl{U-Psâ HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À +1 F¶pw t¢mdn-tâXv þ-- 1
F¶pw ]cn-K-Wn-¡p-¶p.
$ H2 hnÂ ssl{U-Psâ HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À F{X?
----------------------------------------------
$ Cl2hnÂ t¢mdnsâ HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À F{X?
----------------------------------------------
F¦nÂ HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À tNÀ¯v ka-hmIyw amän Fgp-Xn-
bmtem?
0 0 +1 -1
H 2 + Cl2 → 2 H Cl
$ Cu {]hÀ¯\¯nÂ ssl{U-Psâ HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À
IqSntbm? Ipdtªm?
----------------------------------------------
$ t¢mdnsâtbm?
----------------------------------------------
50 ck-X{- ´w IX
HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À IqSp¶ {]hÀ¯\w HmIvko-I-c-Whpw
HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À Ipd-bp¶ {]hÀ¯\w \ntcm-Ivko-I-c-
Whpw BWv.
$ ssl{U-P³ t¢mssdUv cq]o-I-c-W-¯nÂ HmIvko-I-cWw kw`-
hn-¨Xv GXv Bä-¯n-\mWv?
----------------------------------------------
$ Cu {]hÀ¯-\-¯nse \ntcm-Ivko-Imcn GXv?
----------------------------------------------
$ Cu {]hÀ¯-\-¯nÂ \ntcm-Ivko-I-cWw kw`-hn-¨Xv GXv Bä-
¯n-\mWv?
----------------------------------------------
$ ChnsS HmIvko-Imcn GXv?
----------------------------------------------
Xmsg sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p¶ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\¯ - nÂ HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À
]cn-tim-[n¨v HmIvko-Im-cn, \ntcm-Ivko-Imcn Ch ]«n-I-s¸-Sp-¯p-I.
0 0 +4 -2
C + O2 → C O2
aqeIw HmIvkn-tU-j³ HmIvkn-tU-j³ HmIvko-I-cWw/

\¼À {]hÀ¯-\- \¼À {]hÀ¯-\- \ntcm-Ivko-I-
¯n\v ap³]v ¯n\v tijw cWw kw`-hn-¨Xv
C 0 4
+
--
O 0 2
-
--
]«nI 3.12
$ HmIvko-Imcn .....................................
$ \ntcm-Ivko-Imcn ....................................
Xmsg sImSp¯ {]hÀ¯-\-¯nÂ HmIvkn-tUj³ \¼À ]cn-tim-
[n¨v HmIvko-Im-cn, \ntcm-Ivko-Imcn F¶nh Is-¯p-I.
2Na 0 + Cl0 2 → 2Na +1Cl-1
$ HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À IqSn-bXv GXv Bä-¯n\v?....................................

------------
$ HmIvko-I-cWw kw`-hn¨ Bäw ....................................
-------------
$ HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À Ipd-ªXv GXv Bä-¯n\v?....................................
$ \ntcm-Ivko-I-cWw kw`-hn¨ Bäw ....................................
$ HmIvko-Imcn ....................................
$ \ntcm-Ivko-Imcn ....................................

asämcp cmk-{]-hÀ¯\w t\m¡q.
o +1 −1 +2 -1
o
Z n +2 H C l → Z n C l 2 + H 2
$ Zn sâ HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À ..........Â \n¶v ..........te¡v Ipd-bp¶p/

IqSp-¶p.
$ HmIvko-I-cWw kw`-hn¨ Bäw ....................................
$ H sâ HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À ..........Â \n¶v ..........te¡v Ipd-bp¶p/
IqSp-¶p.
$ \ntcm-Ivko-I-cWw kw`-hn¨ Bäw ....................................
$ ChnsS HmIvkoImcn HCl Dw \ntcm-Ivko-Imcn Zn Dw BWv.
HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À IW¡m¡p¶ hn[w
Nne aq-e-I-§-fpsS km[mcW HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À ]«n-I- 3.13 Â
\ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶Xv t\m¡q.
aqeIw HmIvkn-tU-j³ aqeIw HmIvkn-tU-j³
\¼À \¼À
H +1 F -1
K +1 Cl -1
Na +1 O -2
Ca +2 Br -1
Al +3 I -1
]«nI 3.13
Hcp kwbp-à-¯nse HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À Adn-bm¯ Bä-¯nsâ

HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À Is-¯mtam? \ap¡v ]cn-tim-[n-¡mw.
H2SO4 Â kÄ^-dnsâ HmIvkntU-j³ \¼À Is-¯p¶sX§
s\sb¶v t\m¡mw.
]«nI 3.11 {]Imcw
ssl{U-Psâ HmIvko-I-c-Wm-hØ = +1
HmIvkn-Psâ HmIvko-I-c-Wm-hØ = -2
kÄ^-dnsâ HmIvko-I-c-Wm-hØ = x F¶n-cn-¡s«
kwbp-à-¯nse Bä-§-fpsS HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼-dp-I-fpsS XpI
]qPy-am-WtÃm. AXp-sIm-v,
[ 2 x (+1)] + x+ (4 x -2) = 0
(+2) + x + (-8) = 0
x- 6 = 0
x = +6
52 ck-X{- ´w IX
H2SO4 Â kÄ^-dnsâ HmIvkntU-j³ \¼À = +6 -
KMnO Â Mnsâ HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À Is-¯p-I. ( K bpsS HmIvkn-

tU-j³ \¼À +1, O bpsS HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À þ 2)
4
s]m«m-ky-¯nsâ HmIvko-I-c-Wm-hØ = +1
HmIvknPsâ HmIvko-I-c-Wm-hØ = -2
Mn sâ HmIvkoI-c-Wm-hØ = x BbmÂ
1 × (+1) + x +4(-2) = 0
(+1) + x + (-8) = 0
x -7 = 0
x = +7
$ MnO2, Mn2O3, Mn2O7 Ch-bnÂ Mn sâ HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À Is-
¯p-I.
Atbm-Wp-Isf kw_-Ôn¨v Ah-bpsS NmÀPpw HmIvkn-tU-j³
\¼dpw Xpey-am-Wv.
DZm:
Fe Â +2 2+
Fe Â +3 3+
Cu Â +2 2+
dntUmIvkv {]hÀ¯-\-§Ä (Redox Reactions)

H2+ Cl2 → 2HCl
Cu {]hÀ¯-\-¯nÂ HmIvko-I-cWw \S-¡p-¶Xv GXv Bä-¯n-\mWv?
----------------------------------------------
CXnÂ \ntcm-Ivko-I-cWw \S-¡p-¶tXm?
----------------------------------------------
Cu cv {]hÀ¯-\-§fpw tNÀ¶-Xm-WtÃm ]qÀ®-amb cmk
{]hÀ¯\w
H2+ Cl2 → 2HCl
ChnsS HmIvko-I-c-Whpw {]hÀ¯-\hpw \ntcm-Ivko-I-cW {]hÀ¯-
\-hpw Htc kabw Xs¶ \S-¡p-¶p, AXn-\mÂ Ch cpw tNÀ¯v
dntUmIvkv {]hÀ¯\w F¶v ]d-bp-¶p.
aäp Nne DZm-l-c-W-§Ä
Mg + F2 → MgF2
2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl
Hcp dntUmIvkv {]hÀ¯\¯nÂ HmIvkoImcn¡v \ntcmIvkoIc
Whpw \ntcmIvkoImcn¡v HmIvkoIcWhpw kw`hn¡p¶p.

cmk{]-hÀ¯\ thKw
\nXy-Po-hn-X-¯nÂ hnhn-[-§-fmb cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§Ä \n§Ä \nco-
£n-¨n-«p-tÃm? Ch-bnÂ Nne {]hÀ¯-\-§Ä Xmsg \ÂIn-bn-cn-
¡p-¶p. enÌv hn]p-eo-I-cn-¡p-I.
$ hndIv I¯p-¶-Xv.
$ Ccp¼v Xpcp-¼n-¡p-¶Xv
$ ]S¡w s]m«p-¶-Xv.
$
ChnsS \ÂInb {]hÀ¯-\-§-sfÃmw Htc thK-¯n-emtWm \S-¡p-
¶-Xv.
cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§-fpsS thKw Iq«p-Itbm Ipd-bv¡p-Itbm sNt¿
kµÀ`-§Ä Dm-Im-dntÃ?
Ccp¼v Xpcp-¼n-¡p¶ {]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ thKw hfsc Ipd-bv¡p-¶-
Xn-s\-¸än Btem-Nn-¨n-«ptm? AtX t]mse hndIv thK-¯nÂ
I¯m³ \mw B{K-ln-¡m-dntÃ?
hndIv I¯p¶ {]hÀ¯\w thK-¯n-em-¡m³ km[m-c-W-bmbn
GsXms¡ amÀK-§-fmWv Ah-ew-_n-¡m-dp-ÅXv?
$ IqSp-XÂ hmbp e`y-am¡pI
$
$
Nne LS-I-§Ä cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-thK-s¯ kzm[o-\n-¡p¶p F¶tÃ
CXv kqNn-¸n-¡p-¶Xv? cmk-{]-hÀ¯\ thK-s¯-¡p-dn¨pw AXns\
kzm[o-\n-¡p¶ {][m-\-s¸« LS-I-§sf¡pdn¨pw \ap¡v ]cn-tim-[n-
¡mw.
1. A`n-Im-c-§-fpsS kz`m-hhpw cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-Khpw
t\À¸n¨ HCl Â kn¦v (Zn) aáojyw (Mg) F¶o teml-§-fpsS

{]hÀ¯-\-thKw Hcp t]mse Bbn-cn-¡ptam? ]co-£Ww sNbvXp
t\m¡mw.
]co-£Ww sN¿p-¶-Xn\v Bh-iy-amb kma-{Kn-IÄ Fs´-Ãm-amWv?
Zn, MgF¶nh Htc hen-¸-ap-f-fh FSp-t¡--XtÃ?

$ Cu ]co-£-W-§-fnse {]hÀ¯-\-{Iaw Fgp-Xn t\m¡q.
$ ChnsS Dm-Ip¶ hmXIw GXmWv?
54 ck-X{- ´w IX
$ cmk-k-a-hm-Iy-§Ä Fgp-Xn t\m¡q.
{]hÀ¯\w 1 (Zn tNÀ¯-t¸mÄ) :
{]hÀ¯\w 2 (Mg tNÀ¯-t¸mÄ) :
$ GXv sSÌvSyq_n-emWv cmk-{]-hÀ¯\w thK-¯nÂ \S-¶Xv?
$ Cu {]hÀ¯-\-§-fnÂ D]-tbm-Kn¨ Bkn-Unsâ KmV-X-bnÂ

hyXym-k-aptm?
F¦nÂ GXv LS-I-amWv ChnsS cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-K-s¯

kzm[o-\n-¨Xv?
cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-K-s¯ kzm[o-\n-¡p¶ Hcp LS-I-amWv A`n-

Im-c-I-§-fpsS kz`m-hw.
2. KmV-Xbpw cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-Khpw
cmk-{]-hÀ¯\ thK-¯nÂ A`n-Im-c-I-§-fpsS kz`m-h-¯n-\p-ff

kzm[o\w Is-¯n-b-tÃm. A`n-Im-cI-§-fpsS KmV-Xbpw cmk-{]-
hÀ¯-\-th-Khpw X½n-ep-ff _Ôw F´m-sW¶p t\m¡mw.
aKv\ojyw hyXykvX KmV-Xb- pÅ sslt{Um-t¢m-dnIv BknUp (HCl)
ambn F§s\ {]hÀ¯n-¡p¶p F¶mWv ]cn-tim-[n-t¡-Xv.
$ CXn-\mbn Hcp-t¡ kma-{Kn-IÄ Fs´Ãmw?
$ aKv\ojyw dn_-Wnsâ amkv Xpey-am-bn-cn-¡t?
$ HCl sâ hym]vXtam?
C\n ]co-£Ww sN¿mw. Nn{Xw 3.1 \nco-£n-¡q.

cv sSÌvSyq_pI-fnepw Htc amkpÅ aKv\ojyw dn_-Wp-IÄ FSp-
¡pI. H¶nÂ KmV HCl Dw atä-XnÂ t\À¸n¨ HCl Dw Xpey-hym]vXw
hoXw tNÀ¡p-I.

H2
KmV HCl t\À¸n¨ HCl
Mg dn_¬ Mg dn_¬
1 2
Nn{Xw 3.1
\n§-fpsS \nco-£Ww tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯pI.

sImfo-j³ kn²m´w sSÌvSyq_v 1 :
(Collision Theory)
Cu kn²m´ {]Imcw cmk- sSÌvSyq_v 2 :
{]hÀ¯\w \S-¡W - s- a-¦nÂ A`nIm-
cI IWnI- I- Ä ]c-kv]cw Iq«na- p-t«-- {]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ kao-I-cn¨ cmkka-hmIyw FgpXq.
Xp-v. A`n-Im-cI IWnI-IÄ X½n-
epÅ FÃm Iq«n-ap-«-ep-Ifpw cmk-{]-
hÀ¯-\-¯nÂ Iem-in-¡-W-sa-¶n-Ã. $ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-Kw IqSp-XÂ GXv sSÌvSyq_n-
IWn-II- Ä¡v Hcp \nÝnX Af-hnepw emWv?
IqSp-XÂ DuÀP-ap-s-¦nte ê-h-
¯mb Iq«n-ap-«e- p-IÄ \S¶v DÂ¸-¶- $ GXv sSÌvSyq_n-emWv bqWnäv hym]vX-¯nÂ
§Ä Dm-Iq. X·m{X-I-fpsS F®w IqSpXÂ HCl X·m-{X-IÄ DÄs¡m-Åp-¶Xv?
IqSp-¶Xpw DuÀPw IqSp-¶Xpw \nÝnX
ka-b¯ - n-\p-Ånse ê-h¯ - mb Iq«n-
ap- « - e p- I - f psS F®w hÀ[n- ¡ m³ X³am-{X-I-fpsS F®w IqSp-¶Xv cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-thKw
ImcW-amIpw. hÀ²n-¡m³ Imc-W-am-Ip-¶p--tÃm. CXn\v F´mWv
Imc-W-sa¶v t\m¡mw.
A`n-Im-cI- §
- f- psS KmVX IqSp-t´mdpw bqWnäv hym]vX¯
- nse
X·m-{XI-I-fpsS F®hpw ê-h-¯mb Iq«n-ap«ep-I-fpsS
F®hpw IqSp-¶p. XXv^-e-ambn cmk{]-hÀ¯\w thK-¯nÂ
\S-¡p-¶p.
3. Jc-]-ZmÀY-§-fpsS {]X-e-]c-¸fhpw
cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-Khpw
Xpey-am-kpÅ amÀ_n-Ä IjWw, amÀ_nÄ s]mSn F¶n-h-bp-ambn

Htc -Km-V-X-bpÅ t\À¸n¨ HCl F§s\ {]hÀ¯n-¡p¶p F¶v
t\m¡mw.
Nn{Xw 3.2 hni-Ie- \w sNbvXv ]co-£W
- ¯
- n\mh-iy-amb kma-{KnIfpw
{]hÀ¯\{Iahpw Fgp-Xq.
56 ck-X{- ´w IX
t\À¸n¨ HCl t\À¸n¨ HCl
amÀ_nÄ IjWw amÀ_nÄ s]mSn-¨Xv
Nn{Xw 3.2
Cu {]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ cmk-k-a-hmIyw FgpXn t\m¡mw.

CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
\nco£Ww F´mWv?
$ cv _o¡-dp-I-fn-sebpw {]hÀ¯-\-th-K-¯nÂ Fs´-¦nepw
hyXym-k-aptm?
$ cv {]hÀ¯-\-§-fnepw Bkn-Unsâ KmVX F{]-Im-c-amWv?
$ amÀ_n-fnsâ amkv hyXym-k-s¸-«n-«ptm?
$ amÀ_n-fnsâ {]X-e-]c-¸-fthm?
$ Htc kabw IqSp-XÂ BknUv X·m-{X-IÄ amÀ_n-fp-ambn
k¼À¡-¯nÂ hcm-\pÅ km[yX GXnemWv IqSp-XÂ?
$ {]X-e]c-¸-fhv IqSp-t¼mÄ sImfo-j³ \nc-¡nÂ F´v amä-amWv
DmIp¶Xv?
$ Cu {]hÀ¯-\-¯nÂ amÀ_n-fns\ hopw sNdnb Xcn-I-fm-¡n-
bmÂ AsÃ-¦nÂ s]mSn-¨mÂ {]hÀ¯-\-th-K-¯nÂ F´v amä-ap-
mIpw?
Jc-h-kvXp-¡Ä DÄs¸« cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§-fnÂ thK-s¯ kzm[o-
\n-¡p¶ Hcp LS-I-amWv {]X-e]c-¸-fhv (Surface area).
Jc-]-ZmÀY-§sf sNdp-I-jW-§-fm¡n amäp-t¼mÄ AsÃ¦nÂ
s]mSn¨v D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-t¼mÄ AhbpsS {]Xe]c-¸-fhv IqSp-¶p.
X·qew êh-¯mb Iq«n-ap-«-ep-I-fnÂ GÀs¸-Sp¶ X·m-{X-I-fpsS
F®hpw IqSp-¶p. AXn-\mÂ cmk-{]-hÀ¯\thK-hpw IqSp-¶p.

hndIv sNdnb Ij-W-§-fm-¡p-t¼mÄ thK-¯nÂ I¯p-¶-Xn-\pÅ
ImcWw CXnÂ \n¶pw hyà-am-WtÃm?
{]X-e-]c-¸-fhv hÀ[n-¡p-t¼mÄ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-Kw IqSp¶p F¶-
Xn\v \nXy-Po-hn-X-¯nÂ \n¶pw IqSp-XÂ DZm-l-c-W-§Ä Is¯q.
4. Xm]-\n-ebpw cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-Khpw
tkmUnbw Xtbm-kÄt^äpw sslt{Um-t¢m-dnIv BknUpw X½n-
epÅ {]hÀ¯-\-¯nÂ Xm]-\n-ebpsS kzm[o\w F´m-sW¶v
t\m¡mw.
Bh-iy-amb kma-{Kn-IÄ :
tkmUnbw Xtbm-kÄt^-äv, sslt{Um-t¢m-dnIv BknUv, Pew,
t_mbn-enwKv Syq_v, kv]ncnäv em¼v.
{]hÀ¯-\-{Iaw :
Hcp _o¡-dnÂ tkmUnbw Xtbm-kÄt^-änsâ t\À¸n¨ emb\n
Xbm-dm-¡p-I. Cu emb\n Xpey Af-hnÂ cv t_mbn-enwKv Syq_p-
I-fnÂ FSp-¡p-I. Hcp t_mbn-enwKv Syq_ns\ AÂ]-k-abw NqSm-
¡p-I. cv t_mbn-enwKv Syq_p-I-fnepw Htc Af-hnÂ t\À¸n¨
sslt{Um-t¢m-dnIv Bkn-Uv tNÀ¡pI.
$ \nco-£Ww tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯q.
$ GXv t_mbn-enwKv Syq_n-emWv s]s«¶v Ah-£n]vXw Dm-

bXv?
$ t_mbn-enwKv Syq_pI-fn-ep-mb Ah-£n-]vX-¯nsâ \ndw

F´mWv?
cv t_mbn-enwKv Syq_p-I-fnepw kÄ^À Ah-£n-]vX-s¸-«-Xp-sIm-

mWv \ndw amäw Dm-bXv. cmk-k-a-hmIyw {i²n-¡q.
Na2S2O3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + SO2 + S
Cu {]hÀ¯-\-§-fnÂ \n¶v cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-K-s¯ kzm[o-\n¨
LS-I-ta-sX¶v a\-Ên-em-¡m-atÃm?
s{XtjmÄUv F\ÀPn (Threshold Energy)

cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\¯
- nÂ ]s¦-Sp-¡p-¶X
- n\v X·m-{X-IÄ¡v Hcp \nÝnX
Afhv KXn-tImÀPw Bh-iy-am-Wv. Cu DuÀPs¯ s{XtjmÄUv
F\ÀPn F¶v ]d-bp-¶p.
A`n-Im-c-I-§sf NqSm-¡p-t¼mÄ X·m-{X-I-fpsS DuÀPhpw Ne-\-th-
K-Xbpw hÀ[n-¡pw. AXm-bXv Xm]-\ne IqSp-t¼mÄ s{XtjmÄUv
58 ck-X{- ´w IX
F\ÀPn DÅ X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®w hÀ[n-¡p-¶p. XÂ^-e-ambn ê-
h-¯mb Iq«n-ap-«-ep-I-fpsS F®w IqSp-Ibpw cmk-{]-hÀ¯\thKw
IqSp-Ibpw sN¿p-¶p.
Xm]-\ne cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-K-s¯ kzm[o-\n-¡p¶ Hcp {][m\

LS-I-amWv. Xm]-\ne hÀ[n-¡p-t¼mÄ cmk-{]-hÀ¯\thKw IqSp-
¶p.
5. DÂt{]-c-Ihpw cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-K-hpw
kzb-w hnL-S\w kw`-hn-¡p¶ Hcp kwbp-àa
- mWv ssl{U-P³ s]tdm-
IvsskUv (H2O2). CXnsâ Peob emb-\n-bmWv km[m-cW cmk-{]-
hÀ¯-\-¯n\v D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-¶Xv. {]hÀ¯\ ka-hmIyw \ÂIn-bn-
cn-¡p-¶Xv t\m¡q.
2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2
Hcp sSÌvSyq_nÂ Aev]w ssl{U-P³ s]tdm-IvsskUv emb\n FSp-
¡q. sSÌvSyq_n-\p-Ån-te¡v Fcn-bp¶ Hcp Nµ-\-¯ncn ImWn-¡q.
$ F´mWv \nco-£Ww? Nµ-\-¯ncn I¯p-¶-XnÂ Fs´¦nepw
amäaptm?
AXn-\p-tijw sSÌvSyq_n-te¡v Aev]w amwK-\okv Utbm-IvsskUv
(MnO2) tNÀ¡q. hopw Fcn-bp¶ Nµ-\-¯ncn ImWn-¨p-t\m-¡q.
$ \nco-£Ww tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯pI.
amwK-\okv Utbm-IvsskUv tNÀ¯-t¸mÄ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\t- h-Kw IqSp-

Ibpw thK-¯nÂ HmIvkn-P³ Dm-hp-Ibpw sNbvXp F¶tÃ CXv
kqNn-¸n-¡p-¶Xv?
{]hÀ¯\w ]qÀ¯n-bmbn¡gn-ªmÂ emb-\nsb Hcp ^nÂ«À t]¸À
D]tbmKn¨v Acn¨p t\m¡q.
^nÂ«À t]¸-dnÂ Ah-ti-jn-¡p¶ ]ZmÀYw amwK-\okv Utbm-
IvsskUv Xs¶-bm-Wv. CXv kq£va-ambn ]cn-tim-[n-¨mÂ AXnsâ
Af-hntem KpW-¯ntem amä-ap-m-bnÃ F¶v ImWmw.
Cu {]hÀ¯-\-¯nÂ amwK-\okv Utbm-Ivssk-Unsâ km¶n[yw
cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-Kw hÀ[n-¸n-¡p-I-bmWv sNbvX-Xv. AXn-\mÂ amwK-
\okv Utbm- I v s skUv Cu cmk- { ]- h À¯- \ - ¯ nÂ DÂt{]- c - I -
(Catalyst) ambn {]hÀ¯n-¨p-sh¶v ]d-bmw.
kzbw Ønc-amb cmk-am-ä-¯n\v hnt[-b-am-ImsX cmk-{]-hÀ¯-
\-th-K¯nÂ amä-ap-m-¡p¶ ]ZmÀY-§-fmWv DÂt{]-c-I-§Ä
(Catalysts).

amwK-\okv Utbm-IvsskUv Cu cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\¯ - nÂ
F³ssk-ap-IÄ þ Poh thKw hÀ[n-¸n-¡p¶ DÂt{]-c-I-am-bmWv {]hÀ¯n-¨-
i- m-kv{X-]c- a- mb DÂt{]-cI- §
- Ä Xv. C¯cw DÂt{]-c-I-§Ä t]mkn-äohv -DÂt{]-c-I-
§Ä (Positive catalyst) F¶-dn-b-s¸-Sp-¶p.
(Biocatalysts)
Poh-tIm-i-§-fnse PohÂ {]hÀ¯-\- ssl{U-P³ s]tdm-IvsskUv kzbw hnL-Sn¨v Pehpw
§Ä cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\§ - f- m-Wv. Cu cmk- HmIvkn-P\pw Dm-Ip-sa¶v a\-Ên-em-btÃm? At¸mÄ
{]-hÀ¯-\§ - f- mWv Poh³ \ne-\nÀ¯p- ssl{U-P³ s]tdm-IvsskUv hnL-Sn¨v \in-¡msX
¶-Xv. Ch-bpsS {]hÀ¯\w F³ssk- kq£n-¡W - s- a-¦nÂ hnL-S\- t- h-Kw Ipd-bvt¡-X - tÃ?
ap-IÄ F¶-dn-bs- ¸-Sp¶ k¦oÀW amwky- Cu Bh-iy-¯n-\mbn ssl{U-P³ s]tdm-Ivssk-UnÂ
X-·m-{X-If- mÂ \nb-{ń-Xa- m-W.v Aan-tekv Aev]w t^mkvt^m-dnIv BknUv (H PO ) tNÀ¡p-
F¶ F³ssk- a mWv A¶- P s¯ 3 4
amÄt«mkv B¡n amäp- ¶ - X v . Dan- ¶p. t^mkv t ^m- d nIv BknUv ssl{U- P ³ s]tdm-
\ocnemWv Aan-tekv ImW-s¸-Sp-¶Xv. Ivssk-Unsâ hnL-S-\-th-KX Ipd-bv¡p-¶-Xn-\mÂ
A¶-Pw Pew Aantekv amÄt«mkv
ChnsS AXv Hcp s\Käohv DÂt{]-c-I- (Negative
+ catalyst) am-sW¶v ]d-bmw.
kÄ^yqcn-Iv Bkn-Unsâ hymh-km-bnI DÂ¸m-Z-\-
¯nÂ ht\-Unbw s]tâm-IvsskUpw Atam-Wn-b-
bpsS hymh-km-bnI DÂ¸m-Z-\-¯nÂ Ccp¼pw t]mkn-äohv DÂt{]-c-
I-§fmbn D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-¶p.
60 ck-X{- ´w IX
1. Nne cmk-k-a-hm-Iy-§Ä \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶p.
C + O2 → CO2
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
N2 + O2 → NO
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
H2 + I2 → ΗΙ
Fe + HCl → FeCl2 + H2
CO2 + C → CO
a. Ch-bnÂ kao-IrX ka-hm-Iy-§Ä Gh?
b. kao-I-cn-¡m¯ ka-hm-Iy-§Ä kao-I-cn-¡p-I.
c. Ch-bnÂ dntUmIvkv {]hÀ¯-\-§tfh?
2. amÀ_nfpw t\À¯ HCl Dw X½n-epÅ cmk-{]-hÀ¯\w X¶n-cn-
¡p-¶p.
CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
a. ChnsS Dm-Ip¶ hmXIw GXv? Cu hmX-Is¯ F§s\
Xncn-¨-dn-bmw.
b. Cu cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ thKw Iq«m³ \n§Ä kzoI-cn-
¡p¶ GsX-¦nepw cp amÀK-§Ä \nÀtZ-in-¡p-I. ImcWw
hni-Z-am-¡p-I.
3. kÄ^À Ij-W-§Ä XWp¯ KmV ss\{Sn-¡m-kn-Up-ambn
{]hÀ¯n-¡p-¶n-Ã. F¶mÂ kÄ^À ]uUÀ {]hÀ¯n-¡p-¶p.
a. ChnsS cmk-{]-hÀ¯\ thKX IqSm-\pÅ ImcWw hni-Z-
am-¡p-I.
b. Cu {]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ thKX C\nbpw Iq«-W-sa-¶n-cn-¡-
s«. \n§Ä F´p amÀKw kzoI-cn¡pw? Imc-W-sa´v?
4. ssl{U-P³ s]tdm-IvsskUv hnL-Sn¨p t]mhm-Xn-cn-¡m³ km[m-
c-W-bmbn Aev]w t^mkvt^m-dnIv BknUv tNÀ¡m-dp-v.
a. ChnsS t^mkvt^m-dnIv Bkn-Unsâ [À½-sa´v?
b. C¯cw ]ZmÀY-§Ä GXp-X-c-¯nÂ Adn-b-s¸-Sp¶p?
c. ssl{U-P³ s]tdm-Ivssk-Unsâ hnL-S\ thKX Iq«m³
\n§Ä tNÀ¯p-sIm-Sp-¡p¶ ]ZmÀYw F´v?

1. Xmsg sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p¶ kwbp-à-§-fnÂ ASn-h-c-bn«v AS-bm-
f-s¸-Sp-¯nb aqe-I-§-fpsS HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À Is-¯p-I.
Ch-bnÂ hyXykvX HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À ImWn-¡p¶ aqe-I-
§Ä GsXm-s¡-sb¶v Is-¯p-I.
MnO2, Mn2O7, K2Cr2O7, KCrO3, MnCl2, MgO, MgCl2, Al2O3, AlCl3
(kqN-\: HmIvkn-tU-j³ \¼À O = -2, Cl = -1, K = +1)
2. Nne D]-I-c-W-§fpw cmk-h-kvXp-¡fpw X¶n-cn-¡p-¶p.
Zn, Mg, t\À¸n¨ HCl, CaCO , sSÌvSyq-_v, Pew
3
a) A`n-Im-c-I-§-fpsS kz`mhw cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-th-K-s¯

\nb-{ń-¡p¶p F¶v sXfn-bn-¡m³ Hcp ]co-£Ww Bkq-
{XWw sN¿pI.
b) cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§-fpsS ka-hm-Iy-§Ä Fgp-XpI
c) cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-\nc¡nsâ kq{XhmIyw Fgp-XpI.
3. cv hnZymÀYn-IÄ sNbvX ]co-£-W-§-fmWv Xmsg sImSp-¯n-
cn-¡p-¶-Xv.
]co-£-Ww þ 1
Hcp sSÌvSyq_nÂ 2 mL tkmUnbw XtbmkÄt^äv emb\n
FSp¯v NqSm-¡n-b-tijw 2 mL HCl emb\n tNÀ¡p-¶p.
]co-£Ww þ 2
Hcp sSÌvSyq_nÂ 2mL tkmUnbw Xtbm-kÄt^äv emb\n
FSp¯v 2 mL HCl emb\n tNÀ¡p-¶p.
a) GXv ]co-£-W-¯n-em-bn-cn¡pw s]s«¶v Ah-£n]vXw
e`n¨Xv? \n§-fpsS D¯cw km[q-I-cn-¡p-I.
b) {]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ kao-IrX ka-hmIyw Fgp-Xp-I.
4. ]co-£-W-im-e-bnÂ e`y-amb Nne ]ZmÀY-§Ä \ÂIn-bn-cn-
¡p¶p.
aáojyw dn_¬, amÀ_nÄ s]mSn-¨-Xv, amÀ_nÄ IjW-§Ä,
t\À¸n¨ HCl, KmV HCl.
a) Ipdª ka-b-¯n-\p-ÅnÂ IqSp-XÂ ImÀ_¬ ssU
HmIvsskUv \nÀan-¡m³ GsXÃmw ]ZmÀY-§Ä Xnc-sª-
Sp¡pw?
b) {]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ kao-I-cn¨ cmk-k-a-hmIyw Fgp-Xp-I.
62 ck-X{- ´w IX
Cu {]]-©-¯nse FÃm ]ZmÀ°-§fpw aqe-I-§Ä kwtbm-Pn¨mWv
Dm-bn-cn-¡p-¶Xv F¶v \n§Ä¡v Adn-bm-a-tÃm. CXphsc 120 Hmfw
aqe-I-§Ä Ip]nSn-¡-s¸-«n-«p-v. CXnÂ 90 aqe-I§Ä am{Xta
{]Ir-Xn-bnÂ Iphcp-¶p-f-fp. _m¡n-bp-f-fh Ir{Xna aqe-I-§-fm-Wv.
Cu aqe-I-§sf DÄs¸-Sp¯nb Hcp ]«nI imkv{X ]mT-]p-kvX-I-
¯nÂ \n§Ä In-«p--tÃm. CXv aqeIhÀ¤o-I-c-W-¯n-\p-ff ka-
{K-amb D]m-[n-bmWv. CXns\ ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_nÄ F¶v hnfn-¡p-
¶p.
slâdn tamkven Xsâ ]co-£-W-¯n-eqsS aqe-I-§-fpsS KpW-§Ä
Ah-bpsS Atäm-anI \¼-dns\ B{i-bn-¨n-cn-¡p¶p F¶v Is-¯n.
CXnsâ ASn-Øm-\-¯nÂ Atäm-anI \¼À IqSnhcp¶ {Ia-¯n-Â
aqe-I-§sf tS_n-fnÂ DÄs¸-Sp-¯n. "tamtU¬ ]ocn-tbm-UnIv
tS_nÄ' F¶pw Cu ]«nI Adn-b-s¸-Sp-¶p. CXnÂ \n¶pw ap³]v
Hcp ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_nÄ Dm-bn-cp¶p F¶p hyà-am-WtÃm?
C¯-c-¯n-ep-ff aqe-I-hÀ¤o-I-c-W-¯n-te¡v \bn¨ BZy-Ime {ia-
§Ä Fs´Ãmw F¶v \ap¡v ]cn-tim-[n-¡mw.
Ncn-{X-¯n-te¡v
aqe-I-§-fpsS hÀ¤o-I-c-W-¯n\v XpS¡w Ipdn-¡p-¶Xv ethm-knb
BWv. 1789 Â A¶v Adn-b-s¸-«n-cp¶ 30 aqe-I-§-sf teml-§Ä
]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_nÄ 63
F¶pw Atem-l§ - Ä F¶pw hÀKo-Ic- n-¨p. teml-§f- p-tSbpw Atem-
l-§-fp-tSbpw kz`mhw ImWn-¡p¶ D]-tem-l-§Ä Is¯nb-
t¸mÄ Chsb CXnÂ DÄs¸-Sp-¯m³ Ign-ªn-Ã. F¶XmWv Cu
hÀKo-I-c-W-¯nsâ Hcp ]cn-an-Xn.
ethm-knbbv¡v tijw hÀKo-I-c-W-¯nÂ {it²-bamb {]hÀ¯\w
ImgvNh¨Xv sUms_-ssd-\À (Dobereiner) BWv. At±lw kam-\-Kp-
W-§Ä {]I-Sn-¸n-¡p¶ 3 aqe-I-§Ä DÄs¸-Sp¶ sNdp-{Kq¸p-IÄ
\nÀ½n-¨p. Chsb {XnI-§Ä (Triads) F¶p-hn-fn-¨p.
aqeIw Atäm-anIamkv aqeIw Atäm-anIamkv aqeIw Atäm-anIamkv
Li 7 Ca 40 Cl 35.5
Na 23 Sr 87.6 Br 80
K 39 Ba 137.3 I 127
sUm_-ssd-\À
(1780-þ1849) ]«nI 4.1
{XnI§-fnÂ H¶m-a-s¯bpw aq¶m-a-t¯bpw aqe-I-§-fpsS Atäm-anI

amÊnsâ GI-tZi icm-i-cn-bmWv a[y-`m-K¯v hcp¶ aqe-I-¯nsâ
Atäm-an-I-am-kv. Atäm-anI amkpw aqe-I-§-fpsS kz`mhhpw X½n-ep-
ff _Ôw Is-¯p-¶-Xn\v CXv klm-bn-¨p. FÃm aqe-I-§sfbpw
DÄs¸-Sp¯n {XnI-§Ä Dm-¡m³ Ign-ªnÃ F¶Xv Hcp ]cn-an-Xn-
bm-Wv.
\yqem³Uvkv 1866 Â \yqem³Uvkv A¶-dn-b-s¸-«n-cp¶ 56 aqe-I-§sf {Ia-ambn
(1837-þ1898) FgpXnbt¸mÄ F«m-aXv hcp¶ aqe-Iw BZyt¯Xnsâ BhÀ¯-\-
amWv F¶v Is-¯n. CXns\ kwKo-X-¯nse k]vX-kzc§-fp-
ambn At±lw Xmc-Xayw sNbvXp.
k, cn, K, a, ], [, \n, k... F«mw kzcw BZy-t¯Xnsâ BhÀ¯-\w
IT@School
hnse F¶ t]mse.
Cu \nbaw AjvSa \nbaw (Law of Octaves) F¶-dn-b-s¸-Sp-¶p.
Edubuntu Kalzium
tkm^vävsh-bÀ
D]-tbm-Kn-¡pI
Atäm-anIamkv IqSnb aqe-I-§fnÂ CXv ]men-¡s¸Sp¶nÃ F¶Xv
CXnsâ ]cn-an-Xn-bmbn tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯s¸«p.
\yqem³Uvknsâ AjvSI§Ä
aqeIw Li Be B C N O F
AtämanI amkv 7 9 11 12 14 16 19
aqeIw Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
AtämanI amkv 23 24 27 29 31 32 35.5
aqeIw K Ca
AtämanI amkv 39 40
]«nI 4.2
64 ck-X{- ´w IX
hÀKoI-cWw ]«n-I-bn-eqsS
aqe-IhÀKoIc-W-¯n\v BZy-ambn Hcp tS_nÄ Dm-¡nbXv djy³
imkv{X-Ú-\mb Znan{Xn Chm-t\m-hn-¨v sa³U-en-tb^v BWv. ]ocn-
tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnsâ ]nXmhv F¶ -t]cn-emWv sa³U-en-tb^v
]nÂ¡m-e¯v Adn-b-s¸-«-Xv.
aqe-I-hÀKo-I-c-W-¯nsâ Ncn-{X-h-gn-I-fnÂ \mgnI¡Ãmbn amdnb

"]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_nÄ' \nÀ½n-¡p-t¼mÄ 63 aqe-I-§-fmWv Dm-
bn-cp-¶-Xv. Cu aqe-I-§sf sa³U-en-tb^v Atäm-anI amkv IqSn-h-
cp¶ {Ia-¯nÂ ]«n-I-bnÂ hn\y-kn-¨p. C§s\ hn\y-kn-¡p-t¼mÄ
aqe- I - § - f psS ùXn- I þcmk- K p- W - § Ä {Ia- a mb CS- t h- f - I - f nÂ
BhÀ¯n-¡p¶Xmbn sa³Uentb^v Is-¯n. CXnsâ ASn-
sa³U-en-tbhv Øm-\-¯nÂ ]ncn-tbm-UnIv \nbaw Bhn-jvIcn-¨p.
(1834-þ1907)
sa³U-en-tb-^nsâ ]ocn-tbm-UnIv \nbaw
aqe-I-§-fpsS cmkKp-W-§fpw ùXnIKpW-§fpw Ah-bpsS
Atäm-anI amknsâ BhÀ¯-\-^-e-§-fm-Wv.
Group I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Oxide R 2O RO R 2O 3 RO2 R 2O 5 RO3 R2O7 RO4
Hydride RH RH 2 RH 3 RH 4 RH 3 RH 2 RH
Periods A B A B A B A B A B A B A B Transition
series
1 H
1.008
2 Li Be B C N O F
6.939 9.012 10.81 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.998
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
22.99 24.31 29.98 28.09 30.974 32.06 35.453
4 First K Ca ............ Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni
series 39.102 40.08 47.90 50.94 50.20 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.71
Second Cu Zn ............ ............ As Se Br
series 63.54 65.37 74.92 78.96 79.909
5 First Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd
series 85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 99 101.07 102.91 106.4
Second Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I
series 107.87 112.04 114.82 118.69 121.75 127.60 126.90
6 First Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Os Ir Pt
series 132.90 137.34 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.85 190.2 192.2 195.09
Second Au Hg Ti Pb Bi
series 196.97 200.59 204.37 207.19 208.98
]«nI 4.3
sa³U-en-tb^v ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnsâ ta·-IÄ.
$ kam\ KpW-ap-ff aqe-I-§sf Htc {Kq¸nÂ DÄs¸-Sp¯n aqe-I-
§sf hÀKo-I-cn-¨p. CXv ck-X-{´-]-T\w Ffp-¸-am-¡n.
$ Nne aqe-I-§Ä Atäm-anI amÊp-I-fpsS Btcm-lW{Iaw IrXy-
ambn ]men-¨n-Ã. CXn\p ImcWw Atäm-anI amkv \nÀ®-b-¯nse
A]m-I-X-bmWv F¶v At±lw kqNn-¸n-¨p. ]n¶oSv Atäm-anI
amkv ]p\À\nÀW-bn-¡p-¶-Xn\v CXv Imc-W-am-hpI-bpw sNbvXp.
(DZm-l-cWw s_do-en-b-¯nsâ Atäm-anI amkv 14 Â \n¶v 9
Bbn ]p\À\nÀW-bn-¨p).
$ Is-¯s¸Sm-\p-ff GXm\pw aqe-I-§Ä¡v Øm\w Hgn-¨n-Sp-
Ibpw Ah-bpsS KpW-§Ä {]h-Nn-¡pIbpw sNbvXp.
sa³U-eo-tb-^v ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnsâ ]cn-an-Xn-IÄ
$ KpW§fnÂ hfscb[nIw hyXymkapÅ aqeI§sf Htc
{Kq¸pw ]ocn-bUpw {Kq¸nÂ DÄs¸Sp¯n. DZm: tkmUnbw (Na), s]m«mkyw (K)
]ocn- t bm- U nIv tS_n- f nÂ apXemb arZpteml§tfmsSm¸w tIm¸À (Cu), knÂhÀ (Ag)
Ip¯-s\-bp-ff tImf-§sf apXemb ImTn\yw IqSnb teml§sfbpw DÄs¸Sp¯n.
{Kq¸p- I Ä F¶p hnfn- $ ssl{UP³ (H) F¶ aqeI¯n\v IrXyamb Øm\w \ÂIm³
¡p¶p. {Kq¸p-If - nse aqe- IgnªnÃ. enXnbw (Li), tkmUnbw (Na), s]m«mkyw (K) apXemb
I-§Ä cmkþùXnI kz`mh- teml§tfmsSm¸w Atemlamb ssl{UP\v Øm\w \ÂIn.
§fnÂ kam- \ X- { ]- I - S n- ¸ n- $ AtämanI amknsâ BtcmlW{Iaw FÃm-bn-S¯pw IrXyambn
¡p-¶p. ]men¡m³ IgnªnÃ.
hne- § - s \- b p- f f tImf- DZm. sIm_mÄ«v (Co)& \n¡Â (Ni) , sSeq-dnbw (Te) & Ab-
§sf ]ocn-bU - p-IÄ F¶p Un³ (I)
hnfn-¡p-¶p.
B[p-\nI ]ocn-tbm-UnIv \nbaw
1869 Â saâU-en-tb^v ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_nÄ X¿m-dm-¡p-t¼mÄ
Bäw LS-\-sb-¡p-dnt¨m Bä-¯nse auenI IW-§-sf-¡p-dnt¨m
hyà-amb [mcW cq]-s¸«ncp-¶n-Ã.
tamkven- Xsâ X-ray Un{^m-£³ ]co-£-W-¯n-eqsS aqe-I-§Ä¡v
{Ia \¼À \ÂIn. CXns\ Atäm-anI \¼À F¶p hnfn-¨p. CXnsâ
ASn-Øm-\-¯nÂ ]ncn-tbm-UnIv \nbaw ]cn-jvI-cn-¨p.
aqe-I-§fpsS cmkKpW-§fpw ùXn-I- KpW-§fpw Ah-bpsS
Atäm-anI \¼-dnsâ BhÀ¯-\-^-e-§-fm-Wv.
66 ck-X{- ´w IX
Nh Mc Ts Og
Nihonium Moscovium Tennessine Oganesson
57
La
2,8,18,18,9,2
89
Ac
2,8,18,32,18,9,2
]«nI 4.4
]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_nÄ
67
B[p-\nI ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_nÄ ]cn-tim-[n¨p Xmsg X¶n-cn-¡p-
¶h ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡pI
$ BsI ]ocnbUpIfpsS F®w
$ Gähpw sNdnb ]ocnbUv
IT@School
hnse $ 3þmw ]ocnbUnepÅ aqe-I-§fpsS F®w
$ BsI {Kq¸pIfpsS F®w
Edubuntu Kalzium
tkm^vävsh-bÀ
D]-tbm-Kn-¡pI
]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnÂ kam\KpW§fpÅ aqeI§Ä Htc

{Kq¸nemWv DÄs¸«n«pÅsX¶dnbmatÃm.
Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ym-khpw ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnse
Øm\-hpw
Hcp aqeIs¯¡pdn¨p Fs´Ãmw hkvXpXIÄ ]ocn-tbm-UnIv
tS_nfnÂ\n¶p a\Ênem¡m³ Ignbpw?
ImÀ_¬ F¶ aqeIhpambn _Ôs¸«p ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnÂ
(]-«nI 4.4) \ÂInbn«pÅ hnhc§Ä Is¯n Fgp-Xp-I.
$ t]cv
$ {]XoIw
$
$
]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_nfnse H¶mas¯ {Kq¸nse aqeI§fpsS
CeIvt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw \ÂInbncn¡p¶Xp (]«nI 4.5) t\m¡q.
aqeIw AtämanI \¼À CeIvt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw
H 1 1
Li 3 2, 1
Na 11 2, 8, 1
K 19 2, 8, 8, 1
Rb 37 2, 8, 18, 8, 1
Cs 55 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 1
Fr 87 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 1

]«nI 4.5
Cu aqeI§fpsS _mlyXasjÃnse CeIvt{Sm¬ hn\ymk¯nÂ
F´p {]tXyIXbmWv ImWp¶Xv?
Cu aqe-I-§Ä GXv coXn-bn-emWv cmk-_-Ô-\-¯nÂ GÀs¸-Sp-¶Xv?
H¶mw {Kq¸nÂs¸« aqe-I-§Ä s]mXpsh Htc cmk-KpWw {]I-Sn-¸n-
¡p-¶-Xn\p-ff ImcWw hyà-am-btÃm
68 ck-X{- ´w IX
CXp-t]mse cmw {Kq¸pIfnse GXm\pw aqeI§fpsS CeIvt{Sm¬
hn\ymkw FgpXn ]cntim[n¡q. kam\amb {]tXyIX
ImWp¶ptm? Ch BÂ¡-sse³ FÀ¯v teml-§Ä F¶-dn-b-
s¸-Sp-¶p.
aqeI§fpsS cmkKpW§Ä¡SnØm\w Ah-bpsS _mlyXa
sjÃnse CeIvt{SmWpIfpsS F®amWv.
AXn-\mÂ Htc {Kq¸nÂ DÄs¸Sp¶ aqeI§Ä cmkKpW§fnÂ
kmZriyw ImWn-¡p-¶p.
]«nI 4.5 Â \ÂIn-bn-«pÅ aqeI§fpsS {Kq¸pw ]ocnbUpw ]ocn-
tbm-UnIv tS_nÄ (Nn{Xw 4.4) hni-I-e\w sNbvXv Is¯q. {Kq¸p
\¼dpw _mlyXasjÃnse CeIvt{SmWpIfpsS F®hpw X½nÂ
_Ôaptm? F´m-WXv?
cmw {Kq¸nse aqeI§fpsS CeIvt{Sm¬ hn\ymksagpXnbXv
]cntim[n¡q. {Kq¸v \¼-dp-ambn _Ô-s¸«v F´p {]tXy-I-X-bmWv
ImWp-¶Xv?
1, 2 {Kq¸pIfnse aqeI§fnse _mlyXasjÃnse CeIvt{SmWp
IfpsS F®amWv Ah-bpsS {Kq¸v \¼À.
13 apXÂ 18 hsc {Kq¸nse cmw ]ocnbUnse aqe-I-§-fpsS Ce-

Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶Xv t\m¡q.
13 14 15 16 17 18
B C N O F Ne
2, 3 2, 4 2, 5 2, 6 2, 7 2, 8
]«nI 4.6
{Kq¸v \¼dpw _mlyXasjÃnse CeIvt{SmWnsâ F®hpw X½n-
ep-ff hyXym-kw F{X-bm-Wv?
Ch-bpsS _mlyXasjÃnse CeIvt{SmWnsâ F®t¯msSm¸w 10
Iq«nbmÂ {Kq¸v \¼À In«patÃm.
]«nI 4.5 Â H¶mw {Kq¸v aqe-I-§-fpsS ]ocnbUv \¼À ]ocntbm-
UnIv tS_nÄ hni-Ie- \w sNbvXv Is-¯pI. sjÃp-If- psS F®hpw
]ocnbUv \¼dpw X½nÂ _Ô-aptm?
]«nI 4.7 ]cn-tim-[n-¨v Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ym-khpw ]ocnbUv \¼-dpw
X½n-epff _Ôw Is-¯p-I.
Na Ca Ga I
CeIvt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw 2,8,1 2,8,8,2 2,8,18,3 2,8,18,18,7

sjÃp-I-fpsS F®w þ 4 þ 5
]ocn-bUv \¼À 3 þ þ 5
]«nI 4.7
Hcp aqe-I¯
- nse sjÃp-If- psS F®hpw ]ocn-bUv \¼dpw Xpey-
am-Wv.
Hmtcm {Kq¸n-sebpw aqe-I-§-fpsS s]mXp-hmb khn-ti-j-X-IÄ A\p-
k-cn¨v Ahsb hnhn[ aqeI IpSpw-_-§-fmbn ]cn-K-Wn-¡m-dp-v.
NphsS \ÂIn-bn-«p-ff ]«nI 4.8 t\m¡q.
{Kq¸v \¼À aqeI IpSpw_w
]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnÂ
1 BÂ¡en teml§Ä
ssl{U-Psâ Øm\w
2 BÂ¡sse³ FÀ¯v teml§Ä
]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnse ssl{U- 3 apXÂ 12 hsc kw{IaW teml§Ä
Psâ Øm\w Ct¸mgpw NÀ¨-¡v
hnj-ba- mWv. an¡ ]ocn-tbm-UnIv 13 t_mtdm¬ IpSpw_w
tS_n- f nepw ssl{U- P \v BÂ 14 ImÀ_¬ IpSpw_w
¡en teml- § Ä¡v apI- f n- e m- 15 ss\{SP³ IpSpw_w
bmWv Øm\w \ÂIn-bn-«p-ÅXv
F¶mÂ ssl{U-P³ Hcp Atem- 16 HmIvknP³ IpSpw_w
l-am-Wv. BÂ¡en teml-§Ä 17 lmsemP\pIÄ
GIm- t äm- a nIambn- c n- ¡ p- t ¼mÄ
ssl{U-P³ Zzbm-täm-an-I-am-Wv. 18 DÂIrjvShmXI§Ä
BÂ¡en teml- § - s f- t ¸mse ]«nI 4.8
Nne cmk{]hÀ¯- \ - § - f nÂ
ssl{UP\v Hcp Ce- I v t {Sm¬
\jvSs- ¸-Sp-¶p. AtXkabw Nne {]mXn\n[yaqeI§Ä (Representative elements)
cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\§ - f- nÂ lmsem-P- ]ocntbmUnIv tS_nfnse 1, 2, {Kq¸pIfnsebpw 13 apXÂ 18
\p-I-sf-t¸mse Hcp Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hscbpapÅ {Kq¸pIfnsebpw aqeI§Ä ]cntim[n¡q.
t\Sp¶p. BÂ¡en teml-§- $ ChbnÂ \n§Ä¡p ]cnNbapÅhbptm?
sfÃmw Jcm-h-Ø-bn-em-bn-cn-¡p-
t¼mÄ ssl{U-P³ hmX-Im-hØ - - $ ChbnÂ teml§Ä DÄs¸Sp¶ptm?
bn-em-W.v BÂ¡en teml-§Ä¡v $ Ch-bnÂ Ateml§Ä DÄs¸Sp¶ptm?
s]mXpsh Atbm- W o- I - c W $ teml§fpsSbpw Ateml§fpsSbpw kz`mhw
DuÀPw Ipd- h m- b n- c n- ¡ p- t ¼mÄ {]ZÀin¸n¡p¶ D]-tem-l-§Ä DÄs¸«n«ptm?
ssl{U-Psâ Atbm-Wo-I-cW
DuÀPw lmsemP-\p-I-sf-t¸mse DZmlcW§Ä Is¯n ]«n-I-bm-¡q.
DbÀ¶XmWv . Gähpw Ipdª $ Jcw, {ZmhIw, hmXIw F¶o hnhn[ AhØIfnepÅ
Af-hnÂ Ip-h-cp¶ hmXIw aqeI§Ä Dtm? DZmlcW§Ä Is¯q.
dtUm-¬ BWv.
70 ck-X{- ´w IX
$ Jcmh-Ø-bn-ep-Åh
$ {ZmhImh-Ø-bn-ep-Åh
$ hmXImh-Ø-bn-ep-Åh
Cu {Kq¸pIfnse aqe-I-§Ä Bä§fnse CeIvt{Sm¬ ]qcW¯nÂ

{IamhÀ¯\{]hWX ImWn¡p¶hbmWv. _mly-XasjÃnÂ 1
apXÂ 8 hsc Ce- I v t {Sm- W p- I Ä AS- § n- b - h - b mWv Ch. Cu
{Kq¸pIfnse aqeI§sf {]mXn\n[y aqeI§Ä (Representative
elements) F¶v hnfn¡p¶p.
DÂIrjvS hmX-I-§Ä (Noble gases)
DÂIrjvS hmX-I§ - Ä $ 18-þmw {Kq¸nÂs¸« aqe-I§sf ]«n-I-s¸-Sp-¯q.

]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnse 18-þmw
{Kq¸nse aqe-I§ - f- mb loenbw, $ Ah-bpsS Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw Fgp-Xn- t\m-¡q.
\ntbm¬, BÀtKm¬, {In]vtäm
¬, kot\m¬, dtUm¬ F¶nh-
bmWv DÂIrjvS hmX-I§ - Ä. Ch $ _mly-X-a-sj-ÃnÂ F{X Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ hoX-am-
GIm-täm-anI X·m-{X-I-fm-bmWv Wp-ÅXv?
ImW-s¸-Sp-¶Xv. km[m-c-W-bmbn
aäp-Åh - b- p-ambn kwtbm-Pn-¡m-¯-
Xn- \ mÂ Chsb AekhmX- I - Ch cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯nÂ ]s¦-Sp-¡ptam?
§Ä ( F¶pw hfsc
Ipdª Af-hnÂ am{Xw Ip-h- 18-s¸-þmwSp¶p. {Kq¸v aqe-I-§Ä DÂIrjvS hmXI-§Ä F¶-dn-b-
Inert gases)
cp-¶X - n-\mÂ A]qÀhhmX-I§ - Ä

(
Rare gases) F¶pw hnfn-¡p-¶p. kw{IaWaqeI§Ä (Transition Elements)
loenbw km{µX hfsc Ipdª
hmX- I - a m- b - X n- \ mÂ Imem- h ]ocntbmUnIv tS_nfnÂ 3 apXÂ 12 hscbpÅ {Kq¸pIfnÂ
Øm_-eq-Wp-If- nÂ \nd-bv¡p-¶p. DÄs¸Sp¶ aqeI§fmWv kw{IaWaqeI§Ä.
\ntbm¬ hmXIw Hmd©v \ndw $ kw{I-aWaqe-I-§Ä teml§fmWv.
e`n- ¡ p- ¶ - X n- \ mbn Unkv N mÀPv
em¼p-I-fnÂ D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-¶p. $ Ch \nd-apÅ kwbp-à-§Ä Dm-¡p-¶p.
sshZypX _Ä_p-I-fnse ^ne- $ {Kq¸p-I-fnepw ]ocn-b-Up-I-fnepw Ch cmk-Kp-W-§-fnÂ
saâ v _mjv]o-I-cn-¡m-Xn-cn-¡m- kmZriyw ImWn-¡p-¶p.
\mbn Ah- b nÂ BÀtKm¬
hmXIw \nd-bv¡m-dp-v. dtUm¬ em³Yt\mbvUpIfpw BIvänt\mbvUpIfpw
tdUntbm BIvSo-hnän DÅ-Xm-Wv. (Lanthanoides and Actinoides)
Gähpw Ipdª Af-hnÂ Ip-
h-cp¶ hmXIw dtUm-¬ BWv. ]ocntbmUnIv tS_nfnse Bdmw ]ocn-b-UnÂ 57 apXÂ
71 hsc AtämanI \¼dpIfpÅ aqeI§Ä¡v
FhnsSbmWv Øm\w \ÂInbncn¡p¶Xv F¶p Is¯q.
CXpt]mse 7þmw ]ocnbUnÂ 89 apXÂ 103 hsc AtämanI
H
\¼dpIfpÅ aqeI§Ä¡pw ]ocntbmUnIv tS_nfn\v NphsS
{]tXyIambtÃ Øm\w \ÂInbn«pÅXv?
Cu aqeI§Ä A´Êw{IaW aqeI§Ä (Inner transition elements)
1+
1 F¶dnbs¸Sp¶p.
6þmw ]ocnbUnÂ DÄs¸Sp¶ em³Ym\w (La) apXÂ ept«jyw (Lu)
hscbpÅ A´Êw{IaWaqeI§sf em³Yt\mbvUpIÄ F¶p
Li
hnfn¡p¶p.
3+ 7þmw ]ocnbUnÂ DÄs¸Sp¶ BIvän-\nbw (Ac) apXÂ temd³jyw
(Lr) hscbpÅ A´Êw{IaWaqeI§sf BIvSnt\mbnUpIÄ F¶v
hnfn¡p¶p.
2,1
em³Y-t\m-bvUp-IÄ sdbÀ FÀ¯vkv (Rare Earths) F¶pw Adn-b-s¸-
Sp-¶p. BIvSn-t\m-bvUp-IfnÂ bptd-\nb(U) ¯n\v tij-ap-ff aqe-I-
Na
§Ä a\p-jy-\nÀ½nXamWv.
]nco-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnse {Iam-hÀ¯\ {]h-W-X-IÄ

11+
Bä¯nsâ hep¸w (Size of an Atom) {Kq¸p-I-fnÂ
Bä¯nsâ t_mÀ amXrI ]cnNbs¸«n«ptÃm.
H¶mw {Kq¸nse GXm\pw aqeI§fpsS t_mÀ
Bäw amXrI Nn{XoIcn¨ncn¡p¶Xv t\m¡q
2,8,1 (Nn-{Xw 4.1).
ChbnÂ henb BätaXv ? sNdnb BätaXv ?

K
{Kq¸nÂ Xmtgm«p t]mIpt´mdpw Bä¯nsâ
hep¸¯n\v F´p kw`hn¡p¶p?
19+ ImcWsa´v?
]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnÂ Hcp {Kq¸nÂ apIfnÂ \n¶pw Xmtgm«p

t]mIpt´mdpw sjÃpIfpsS F®w hÀ[n¡p¶Xn\mÂ
aqeI§fpsS Bä¯nsâ hep¸w hÀ[n¨p hcp¶p.
Bä-¯nsâ hep¸w ]ocn-bUnÂ
2,8,8,1
Rb ]ocntbmUnIv tS_nfnse cmw ]ocnbUnse Atäm-anI \¼À 3

apXÂ 9 hsc-bpÅ aqeI§fpsS t_mÀ amXrIIÄ Nn{XoIcn¨ncn
¡p¶Xp (Nn{Xw 4.2) t\m¡q.
ChnsS AtämanI \¼À IqSp¶X\pkcn¨v sjÃpIfpsS F®w
hyXym-ks¸Sp¶n-ÃtÃm?
37+ AtämanI \¼À IqSp¶X\pkcn¨v \yq¢nbÀ NmÀPn\v F´mWv
kw`hn¡p¶Xv?
t]mknäohv NmÀPpÅ \yq¢nbkv CeIvt{SmWpIsf BIÀjn¡patÃm.
AXn\mÂ ]ocnbUnÂ CS¯p\n¶pw het¯m«v t]mIpt´mdpw
2,8,18,8,1 \yq¢nbÀ NmÀPv IqSp-¶p. AX-\p-kc- n¨v _mly-Xa CeIvt{SmWpIfnÂ
taepÅ BIÀjW_ew IqSp¶p. AXn-\mÂ Bä¯nsâ hep¸w
Nn{Xw 4.1 s]mXpsh Ipdªphcp¶p.
72 ck-X{- ´w IX
Li
Be
B
C
N O F
3+
4+
5+ 6+ 7+ 8+ 9+
2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6 2,7

Nn{Xw 4.2
AtbmWoIcW DuÀPw (Ionisation Energy)
tkmUnbw, t¢mdn³ F¶o Bä§Ä kwtbmPn¨p tkmUnbw

t¢mssdUv X·m{X DmIp¶ hn[w a\-Ên-em-¡n-bn-«p-tÃm. CXv
Hcp AtbmWnI kwbpàw BWtÃm? tkmUnb¯nsâbpw
t¢mdnsâbpw t_mÀ amXrIIÄ \ÂInbncn¡p¶p (Nn{Xw 4.3).
Atäm-anI Bcw
Bä¯n s â hep¸w {]kvX mhn¡ p
(Atomic radius)
¶Xn\pÅ
Atäman I Hcp \yq¢n
Bcw. coXnbmWv
b kn s â
11p
12n
17p
18n
tI{µ_nµp
]pds¯ sjÃn apXÂ
te¡pÅ Gähpw
ZqcamWv
AtämanI
sjÃpIfpsS Bcw.
F®w Bä- ¯ nÂ
hÀ[n¡p tkmUnbw Bäw t¢mdn³ Bäw
t¼mÄ AtämanI Bcw IqSp-¶p. Nn{Xw 4.3
$ ChbnÂ CeIvt{Sm¬ \jvSs¸Sp¶ BätaXmWv?
$ CeIvt{Sm¬ kzoIcn¡p¶tXm?
C{]Imcw CeIvt{Sm¬ ssIamäw \S¡pt¼mÄ Bä§Ä
NmÀPpÅXmbn¯ocp¶p.
NmÀPpÅ Bä§sf AtbmWpIÄ (ions) F¶p hnfn¡p¶p.
ChnsS tkmUnbw AtbmWpw (Na+) t¢mssdUv AtbmWpw (Cl) BWv
Dm-Ip-¶X- .v teml§Ä C¯cw {]À¯\§fnÂ CeIvt{Sm¬ \jvSs¸«v
t]mkn-äohv AtbmWpIfmIp¶p. Bä-¯nÂ \n¶v Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Isf
kzX-{´-am-¡m³ Bh-iy-amb DuÀP-amWv Atbm-Wo-I-cW DuÀPw.
hmX-Im-h-Ø-bn-epÅ Hä-s¸« Hcm-ä-¯nsâ _mly-XasjÃnse

Gähpw ZpÀ_-ea- mbn _Ôn¨- nc- n¡- p¶ C-eI- vt{Sm-Wns\ kzX{- á- m-
¡m³ Bh-iy-amb DuÀP-amWv B aqe-I¯ - nsâ Atbm-Wo-Ic- W
DuÀPw.
AtbmWoIcW DuÀPw B{i-bn-¨n-cn-¡p¶ cp {][m\ LS-I-
§-fmWv,
$ \yq¢nbÀ NmÀPv
$ Bä¯nsâ hep¸w
Bä-¯nsâ hep¸w IqSp-t¼mÄ \yq¢n-b-kn\v _mly-Xa Ce-
Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fn³ta-epÅ BIÀjW_ew IqSptam AtXm
Ipdbptam?
F¦nÂ Atbm-Wo-I-cW DuÀP-¯n\v F´v amäapm-Ip¶p?
Hcp {Kq¸nÂ apI-fnÂ \n¶p Xmtg¡v hcp-t´mdpw Atbm-Wo-I-cW
DuÀPw F§s\ hyXym-k-s¸-Sp-¶p-sh¶v Is-¯mtam?
Bä-¯nsâ hep¸w IpSp-t¼mÄ Atbm-Wo-Ic
- W DuÀPw Ipd-
bp¶p.
Hcp ]ocnbUnÂ CS-¯p-\n¶v he-t¯¡v \o§p-t¼mÄ Atbm-Wo-

I-cW DuÀP-¯n\v s]mXpsh F´p amä-ap-m-Ip¶p?
Hcp ]ocnbUnÂ \yq¢n-bÀ NmÀPpw Bä-¯nsâ hep¸hpw X½n-
epÅ _Ôw \n§Ä¡v Adn-bm-atÃm.
\yq¢n-bÀ NmÀPv IqSp-¶-Xn-\-\p-k-cn¨v Atbm-Wo-I-cW DuÀPw
ÿHcp {Kq¸nÂ apIfnÂ \n¶v F§s\ hyXym-k-s¸-Sp-¶p-sh¶p Is-¯q.
Xmtg¡v hcpt¼mÄ Bä¯nsâ $ temlkz`m-hhpw Bä-¯nsâ hep-¸hpw X½ne - pÅ _Ô-sa´v?
hep¸w IqSp¶Xn\mÂ Atbm
WoIcW DuÀPw Ipdbp¶p.
AXn\\pkcn¨v t]mknäohv temlkz`mhw IqSpt¼mÄ Atemlkz`mhw IpdbpatÃm.
Atbm¬ DmIm\pÅ {]h
H¶mw {Kq¸nse aqeI§fpsS temlkz`mhw {Kq¸nÂ apI-fnÂ
WX IqSp¶p. Hcp ]ocnUnÂ
\n¶v Xmtg¡p t]mIp-t¼mÄ F§s\ hyXymks¸Spsa¶v t_mÀ
CSXv \n¶v het¯¡v Bä¯n
sâ hep¸w Ipdbp¶p. AXn amXrI (Nn{Xw 4.1) \nco-£n¨v Is¯q
\mÂ AtbmWoIcW DuÀPw
IqSp¶p. t]mknäohv Atbm¬ $ Hcp ]ocnbUnÂ CS¯p\n¶pw het¯m«p t]mIpt¼mÄ
DmIm\pÅ {]hWX teml kz`mhw, Atemlkz`mhw F¶nh F§s\
Ipdbp¶p. hyXymks¸Spw? Bä¯nsâ hep¸w hnebncp¯n
\nKa\¯nse¯q.
F¦nÂ ]ocntbmUnIv tS_nfnÂ temlkz`mhw IqSnb aqeI§Ä
Atemlkz`mhw IqSnb aqeI§Ä F¶nhbpsS Øm\w
{]hNn¡pI.
74 ck-X{- ´w IX
AtbmWoIcW DuÀPhpw temlþAteml kz`mh§fpw X½nÂ
_ÔapmhnsÃ?
AtbmWoIcW DuÀPw IqSnb aqeIw temlkz`mhapÅtXm
Atemlkz`mhapÅtXm?
AtbmWoIcW DuÀPw Ipdªhtbm?
Ce-Ivt{Sm-s\-Kä- n-hnän
Ce-Ivt{Sm-s\-Kä- nh- nä- ns- b-¡p-dn¨p t]mfnwKv kvsIbne- ns- \-¡p-dn¨pw ap³
A[ym-b-¯nÂ \n§Ä ]Tn-¨n-«p-tÃm?
{Kq¸nÂ apI-fnÂ \n¶v Xmtg-¡p-h-cp-t¼mÄ Ce-Ivt{Sm-s\-K-än-hnän
F§s\ hyXym-k-s¸-Sp-¶p.
]ocn-b-UnÂ he-t¯m«p t]mIp-t¼mtgm?
F¦nÂ ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnÂ Ce-Ivt{Sm-s\-K-än-hnän IqSnb aqe-
I-§-fpsS Øm\w Fhn-sS-bm-bn-cn-¡pw.
Ce-Ivt{Sm-s\-K-än-hnän Ipdª ape-I-§-fpsS Øm\tam?
Ce-Ivt{Sm-s\-K-än-hn-än-bpw Bä-¯nsâ hep-¸hpw X½n-ep-ff _Ôw
F´m-bn-cn¡pw?
CeIvt{Sms\K-än-hn-änbpw temlþAteml kz`m-h§fpw X½nÂ
_Ô-ap-m-hn-tÃ? F´m-sW¶v hni-Zo-I-cn-¡q.
CeIvt{Sms\K-än-hnän IqSnb aqe-Iw temltam Atem-ltam?
CeIvt{Sms\K-än-hnän Ipd-ª-htbm? Is¯q.
Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ hn«p-sIm-Sp¯v t]mkn-äohv Atbm-Wp-If- mbn amdp-
¶-Xn-\mÂ teml-§sf CeIvt{Smt]mkn-äohv aqeI-
(Electropositive)
§Ä F¶p hnfn-¡p-¶p. cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\§ - f- nÂ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ

kzoI-cn¨v s\K-äohv Atbm-Wp-If- mbn amdp-¶X- n-\mÂ Atem-l§ - sf
CeIvt{Sms\K-äohv aqe-I-§Ä F¶p ]dbp¶p.
(Electronegative)
D]-tem-l-§Ä (Metalloids)
teml-§-fp-sSbpw Atem-l-§-fp-sSbpw kz`m-h-§Ä {]ZÀin-¸n-¡p¶

aqe-I-§-fmWv D]-tem-l-§Ä. knen¡¬ (Si), PÀta-\nbw (Ge),
Bgvk-\nIv (As), BânaWn (Sb), sSeq-dnbw (Te) F¶nh Cu hn`m-K-
¯nÂ s]Sp-¶-h-bm-Wv.
]ocntbmUnIv tS_nfnse Nne {IamhÀ¯\{]hWXIÄ

a\Ênem¡nbtÃm. ChbpsS ASnØm\¯nÂ NphsS \ÂInbn«pÅ
]«nI 4.9Â icn-bm-bh SnIv (ü) sN¿q.
{]hWXIÄ {Kq¸nÂ apIfnÂ\n¶pw ]ocnbUnÂ CS¯p \n¶pw
Xmtgm«v het¯m«v
Bä¯nsâ hep¸w Ip-db

- p¶p/IqSp-¶p Ip-db
- p¶p/IqSp-¶p
temlkz`mhw Ip-db
- p¶p/IqSp-¶p
Atemlkz`mhw Ip-db
- p¶p/IqSp-¶p
AtbmWoIcW DuÀPw Ip-db

- p¶p/IqSp-¶p
CeIvt{Sms\Känhnän Ip-db
- p¶p/IqSp-¶p
]«nI 4.9
aqeIhÀKoIcW¯nsâ Ncn{Xhpw ]ocn- t bm- U nIv tS_n- f nsâ
khntijXIfpw a\Ênem¡nbtÃm. ckX{´]T\w efnXamIp
¶Xn\v ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fns\ Ipdn¨pÅ hyàamb [mcW
AXy´mt]£nXamWv. ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnse aqe-I-§sfbpw
{IamhÀ¯\{]hWXIsfbpw Ipdn¨p IqSpXÂ Imcy§Ä DbÀ¶
¢mkpIfnÂ a\Ênem¡mw.
1. aqe-I-§-fpsS hÀKo-I-c-W-¯nÂ BZy-Ime {ia-§Ä \S-¯nb

imkv{X-Ú-cpsS t]cp-Ifpw Ah-cpsS kw`mh\Ifpw DÄs¸-
Sp¯n- b ]«n- I - b mWv NphsS sImSp- ¯ n- c n- ¡ p- ¶ - X v .
hn«p-t]mb `mK-§Ä ]qcn-¸n-¡p-I.
kw`mh\/Is-¯Â imkv{X-Úsâ t]cv
{XnI-§Ä .................................
................................. \yqem³Uvkv
teml-§Ä, Atem-l-§Ä
F¶ coXn-bnÂ aqeIhÀKo-I-cWw .................................
B[p-\nI ]ocn-tbm-UnIv \nbaw .................................
2. ]«nI ]qÀ¯o-I-cn-¡pI
aqeIw Atäm-anI Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ {Kq¸v ]ocnbUv
\¼À hn\ymkw \¼À \¼À
enXnbw ......... 2,1 1 2
HmIvkn-P³ 8 ......... ......... .........
BÀtKm¬ 18 ......... ......... .........
ImÂkyw ......... 2, 8, 8, 2 ......... .........

76 ck-X{- ´w IX
3. Nne aqe-I-§-fpsS {]XoIw \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶p. Ch-bpsS Ce-
Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw FgpXn Ah DÄs¸-Sp¶ ]ocnbUv, {Kq¸v
F¶nh Is-¯pI.
12 24 35 27 20
a) C b) Mg c) Cl d) Al e) Ne
6 12 17 13 10
4. XF¶ aqe- I - ¯ nsâ Bä¯nÂ aq¶v sjÃpIÄ Dv .

_mly-XasjÃnÂ 6 Ce-Iv-t{Sm-Wp-IÄ AS-§n-bn-cn-¡p-¶p.
a) aqe-I-¯nsâ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw Fgp-XpI
b) Atäm-anI \¼À F{X-bmWv?
c) Cu aqeIw GXp ]ocn-bUnÂ DÄs¸-Sp¶p?
d) Cu aqeIw GXv {Kq¸n-emWv DÄs¸-Sp-¶Xv?
e) Cu aqeI¯nsâ t]cpw {]Xo-I-hp-sa-gp-XpI.
f) Cu aqeIw GXv aqeIIpSpw-_-¯nÂ DÄs¸-Sp¶p?
g) Cu aqe-I-¯nsâ t_mÀ Bäw am-XrI Nn{Xo-I-cn-¡p-I.
5. F¶o aqe-I-§-fpsS Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ymkw Xmsg

P, Q, R, S
sImSp-¡p¶p (Ch bYmÀY {]Xo-I-§-f-Ã)
P - 2, 2
Q - 2,8,2
R - 2,8,5
S - 2,8
a) ChbnÂ Htc ]ocnbUnÂ DÄs¸-« aqe-I-§Ä GsXÃmamWv?

b) Htc {Kq¸nÂ DÄs¸-«htbm?
c) Ch-bnÂ DÂIrjvS aqeIw GXmWv?
d) R F¶ aqeIw GXp {Kq¸nepw ]ocnb-Unepw DÄs¸-Sp-¶p.
6. ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnsâ A]qÀW-amb cq]amWv NphsS sImSp-
¯n-cn-¡p-¶-Xv. aqe-I-§-fpsS CXnse Øm\-hp-ambn _Ô-s¸-
Sp¯n tNmZy-§Ä¡v D¯-c-sa-gp-Xp-I. ({]Xo-I-§Ä bYmÀY-aÃ.)
1 18
1 A 2 13 14 15 16 17
2 B E I K L M
3 C F 3 4 5 6 7 8 12 J
9 10 11 12 N
4 D G H
a) 1þmw {Kq¸nÂ Gähpw henb Bä-w GXv aqeI¯ntâXmWv?
b) 1þmw {Kq¸nÂ Atbm-Wo-I-cW DuÀPw Gähpw Ipd-hpÅ aqe-I-ta-
XmWv?
c) 2þmw ]ocnbUnÂ Gähpw sNdnb Bä-w GXv aqeI¯ntâXmWv?
d) Ch-bnÂ kw{I-a-W-aq-e-I§Ä GsXms¡bmWv?
e) L, M F¶o aqe- I - § - f nÂ CeIv t {Sms\K- ä n- h nän Ipd- ª Xv
GXn\mWv?
f) B, I ChbnÂ temlobkz`mhw IqSp-XÂ GXn-\mWv?
g) Ch-bnÂ lmsemsP³ IpSpw-_¯

- nÂs¸« aqe-I§
- Ä GsXÃamWv?
h) E F¶ aqe-I-¯nsâ KpW-§-tfmSv Gähpw kmayw ]peÀ¯p¶
aqe-I-taXv?
1. "aqeIhÀKo-I-c-W-¯n\pÅ BZy-Ime {ia-§Ä'- F¶ hnj-bs¯

ASn-Øm-\-am¡nbpÅ skan-\mdnÂ Ah-X-cn-¸n-¡m³ Hcp {]_Ôw
Xbm-dm-¡q.
2. aqe-I-hÀKo-I-c-W-hp-ambn _Ô-s¸« imkv{X-Ú-·m-cpsS Poh-N-
cn{X¡pdn¸v Xbm-dm-¡p-I.
3. B[p-\nI ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnsâ amXrI hc¨v ¢mknÂ {]ZÀin-
¸n-¡q.
4. \n§Ä¡v ]cn- N n- X - a mb kw{I- a Waqe- I - § - f psS D]- t bm- K - § Ä
Is¯n Ipdn¸v Xbm-dm¡n Ah-X-cn-¸n-¡p-I.
5. sdbÀ FÀ¯v hn`m-K-¯nÂ s]Sp¶ aqe-I-§-sf-Ip-dn¨v IqSp-XÂ hnh-
c-§Ä tiJ-cn¨v Ipdn¸v X¿m-dm-¡n ¢mknÂ Ah-X-cn-¸n-¡pI.
78 ck-X{- ´w IX
kpcIvjbv¡mbn Aán-ia- \- n-IÄ
Aán-i-a-\n-I-fpsS kne--dp-IÄ Hmô-kp-I-fnepw sI«n-S-§-fnepw
Xntb-ä-dp-I-fnepw \n§Ä In-cn-¡p-a-tÃm. Chsb F§s\ D]-
tbm-Kn¡mw F¶v t\m¡mw. I¯p¶ hkvXp-¡-fpsS ASnØm-\-
¯nÂ Xo A©mbn Xcw Xncn-¨n-cn-¡p-¶p.
¢mkv A þ km[m-cW Xo ]nSn-¡p¶ ]ZmÀY-§-fmb t]¸À,
acw, ¹mÌn-Iv, XpWn-¯-c-§Ä F¶nh I¯p-
t¼mÄ Dm-Ip¶ Xo.
¢mkv B þ {Zmh-I-§-fmb s]t{Sm-fnbw DÂ]-¶-§Ä I¯p-
t¼mÄ Dm-Ip¶ Xo
¢mkv C þ {]hÀ¯n-¡p¶ Ce-Iv{Sn-¡Â D]-I-c-W-§-fnÂ
\n¶p-m-Ip¶ Xo.
¢mkv D þ aKv\o-jyw, tkmUn-bw, enXnbw, s]m«mkyw XpS-
§nb I¯p¶ teml-§-fnÂ \n¶p-m-Ip¶ Xo.
¢mkv K þ ]mNIw sN¿m³ D]-tbm-Kn¡- p¶ F®-IÄ I¯p-
t¼mÄ Dm-Ip¶ Xo.
hnhn[ Xcw Xo AW-bv¡p-hm³ Htc C\w Aánia-\n-IÄ D]-
tbm-Kn-¡p-hm³ ]mSn-Ã. GXv Xcw Xobv¡mWv D]-tbm-Kn-t¡-Xv
F¶p-ÅXv Aán-i-a-\n-I-fnÂ tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯n-bn-cn-¡pw.
Aán-i-a-\n -{]-h-À¯n-¸n-t¡ coXn
$ knendnsâ apI-fnÂ lm³Un-enÂ DÅ ]n³ hen-¡p-I.
$ AW-bvt¡ Xobn-tebv¡v t\mknÂ Xncn-¡p-I.
$ lm³UnÂ AaÀ¯n-¸n-Sn-bv¡p-I.
$ XobnÂ CO In«p¶ coXn-bnÂ hoip-I.
2

Chemistry IX M PART 1 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Chemistry IX M PART 1 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chemistry IX M PART 1 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ck-X{¥w

kwÿm\ hnZym-`ymk Kth-jW ]cn-io-e\ kanXn (SCERT), tIcfw

State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)

51 I. auenI I¿Ø-hy-ßƒ ˛ Xmsg-∏-d-bp-∂h `mc-X-Ønse Hmtcm

(I) `c- W - L - S - \ sb A\p- k - c n- ° p- I bpw AXns‚ BZ¿i- ß - s fbpw ÿm]- \ - ß - s fbpw

1. B--‰Øns‚ LS\ ................................................................................... 7

3. dntUmIvkv {]h¿Ø\ßfpw cmk-{]-h¿Ø-\ thKhpw....43

4. ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_nƒ ........................................................................ 63

Bi-b-hy-‡X hcp-Øp-∂-Xn\v ICT km[yX

sshZypXnbpsS ]nXmhv F¶mWv ssa¡Â ^mcsU Adnb-s¸-

slâ vdn¨v KoÉÀ ( 1814 -þ 1879 )

1857-þÂ PÀa³ `uXnIimkv{XÚ\pw ¥mkv t»mhdpamb ( ¥mkv

hfsc Xmgv¶ aÀZ¯nemWv hmXI§fnÂ sshZypXn IS¶p

1875þÂ KoÉdpsS UnkvNmÀPv Syq_v \hoIcn¨v hneyw {IqIvkv \S¯nb

bqK³ tKmÄUvÌo³ (1850þ-1930)

UnkvNmÀPv Syq_v ]co£W§fneqsS hmXI§fnse t]mknäohv

hneyw tdm¬SvP³ (1845þ-1923)

P\\w x 30þ08þ1871 \nco£W^e§Ä hniIe\w sNbvXmWv \nKa\§Ä

NmÀPv apgph³ tI{µoIcn¨ Hcp `mKaps­¶pw At±lw kaÀYn¨p.

Cu tI{µamWv Bä¯nsâ \yq¢nbk .v 1911þÂ Bä-¯nÂ t]mknäohv

NmÀPpff tI{µ-ap-s­-¶Xv imkv{XtemIw AwKoIcn¨p. XpSÀ¶v

At±lw \S¯nb ]co£W§fpsS ASnØm\¯nÂ 1920-þÂ t]mkn-

äohv NmÀPn\v Imc-W-amb IW-§Ä t{]mt«m¬ BsW¶v sXfn-

IT@School Edubuntu hnse bn¡s¸«p. CXnsâ NmÀPv Hcp Cet{ÎmWnsâ NmÀPn\pXpeyhpw

\n¶pw. ASn-Øm\ imkv{Xw

F¶ {Ia-¯nÂ t\m¡pI ap­mImsa¶v {]hNn¡pIbpw sNbvXp.

sPbnwkv NmUv hn¡v (1891 -þ -1974)

dqYÀt^mÀUnsâ in£W¯nÂ ]Tn¡pIbpw ]co£W§-fnteÀ-

sPbnwkv NmUv hn¡v GsXmcp aqeI¯nsâbpw Bä§Ä \nÀ½n¨ncn¡p¶Xv

CeIvt{Sm¬, t{]mt«m¬, \yqt{Sm¬ F¶nhbpsS khntijXIÄ

$ amkv Xosc Ipdhv $ amkv ssl{UP³ $ amkv ssl{UP³

(ssl{UP³ Bä¯nsâ Bä¯n\v Xpeyw Bä¯n\v Xpeyw

amknsâ 1837 Â Hcp $ \yq¢nbknÂ ImWp $ \yq¢nbknÂ ImWp¶p

Bä¯n\v Hcp tI{µaps­¶pw, amkv apgph³ tI{µoIcn¨ncn¡p¶Xv

{IaoIcn-¨ncn¡p¶Xv kucbqYs¯-t¸msebmsW¶v IcpXmw..

* kucbqY¯n\v Hcp * Bä¯n\pw Hcp tI{µ-

s]mXpth dqYÀt^mÀUnsâ Bäw amXrI kzoImcyambncp¶p.

dqYÀt^mÀUv amXrIbpsS ]cn-anXn Nn{Xo-I-cWw

amkv \¼dpw Atäm-anI \¼dpw

Bä- ¯ nsâ \yq¢n- b - k nÂ 23

{]XoIw Atäm-anI \¼À amkv \¼À t{]mt«m- W p- I Ä Ce- I v t {Sm- W p- I Ä \yqt{Sm- W p- I Ä

Ce- I v t {Sm¬ hn\ymkw ]«nIs¸Sp- ¯ n- b n- c n- ¡ p- ¶ Xv (]«nI 1.4)

aqeIw Atäm-anI Ce-Ivt{SmWpI-fpsS Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ hn\ym-kw sjÃp-I-fnÂ

ssl{U-P³ loenbw enXnbw

s_dn-enbw t_mtdm¬ ImÀ_¬

10p 11p 18p

\ntbm¬ tkmUnbw BÀtKm¬

Aep-an-\nbw Bä-¯nsâ {]XoIw - 1327Al F¶mWv. Bä¯nsâ t_mÀ

Hcp aqeIw GsX¶v \nÀW-bn-¡p-¶Xv AXnsâ Hcm-ä-¯n-epÅ

t{]m«nbw Uyqäocnbw {Snjnbw

Hcp aqe-I-¯nsâ sFtkm-tSm-¸p-IÄ X½nÂ `uXnI kz`m-h-¯nÂ

{]XoIw Atäm-anI \¼À amkv \¼À t{]mt«m-Wp-IÄ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ \yqt{Sm-Wp-IÄ

lnKvkv t_mtkm¬ F¶ ssZh-IWw

BäwLS-\-sb-¡p-dn-¨pÅ [mcWIÄ cq]-s¸« hn[hpw Bä-¯nsâ

hnhn[ amXr-I-Ifpw ]cn-N-b-s¸-«-tÃm.

kw`m-h-\-Ifpw {Ia-c-ln-X-ambn \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶p. icn-bmb coXn-

ssa¡Â ^mctU Bä-¯nsâ kuc-bqY amXrI

sP.sP. tXmwk¬ Bäw kn²m´w

NmÀPv apgph³ tI{µoIcn¨ Hcp `mKaps¶pw At±lw kaÀYn¨p.

NmÀPpff tI{µ-ap-s-¶Xv imkv{XtemIw AwKoIcn¨p. XpSÀ¶v

F¶ {Ia-¯nÂ t\m¡pI apmImsa¶v {]hNn¡pIbpw sNbvXp.

Bä¯n\v Hcp tI{µaps¶pw, amkv apgph³ tI{µoIcn¨ncn¡p¶Xv

dqYÀt^mÀUv Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ Is¯n

bpsS F®w Is¯q.

GsXÃmw Bä§Ä tNÀ¶mWv tkmUnbw t¢mssdUv DmIp¶Xv?

CeIv t {Sm¬ ssIamäw aqeapmIp¶ cmk_Ô\amWv

Dm-Ip-¶Xv F§s\sb¶v t\m¡mw.

AtbmWnI _Ô\w hgnbpmIp¶ kwbpà§Ä AtbmWnI

klkwtbmPI _Ô\w hgn DmIp¶ kwbp-à§

kl-kw-tbm-PI kwbp-à§- f- mWv Dm-Ip-¶Xv.

cmk_Ô-\-¯n-ep-m-Ip¶ hyXymkw kwbp-à-§-fpsS kz`m-h-

At¸mÄ aáo-jyw t¢mssdUv Dm-Ip--t¼mÄ B X·m-{X-bnÂ Hcp