FLOW MEASUREMENT

The rate of flow is known as volume flow rate or discharge. The unit of discharge is m 3/s.
The flow of a fluid can be measured by flow meters. The common types of flow meters used
are obstruction (differential pressure or variable area) types. Name of some flow
measurement devices are given below.
- Venturi meter
-Orifice meter
Both the devices are based on Bernoulli’s theorem.
Bernoulli’s theorem: It states that in a steady, incompressible (density remains constant)
fluid flow, the total energy at any point of the fluid is constant. The total energy consists of
pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy or datum energy.
Mathematically

Venturimeter
Venturi meter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid flowing through a
pipe. It works on the principle of Bernoulli’s theorem. It consists of three parts:
1. A short converging part: It is that portion of the venturi where the fluid gets converges.
2. Throat: It is the portion that lies in between the converging and diverging part of the
venturi. The cross section of the throat is much less than the cross section of the converging
and diverging parts. As the fluid enters in the throat, its velocity increases and pressure
decreases.
3. Diverging part: It is the portion of the venture where the fluid gets diverges.
Working Principle:-
The working of venture meter is based on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation.
The venturimeter is used to measure the rate of flow of a fluid flowing through the pipes.
Let’s understand how it does this measurement step by step.
• Here we have considered two cross sections, first at the inlet and the second one is at
the throat. The difference in the pressure heads of these two sections is used to
calculate the rate of flow through venturi meter.
• As the water enters at the inlet section i.e. in the converging part it converges and
reaches to the throat.
• The throat has the uniform cross section area and least cross section area in the
venturi meter. As the water enters in the throat its velocity gets increases and due to
increase in the velocity the pressure drops to the minimum.
• Now there is a pressure difference of the fluid at the two sections. At the section 1(i.e.
at the inlet) the pressure of the fluid is maximum and the velocity is minimum. And at
the section 2 (at the throat) the velocity of the fluid is maximum and the pressure is
minimum.
• The pressure difference at the two sections can be seen in the manometer attached at
both the section.
• This pressure difference is used to calculate the rate flow of a fluid flowing through a
pipe.
Let d1, p1, v1 & a1, are the diameter at the inlet, pressure at the inlet, velocity at the inlet and
area at the cross section 1.
And d2, p2, v2 and a2 are the corresponding values at section 2.
Applying bernoulli’s equation at sections 1 and 2

As the pipe is horizontal, so z1 = z2

Therefore

By getting v2 , discharge Q will be calculated as

Where, Cd= Coefficient of discharge for orifice meter= Ratio of actual discharge to
theoretical discharge
 Orifice meter
An orifice meter provides a simpler and cheaper arrangement for the measurement of flow
through a pipe. An orifice meter is essentially a thin circular plate with a sharp edged
concentric circular hole in it. It works on the principle of Bernoullis theorem. The diameter of
orifice is generally 0.5 times the diameter of the pipe (D), although it may vary from 0.4 to
0.8 times the pipe diameter.
Working Principle: - The orifice plate inserted in the pipeline causes an increase in flow
velocity and a corresponding decrease in pressure. The flow pattern shows an effective
decrease in cross section beyond the orifice plate, with a maximum velocity and minimum
pressure at the vena-contracta.

Thus discharge Q=A 2V2

Q is calculated by using the formula,

Where Cd= Coefficient of discharge for orifice meter.

Difference between venture meter and orifice meter:-
1. Venturi meter presents a costlier method to measure the rate flow of fluid through the pipe.
2. Venturi meter is more complex to fabricate than an orifice meter.
3. Venturi meter requires large space whereas orifice meter requires relatively smaller space
 VELOCITY MEASUREMENT
PITOT-TUBE
Pitot-tube is a device used for measuring the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or a
channel.
Principle: If the velocity at any point decreases, the pressure at that point increases due to the
conservation of the kinetic energy into pressure energy. A pitot tube is used to determine the
velocity of a fluid flowing through a pipe by measuring the difference in pressure between
two points in the pipe. Bernoulli's equation is then used to determine fluid velocity
In simplest form, the pitot tube consists of a glass tube, bent at right angles. Consider two
points 1 and 2 at same level in such a way that point 2 is just at the inlet of pitot tube and
point 1 is far away from the tube.
 STRAIN MEASUREMENT

Strain:-

When a force is applied to a body, the body is elongated and we are saying the body is
stressed. So stress is defined as applied force per unit area. Strain is the amount of
deformation produced of a body due to an applied force. More specifically, strain is defined
as the fractional change in deformation i.e change in deformation to original deformation.
So strain= change in deformation / original deformation
When a force is applied to a structure, the components of the structure change slightly in their
dimensions and are said to be strained. Devices to measure these small changes in dimensions
are called strain gages.
Electrical Resistance Strain Gage: -
-An electrical resistance strain gage, a device whose electrical resistance varies in proportion
to the amount of strain in the device. The most widely used gage is the bonded metallic foil
strain gage.
-The strain gauge operates on simple principle. When force is applied on an elastic member,
the dimensions undergo a change. If the strain gauge is wounded around the body whose
strain is to be measured, the gauge is stretched or compressed, resulting in a change in its
length and diameter. The resistance of the circuit changes due to change in dimension. The
output voltage is already calibrated with strain.
- A Wheatstone bridge is selected in balanced condition. The output voltage is measured by a
voltmeter connected across other two joints. Change in resistance in any arm will result in a
nonzero output voltage.
-After connecting one active strain gauge to one arm of the bridge circuit, the bridge is
balanced and the voltmeter indicates zero volts, representing no force on the strain gauge.
-When the strain gage is tensed or compressed, its resistance will increase or decrease,
respectively, thus unbalancing the bridge and producing an indication at the voltmeter.
 FORCE MEASUREMENT
-A force can be a push or a pull. It is not something you can see or touch, but can see it in
action.
- As per Newton’s 2nd law of motion force is defined as the product of mass and acceleration.
-Force is a vector quantity and its unit is Newton (N)
-A force usually results from an interaction. The interaction can be a physical one or a non-
physical one. Forces resulting from physical interaction are called 'Contact Forces' and
examples include Frictional, Tension, Air Resistance, and spring force.
-A force resulting from non-physical interaction is called ‘Action-at-a-distance force' and
examples include gravitational, electrical or magnetic force.
-The method for measuring force can be classified into two basic categories, direct and
indirect.
-Direct methods:-
1. In case of direct methods, a direct comparison is made between an unknown force and the
known gravitational force on a standard mass. By balancing the unknown force against the
known gravitational force on a standard mass, either directly or through a system of levers. A
force is exerted on a body of mass m due to the earth’s gravitational field, which can be
represented by the equation W=mg.
2. Force can also be measured directly by a spring connected to a metal hook. The spring
stretches when a force is applied to the hook. The bigger the force applied, the longer the
spring stretches and the bigger the reading.
3. Measuring the acceleration of a body of known mass to which unknown force is applied
-Indirect methods:-
Indirect comparison is made by a calibrated transducer that senses the deformation due to a
force applied. Force Transducers are also commonly known as Force Sensors. A Force
Sensor is defined as a transducer that converts an input mechanical force into an electrical
output signal.
Strain gauge Load cell- When an elastic member is combined with a strain gauge and used
for the measurement of force, it is termed as load cell. A load cell is used in an indirect
method of force measurement where force or weight is converted into an electrical signal. In
load cells, elastic members act as primary transducers and strain gauges as secondary
transducers.
 TOURQUE MEASUREMENT

-Torque is the twisting force that tends to cause rotation. The point where the object rotates
is known as the axis of rotation. Mathematically, torque can be written as T = F × L and it
has units of Newton-meters.
-Measurement of torque is essential in the determination of mechanical power. Mechanical
power is nothing but the power required to operate a machine or the power developed by the
machine, and is computed using the relation, P=Tw= 2ПNT/60 where N= revolution per
minute (rpm)
-Torque is measured by a device which is known as Dynamometer. Dynamometers are used
to measure torque in internal combustion machines, small steam turbines, pumps,
compressors etc.
-Prony Brake Dynamometer: Pony Brake is one of the simplest dynamometers
for measuring torque and power output (brake power). It is to attempt to stop the engine using
a brake on the flywheel and measure the weight which an arm attached to the brake will
support, as it tries to rotate with the flywheel.

The Prony brake shown in the above consists of a wooden block, frame, rope, brake shoes
and flywheel. It works on the principle of converting power into heat by dry friction. Spring-
loaded bolts are provided to increase the friction by tightening the wooden block. The whole
of the power absorbed is converted into heat and hence this type of dynamometer must the
cooled.
Torque (T)= W× L and Power= 2ПNT/60

Rope – brake Dynamometer:- The rope brake as shown in below figure is another device
for measuring brake power of an engine. It consists of some turns of rope wound around the
rotating drum attached to the output shaft. One side of the rope is connected to a
spring balance and the other side to a loading device. The power is absorbed in
friction between the rope and the drum. Therefore drum in rope brake requires cooling. Rope
brake dynamometers are cheap and can be constructed quickly but brake power can’t be
measured accurately because of change in the friction coefficient of the rope with a change in
temperature.
Let W = Dead load in newtons,
S = Spring balance reading in newtons, D = Diameter of the wheel in metres,
d = diameter of rope in metres, and N = Speed of the engine shaft in r.p.m.
work done per minute or Power = (W − S) π(D + d ) N N-m