GLIMPSES

OF
ISLAMIC HISTORY
BY
IRFAN FAQIН

GLIMPSES OF ISLAMIC
HISTORY
By
IRFAN FAQIH
KAZI PUBLICATIONS
121- ZULQARNAIN CHAMBERS, GANPAT ROAD, LAHORE (Pakistan)
All Rights Reserved
No Part of this book may be reproduced by any means, for transmitted, nor translated
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1st Edition, 1979...1000
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BU
Copyrights 1979, in Pakistan : Kazi Publications, LAHORE
©
Copyrights 1979, in U.S.A:
M. A. QAZI
PRINTED IN PAKISTAN
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By
Shamas Art, Press, Paisa Akhbar, Lahore
 CHAPTER 1
'ARABIA BEFORE ISLAM
Geography

Man, it is said, is a creature of circumstances and nature plays a predominant role in

moulding the habits and character of a people. This is in no case better exemplified than
in that of the great Prophet of Arabia (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). „The
country of the Prophet's birth is not of the kind and character with which people are
generally familiar in our days, that is, a country composed of towns and villages, teeming
with life and vegetation, art and industry. 'Arabia was not a country of this kind, at least
in the Prophet's days. It was a land of arid waste and sandy desolation where water and
vegetation were more a dream than a reality and where the blazing sun parched up and
crumbled everything into particles of sand spreading over all a mantle of decay and
meaninglessness.

Geographically speaking Jazira al-'Arab is a peninsula in the south-west of Asia. This

peninsula is en ompassed, on the north, by the Syrian desert, on the east by the Persian
Gulf, on the south by the Indian Ocean and on the west by the Red Sea. It falls in the
torrid zone with a very scanty rainfall. The 'Arabian peninsula is essentially a land of vast
deserts and uninhabitated regions of barren soll. However, in this grim picture of a dead,
raden world, nature introduces a few touches oi nome colour by oases and pools of
sparkling water clusters of date-palms, and by the pitching and uprooting of the tents of
the nomads commonly known as the Bedouins, or by the more permanent habitations of
the settied **Arabs. Due to the barrenness of the soil the Bedouins have to wander from
one place to another, constantly, in search of food and water, seeking new pastures.
Camel, horse, sheep and goats are the main domestic animals; of these the carel is the
most vital and indispensible. It is "the ship of the desert". It is so important in the desert
and the Bedouin life is so closely interlocked with it, that 'Umar, the Great, once, said.
"The Arabs, prosper only where the camel prospers.” Horse is next in importance and
usefulness.

The People

This strange land of silence and insignificance was inhabited by a people equally strange
and insignificant. The 'Arabs, being the children of the desert, developed among them
qualities and habits very DUCII in keeping with their wild arid surroundings. They were
a hard tough race of men who being unaccus tomed to gentler and more sophisticated
modes of life and thought were a warlike, hostile, unorganized and a perpetually
struggling mass of humanity. Though habitually slow in words and action, when once
their feelings were aroused they were very swift to return an insult or injury and their
blood feuds would often continue for many generations. Their highly provocable nature
was later termed by the Holy Qur'an as pagan fury, al-hamiyat al-jahiliya, and the period
before Islam as, al-jahiliya, the pagan period or the period of ignorance. During this
period of al-jahiliya, the social structure of the 'Arab life, including their political system
and religio, beliefs and practices was highly primitive. There was no political unity as
they did not have an organized form of government. There was no hegemony of any
imperial power and almost the entire 'Arabian peninsula, with the exception of certain
nothern territories which were either in the Persian suzerainty or under the Roman
domination, enjoyed almost complete independence and absolute autonomy. There was,
however, no central authority or a national government to establish a uniform political
administration in the peninsula.

Loyalty

The 'Arabian society was divided into innumerable tribes and clans, all of them having
their own Chieftain or Shaikh elected from among the elders, to whom the tribe or clan
owed its absolute allegiance and solidarity. This tribal bond of unflinching loyalty to the
Chief along with the desert nomadism were the most essential and indispensible features
of ancient "Arab life. The relations among the various clans and tribes were not alwars
cordial. Some of the powerful and prominent tribes were perpetually hostile to one
another. As there was- no central power to check this tribal antagonism, they frequently
fought among themselves. The tribesmen did not hesitate to go to any limits in protecting
the honour of the tribe to. which they owed their allegiance. Long tribal wars : were a
common phenomenon in those days. The battle of Basűs which started over a she-camal
between the tribes of Bani Bakr and Bani Taghlib continued for about forty years. This
unbreakable bond of tribal solidarity and group-consciousness, later on, when
universalized by Islam, played a very important role in the history of the Arabs.

Hospitality

Thus while unscrupulously nurturing in their hearts these narrow jealousies and
vindictive feelings, the 'Arabs, strangely enough, were carried away by extravagent,
almost quixotic notions of hospitality and generosity which often transgressed the limits
of Teason and prudence. For instance, a tribal 'Arab thought little of slaughtering his last
camel or sheep to entertain his guests and would prefer having his son slain than letting
a hair of his blood-thirsty enemy be touched, while he was under his protection. The pre-
Islamic poets were never tired of singing the praises of diyafa (hospitality) which with
hamasa (fortitude) and murua (manliness) is considered one of the supreme virtues of
the race.

Poetry

Along with this rather exaggerated notion of hospitality and overemphasized importance
of the fulfilment of the pledge, the Arabs were also endowed with fortitude, the dogged
tenacity of a camel, à wonderful memory, sense of self-respect, love of freedom and
unflinching loyality to the tribe. These wild and lawless people also had a great passion
and aptitude for poetry. They had a clear consciousness of their own ethnic individuality
and this conscious ness was expressed in an elaborate genealogical system which reflects
the ancient self-awareness of the race proud of its anarchic freedom.'. Such an awareness
of ethnic and cultural identity which served as a symbol of national glory, expressed itself
a lasting fashion in the form of poetry. Their cassion for poetry was so immense and over
owering that not a fair was held where poetical contests were not organized. At these
gatherings and especially at the one at 'Ukaz near Mecca, there came from all parts of the
peninsula the votaries of that enshrined art, and when they had recited their yaried
compositions, those judged best were then transcribed on silk in letters of gold and hung
up in their national shrine, the famous Ka'ba at Mecca. These Mu'allaqat or the Suspended
Golden Odes formed the nucleus of their poetic genius “Imra-ul-Qais, Zuhair, “Antara
and 'Amr bin Kulthum were the immortal bards of the golden era of 'Arabic poetry."!

Religion

The pre-Islamic Arabs were undoubtedly a pation of idolators, with the exception of the
Jews and the Christians. The religion of the greater part of these ‘Arabs was an elementary
polytheism with elements of fetishism and animalism. They worshipped a varied
pantheon of divinities none of which had ever assumed any human form. Some of these
deities, as in southern Arabia and in general in the whole Semetic area were astral, such
as as-Lat, at goddess and al-'Uzza (The most high), originally personifying the planet
Venus. Other dones personified abstract ideas, like Manat, the goddess of fate and death,
and Wadd, the god of love, others had an exclusively local importance such as the various
idols of the Ka'ba in Mecca. The retired Hubal towered above them all. All these deties
were worshipped by the 'Arabs as idols in the form of sacred stones, rocks, trees and
crude animal shares! Among the various sanctuaries that existed the 302 at Mecca stood
out as of pan-Arab importance. This Sacred House of Allah originally built by the
Parriärch Abrabam for the exclusive worship of One True God was transformed into a
house of deities by the punan 'Arabs. No less than 360 gods and goddesses were placed
in this sanctuary for the performance of the rites of their polytheistic creed.

Besides the idolatrous ‘Arabs there also lived in Hijaz, the central part of the peninsula,
the followers of Judaism. In this part Jewish colonists were to be found as much in Yathrib
(later on Medina) as in the oases of the north, Fadak; Khayber and Wadi al-Qura. They
were agriculturists, craftsmen and particularly goldsmiths. Their creed was, in a more or
less, demoralised form and they could not anniribute anything towards the ethical and
spiritual uplift of their compatriots. Christianity was the faith of the Ghassanids of as well
as of the Lakhmids of Hira and in the Gecert it had won over some large and small tribes
such as the Kalb, the Tanukh and the Taghlib, as well as, isolated urban groups. The
figure of the Christian hermit whose solitary light shines through the darkness of the
desert is often mentioned in pre-Islamic poetry. 1 The religious panorama of pre-Islamic
'Arabia will be incomplete without the mention of the Hanifs which cannot be ignored in
any case. Hanif was the name given by the 'Arabs to the individual religious men whose
monotheistic faith was not identified either with Judaism or with Christianity and who
later adhered to Islam with its triumphant rise. Leading a life of ascetic purity, these
Hanifs meditated on the monotheistic solutions of the eternal questions which the
majority of the 'Arabs overlooked.

Society

Along with their groping in the darkness in the spiritual realm : and with their pagan
polytheistic practices, the 'Arabs of the Jahiliya period also had - certain vices and moral
degradations deeply rooted in their social fabric. During this dark age the 1. Muellaga-
Imra-ul-Qais. firmament of Arabia was over-clouded with arrogance, injustice,
intransigence, vice and superstition. The position of women was very precarious. They
were regarded as mere chattels and commodities, They possessed no rights. The birth of
a daughter would turn the face of a father pale with grief and displeasure. Sometimes the
father buried her alive to get rid of the shame. Polygamy and polyandry both were
prevalent among the pagan 'Arabs. It was a permissive society with unrestricted
polygamy and free and undisguised concubinage. Sometimes eyes, married women were
granted permission by their husbands to have sexual relations with other men for the
sake of offspring. Step-mothers were married to their sons who inherited them along with
other estates after the death of their father.

Slavery was a most common practice and a deeply rooted institution. The slaves were
treated in a very savage and inhuman manner, and their lot was even more miserable
than that of their fellow bondsmen in other parts of the contemporary work The entire
'Arabian society was steeped in superstition, vice and barbarism. The pagan 'Arabs were
so superstitious that they would not undertake any work without consulting the oracles.
Social inequality, exploitation, injustice, persecution, drinking, gambling, looting and
plundering were rampant. Isolated from the great nations of in pagan Arabs lived their
insignificant lives their long sicep unaffect ambitions and warch of other nations. of the
Caesars and the Chosroes had lot marchied and remarched on their in affecting their
elemental sloth and Oilen of the caravans great ideas filtered through the desert sands to
their distant ears but left undisturbed their profound slumber of ages.''!
e great nations of the world, the
meir insignificant lives and slept Sleep unaffected by the wars and polity, arch of other
nations. -The armies the Chosroes had for centuries u remarched on their frontiers
Without
It was in a society of people given to such strange ideas and practices and in a country so
markedly different in its physical aspect that the Prophet of Islam (peace and blessings of
Allah be upon him) was bor. To conclude in the words of Francesco Gabrieli : “Such a
romantic consideration cannot however ignore' the fundamental fact that Islam, drawing
its energies from the soil of pagan ‘Arabism but enriching it with decisive elements
foreign to it, put an end to a period which was called, with reason, 'barbarism (this is
better than the Age of Ignorance which is the translation usually given to the term
Jahiliya), and put the 'Arabs on the road to civilization with a new and lofty concept of
the Divine, a society and a state shaped by it's?

CHAPTER 2
MUHAMMAD, THE PROPHET (peace and blessings of Allah
be upon him)
Mecca

Mecca is one of the most ancient cities in the world. It is to this day an important centre
in i caravans bringing their rich merchandise from the north' and the south. It still
possesses the spring of Zam Zam which tradition associates with tho gi... patriarch
Abraham, and the world-renowned Kit with the mysterious Black Stone is today as much
the most ancient and sacred object of reverence it was in the days of Abraham. Here came
the trider year after year, to kiss the Black Stone which his fallen from Heaven in the days
of Adam. Thus from the remotest antiquity Mecca was not only meeting-point of all the
religious thought and favou of the Arabs, but also the great emporiuin of the industrial
output and commercial enterprises of the neighbouring nations. It was in the religious
and commercial centre of the 'Arabs that Muliammad the Prophet (peace and blessings
of Allah be upon him) was destined to be born.

Childhood

Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) was born on Monday, the 12th
of Rabi ai-Awwal(750)A. D., in 'the year of the elephant in which Abraha the Abyssinian
despot marched on Mecca to destroy the holy shrine of the Ka'ba.! The child was named
Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) by his grand-father
Abd al-Muttalib and Ahmed by his mother Amina. His father 'Abdullah died before the
Prophet was born. No sooner was he born than he was, as was the custom in Mecca,
handed over to the care of a Bedouin woman Halima of the Bani Sa'd. For five years, he
lived with her among the Bani Sa'd. Consequently for the first five years of his life he had
an easy access to the vast stretches of the open desert and retained all through his life a
strong recollection of his wild free-wandering existence he led there! It was here that his
speech was formed upon one of the most geniune models of the beautiful dialect of the
'Arabs. "My tongue is the tongue of the Bani Sa'd,” once he gratefully proclaimed. No
sooner, was he restored to the care of his mother than he lost her affection. Amina died
on her way back from Medina and the orphan was carried back to Mecca by Umm Aiman,
a faithful nurse of the child. The charge of the orphan was now undertaken by his grand-
father 'Abd al-Muttalib. Abd al-Muttalið belonged to the tribe of Quraish, a famous
branch of the Isma‘ilite Arabs. The Quraish were one of the noblest tribes in ‘Arabia and
were the custodians of the holy shrine of the Ka'ba. Hashim, the father of 'Abd al-Muttalib
was a popular figure in Mecca for his valour and modesty. With his great qualities of
leadership he assumed the charge of the custodian ship of the Ka'ba and the chieftaincy
of the Quraish. 'Abd al-Muttalib proved "a chip of the old block" His generosity,
liberalism and fairmindedness; for him an undisputed position in the hierarchy of the
Meccans. It was during his stewardship that Abraha, the Abyssinian had made a futile
attempo to destroy the Ka'ba. The Holy Qur'an records this adventure in one of its historic
'Abd al-Muttalib's guardianship lasted only for two years. After the death of 'Abd al-
Muttalib the charge of the orphan was placed on his uncle Abil Talib who looked after
him with affectionate care In spite of this, the sadness of an orphaned cluildhoou and
youth surrounded the early years of Propher Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah
be upon him) and a touching record of it remains in an early Chapter of the Qur'an (93-
6-8).'

Did He not find thee an orphan, and shelter thee?

Did He not find thee wandering, and direct thee?
Did He not find thee destitute, and enrich thee?
For the next seven years Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) was
destined to lead a life of an entirely different character. Being left an orphan and having
inherited little from his father, (five camels, a flock of goats and Umm Aiman, a slave-
girl) it became necessary for him to earn his living. Abu Talib himself was not solvent. He
was, for that reason, turned into a little shepherd and had to tend flocks of sheep and
herds of camels on the neighbouring hills and valleys. But the same barren hills of Mesca
which in those years so closely walled in his physical activities could not shut out his
growing mind from indulging in incipient meditations and his expanding imagination
from roaming into the vast spaces beyond. From this tender age his sensitive and
thoughtful mind was alive to the sufferings and toil of the masses The young Muhammad
(peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) knew poverty, though not destitution; he saw
the traditional national cults reduced to crude idolatrous ritual, and material interest
become the mainstream of life for his contemporaries--grasping merchants for whom a
man's worth was measured by his possessions only.

Youth

When Muhammad (peace and blessing of Alla be upon him) was twelve, Abū Talib, his
uncle, ivh was an enterprising merchant projected a caravan t visit Syria and no argument
of age and hardship ol his part. could keep back his equally enterprisid nephew froni
joining the caravan. It was on th journey that he, for the first time, came in livin contact
with different modes of life and opposin ideas of religion, and the scenes of social misery
as religious corruption that he observed there mard: lasting impression on his young
mind. In niso age he often recalled those scenes which, howeve provided him with ample
food for thought an speculation once again within the encircling hills Mecca. Marriage
In the twenty-fifth year of his life, an opportun of leading a commercial mission and
revisiting t scenes of his early travels came again and he eage seized the opportunity. He
carried out the obju of his mission so successfully and with su tremendous fidelity and
honesty that his companio named him al-Amin, the trustworthy. The si Meccan widow
Khadija who had sent him out on expedition, being impressed with his sincerity al
faithfulness, entrusted him with the charge of all business. This trust and confidence
turned admiration an love with Muhammad's magnificent dexterity in dealing with her
business and making it flourish beyond her expectations. She set the seal of her approval
on this high opinion by inviting him to her house and offering him her hand and her
heart. The noble widow at this time was forty years of age. She had been twice married
and had borne two sons and a daughter. The marriage took place with the approval of
Abu Talib. Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) was twenty five a the
time of this marriage and Khadija (Allah - pleased with her) was fifteen years his senior.
But in spite of this great disparity of age, for all the twenty five years of their married life,
no couple in Mecca was, happier or more single mindedly devoted to one another than
Khadija (Allah be pleased with her) and her youthful husband. She seeing to have
understood Muhammad's true and generous nature and faithfully shared all his varied
trials and endless struggles as only a faithful wife could. To Muhammad (peace and
blessings of Allah upon him) the marriage brought, besides a loving woman's heart, that
leisure, quiet and exemption from daily toil which he needed to prepare himself and his
mind for the great mission which lay before him. She also proved a great source of
courage, solace and inspiration in his hours of trial, depression and agony. He said later
in his life that when nobody believed in his mission, Khadija (Allah be placednadija
(Allah be pleased with her) believed in him; when he was friendless she befriended him
and when he was helpless she helped him.

The Mission

Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) was constantly conscious of the
great short comings of his people and knew well that things, as he saw around him, could
not continue for a long time. He knew, for instance that the petty quarrels and tribal
jealousies which embittered feelings and divided the tribes of "Arabia into so many
hostile camps must somehow end and the foul practices and superstitions of rival creeds
and sects must be renounced sooner or later. So completely was he - absorbed in the
preparation of the great work which awaited him unknowingly, and in such a complete
segregation and solitude did he pass his days, that only one major event is recorded
during the course of his next fifteen years when at the reconstruction of the Ka'ba he was
called upon to settle the dispute as to which of the Meccan clans had the right to replace
the sacred Hajar Aswad (Black Stone). The amicable way he settled the dispute to the
satisfaction of all parties concerned, should have at once marked him out, in the eyes of
his fellow citizens, as a man of commanding intellect with deep understanding of men
and matters. But with that proverbial blindness of human beings to greatness and
intellectual genius, the Meccans after having had the Hajar Aswad replaced, went then
way without paying Muhammad (peace and blessing of Allah be upon him) any more
heed.

The Enlightenment

Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah upon him) went his way once more towards
the on rocks of Mount Hira' there to meditate and find some solution of the problems that
haunted his soul and emaciated his being. "Those were the same eternus problems about
the mystery of the Creation and the purpose of Life and Existence that have ever haunti
the spirit of those rare souls who can never believe in empty formula. From where he had
come. Why and for What was he there, and where was he bound The rocks stood dumb
and answered him not. And yet all the while the great Reality stood glaring upon him."
Especially was this the case during the month of Ramadan when each year he betook
himself to his favourite cave on Mount Hirā' for days and nights together, there to fast
and to pray for the enlightenment. On one occasion after passing an unusuality peaceful
evening of meditation, as Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) lay
wrapped in his mantie, he heard a voice, calling upon him "Read”, commanded the
mysterious voice holding out the scroll to him. “But I cannot read," said Muhammad
(peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). Three times the mystic figure commanded,
.then suddenly by some secret process he seemed to decipher the contents of the scroll
and to scan those famous verses proclaiming the greatness of the Lord:
Read; In the name of thy Lord Who createth, Createth man from a clot. Read; And
thy Lord is the Most Bounteous, Who teacheth by the pen, Teacheth man that
which he knew not. (96: 1-5)

In that one tense moment of full awakened conscious ness he seemed to have touched the
secret spring of life and solved the eternal problem of existence,
As was his practice Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) hurried to
his faithful wife and apprised her of his strange experience and his apprehensions.
Khadija (Allah be pleased with her), with her unflinching faith in him and in his great
destiny unhesitatingly replied;" "Rejoice, O dear husband and be of good cheer, He, in
Whose hands. lies Khadija's life, is my witness that you will be then Prophet of His
people."

The Struggle

Here begins the struggle of Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) as
the Prophet and Messenger of Allah. Prophethood came to him at the age of forty. The
words which came to him in a state of trance were incorporated in the Sacre: Book known
as Al-Qur'ān, the Reading. The reading of the man who knew not how to read. The angel
who brought down these revelations was the archangel Jibrā'il (Gabriel):
For the first three years of his Prophetic Mission, the Prophet (peace and blessings
of Allah be upon him) preached only to his family and his intimate friends, and
 then gradually throughout the whole city of Mecca which regarded him as one
who had become a little mad or possessed by evil spirits. The earliest converts to
the new faith, called al-Islam, (meaning submission and surrender to the Will of
Allah) were first of all; his wife Khadija (Allah be pleased with her) then the
Prophet's own young cousin 'Ali, his freedman and adopted son Zaid and his
faithful friend and trusted Abu Bakr (Allah be pleased with them all).

This first tiny group of believers grew with the passage of time, welcoming into its ranks
men of different origins, for the most part young, with minds open to new experiences
and ideas and members of the less powerful and solitary tribal groups: “Contrary to
certain modern interpretations, Islam was not primarily a social protest, a revolution of
the economically depressed classes against the rich, but rather a call encouraged by social
discontent and disequilibrium but essentially religious and spiritual in character to
substitute coercion, worship of money and petty tribal loyalties with a universal faith in
the relation between man and Allah, and a complete equality of believers in this
relationship."!. Islam was essentially a movement towards the democratization of the
'Arab nation, and the entire human society at large.

Obviously it was not long before Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be
upon hira) began preaching the universal message of Islam and the young group of
adherents started gathering around him, that he had to encounter the hostility of the
Meccan oligarchy, mild at first, then more and more pronounced and stubborn as Islam
gradually established its foothold in Mecca. The resistance arose partly from the normal
distrust of anything new, especially when proclaimed by a relatively obscure Hashimite,
partly from the vested interests of the rich in maintaining a status quo threatened by the
new faith which preached generosity, equality and social justice, and partly from the fear
that Mecca might lose its position of economic, commercial and religious leadership of
the entire 'Arabian peninsula.

At the end of the third year of the Prophet: Mission, the Messenger of Allah (peace and
ble of Allah be upon him) received the Divine Command to arise and warn.” After that
he started publicly preaching the Divine Message, pointing out the folly of polytheism
and idol-worship and emphasizing the exclusive sovereignty and omnipotence of the
Creator of the Universe. It was then when the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be
upon him) began to speak against the impotent and meaningless gods of the Meccans,
that the Quraish became actively hostia towards him and started persecuting his disciples
an mocking and insulting him. The only consideration that prevented them from killing
the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) was the apprehen sion of the
blood-revenge of the clan to which his family belonged. While the men to whom the
future belonged Abū Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthmān, “Ali, Sard, Talha, Zubair (Allah be pleased
with them) came one by one to array themselves und the command of Talant, the
oligarchy of the Meccan Dobles was Linning to feel it not merely as a disagreeable
innovation but as a threat to their own ancestral dogma and they passed from mockery
to persecution. Within individual families the penetration of Islam gave rise to intimate
domestic clashes, as in the case of 'Umar who after using violence against his own sister
and brother-in-law suddenly underwent a spiritual metamorphosis and being converted
to Islam became one of the most zealous, active and influential Companions of the
Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). So far the Meccan oligarchs had
restrained themselves from violence against the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be
upon him) himself on account of the clan solidarity. The law of clan solidarity pervaded
the whole of 'Arab society and it caused the Prophet's clansmen to automatically close
their ranks in defence of him even if they did not agree with him. He was protected by
the solidarity of all the Hashimites from his kind uncle Abu Talib to his hostile uncle Abu
Lahab. In 616 A.D., the Meccan opposition decided on a boycott of the whole Hashimite
clan relying on the same law of clan solidarity. Now Abū Lahab on the pretext of other
blood-ties, dissociated himself from the Hashimites. Soon the boycott ended but another
misfortune over took the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). Abu Talib
bis beloved uncle and his pillar of support passed away. Abu Lahab now became the
acknowledged head of the clan and eventually withdrew his protection from his
nephews; Prior to this event Islam had reached out beyond Mecca with the emigration of
a group of the faithful to Abyssinia in 615. A. D. About eighty Meccan Muslims, on the
advice of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) crossed the Red Sea
and were kindly received by the Negus, the Christian monarch of Abyssinia in whose
presence Ja'far bin Abi Talib, the leader of the deputation, spoke words which reflect
Islam's consciousness of its religious, ethical and ideological superiority over other faiths.
The years between 615 and 620 were the most difficult years for the Prophet (peace and
blessings of Allah be upon him). During this time came the death of his faithful wife
Khadija (Allah be please: with her) who had stood so courageously by bis side
encouraging him and confirming him in his great Prophetic Mission. Abu Talib also died
during the same period. He although not converted to Islam had most vigilantly fulfilled
the duty of protection which the bonds of kinship had imposed upon him. The Makhzumi
leader 'Umar bin Hisham, commonly known as Abü Jahl led the Meccan opposition to
the Prophet of Islam (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). Later on the Umayyid
chief Abu Sufyān also joined hands with Abū Jahl. The persecution now grew stronger
and stronger and the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) began to search
for support outside Mecca. He made a first attempt with Ta'if, a beautiful town south-
east of Mecca which was the seat of the famous Thaqif tribe. But the arrogant Thaqif did
not pay any heed to the oncoming revolution and the Prophet (peace and blessings of
Allah be upon him) had to withdraw from Ta'if amid the jeers and stones of the street
urchins, encouraged by the chief citizens of the town.

Al- Aqaba

In 620 A.D., at the season of the yearly Pilgrimage the Prophet (peace and blessings of
Allah be upon him) made contact with a little group of men from Yathrib who heard him
gladly. They belonged to the famous tribe of Khazraj. The first seed bore fruit. At the next
year's Pilgrimage five out of the previous six returned with seven more of their fellow
citizens, among whom some belonged to Bani Aus, the other large tribal group of Medina.
Among these twelve and the Prophet of Islam (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him)
was held a secret meeting at al-'Aqaba, a mountain pass between Minā' and Mecca. These
twelve pledged on the hands of Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him)
“not to associate any other god with Allah, not to steal or commit adultery, not to kill
their children, not to make false accusations and not to disobey him in anything that was
lawful.” This was the first pledge of al-'Aqaba. The second pledge took place in the
following year. In June 622 A. D., a group of seventy five, among them two women,
arrived from Yathrib with other pilgrims to Mecca to vow allegiance to the Prophet (peace
and blessings Allah be upon him) and invite him to their city. They assembled at a
nocturnal rendezvous in the same place at al-'Aqaba. They swore to recogniz: the Prophet
(peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) and to defend him, even in arms, as they
would defend their own wives and children. It was then that the Hijra or migration to
Yathrib was decided.

The Hijra

Once the fate of Islam had been joined to that of the people of Yathrib by the pact of al-
'Aqaba, a decision was immediately taken by the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah
be upon him) to transfer himself and his small community of believers to Yathrib. So in
the course of the summer of 622 between the oath-taking at al-'Aqaba and the final
departure of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) himself, there began
the Hijra. The emigration continued secretly and gradually. The Quraish were now
alarmed. They feared that Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) would
become a great threat to them once he escaped from their midst. Immediately a plot to
assassinate him was made at a meeting of the notables of Mecca "A band of young men
belonging to different clans were to attack the Prophet (peade and blessings of Allah be
upon him) simultaneously and strike together as one man, so as to cancel out the
common-legal responsibility."”! Thus his blood would be on: all Quraish. Only Abū Bakı,
'Ali (Allah be pleased with them) and the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon
him) were now left in Mecca. Abu Bakr (Allah be pleased with him) was making
preparations for the final emigration. and the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be
upon him) was waiting for the Divine sanction. At length it came on the night appointed
for his assassination. The murderers besieged his house but the Prophet (peace and
blessings of Allah be upon him) escaped miraculously leaving in his place, his cousin,
“Ali (Allah be pleased with him) whom the conspirators noticed and did not touch.
Accompanied by his trusted friend, Abu Bakr (Allah be pleased with him), the Prophet
(peace and blessings Allah be upon him), left his native city secretly within a few days,
chased by his enemies at first, he hid himself in a cave with Abu Bakr. (Allah be pleased
with him). So by short stages and avoiding the more frequented roads they arrived in
Yathrib. The safe arrival of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him:) his
Companion in the outer suburb of Quba wa. greeted with jubilation by both Meccan
emigrants (Muhajirin) and the Medinese converts to the new faith (known as the Ansär
or Helpers). This occured on the 2nd of July, 622 A. D. So began both the official era of
Islam and the decisive period in the life of its founder. The Prophet (peace and blessi of
Allah be upon him) soon moved to settle in a new house especially built for him in the
centre of the city. After three days ‘Ali (Allah be pleased with him) also reached there. To
commemora. this historic event, the name of the city wal changed from Yathrib to
Medinat al-Nabi (th City of the Prophet) or simply Medina as it ! popularly known.
The thirteen years of humiliation, persecution and turmoil were new over. The period of
success and glory had begun. The Prophet (peace and Wessings of Allah be upon him)
was destined to remain no more à preacher only. He was also to become a political head,
a national leader and a Tesislator. The Hijra proved a turning point in the history of Islam.
The power and position of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) began
to enhance rapidly at Medina. Here he was - left undisturbed to preach his message freely
among the people who were yearning to come out of the darkness of ignorance into the
dazzling light of Islam.

CHAPTER 3
TRIUMPH AT MEDINA

The Medinese period witnessed the gradual tis of Islam and its final victory. This victory
and th establishment of the Prophet's absolute author. the vicegerent of Allah on earth
was, hoive: achieved slowly and gradually, confronted as he wa with formidable
obstacles in the way of Islam.

The Jews

The Jews formed an influential commun Medina. . They were divided into three main
tritt groups, Banū Nadir, Banū Quraiza and Banū Qainuqi In the first year at Medina the
Prophet (peace al blessings of Allah be upon him) made a solemn tree with these Jewish
tribes which ensured them egy rights of citizenship and complete religious freedoy The
Jews were not satisfied with that. They wany the political domination which their script
promised them. When they realized that they com not use the Prophet (peace and
blessings of Allah upon him) for their own ends they tried to sabotage his mission and
mislead his followers in which they were aided by some hypocrites (Munafiqun) who
were only outwardly professing Islam but had a concealed grudge against the Prophet
(peace and blessings of Allah bu upon him). In the early Medinite Chapters of the Holy
Qur'ân these Jews and the hypocrites are frequently mentioned. Till then the Qibla (the
place towards which the Muslims turn their faces in prayer) had been Jerusalem. The
Jews fancied that the choice of Jerusalem implied a leaning towards Judaism and that the
Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) stood in need of their guidance.
Consequently, the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) received a Divine
Command to change the Qibla from Jerusalem to the Ka'ba at Месса.
The Prophet's prime concern as the head of the new state was to establish an Islamic social
order and to formulate the constitution of the theocratic polity. But the Quraish of Mecca
were not happy with the fact that Islam was settling down on the soil of Medina. The
Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) was now compelled to lead several
small expeditions to wean other tribes no Quraish. It is noteworthy that in these
expeditions only the emigrants from Mecca were enlisted and pot the Ansär of Medina.

The Battle Of Badr

It was at this time that a rumour went round in Mecca that a caravan of merchants led by
Abū Sufyan was attacked by the Muslims while it was returning from Syria. The Quraish
promptly despatched an army under the command of Abu Jahl to invade Medina as a
retaliatory measure. When Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon
him) was apprised of this development, he decided to capturé Abu Sufyan's caravan on
its way home to Mecca. The Muslims came out of Medina and started advancing towards
Badr, a few miles from Medina. Abu Sufyan, on hearing that the Muslims were near the
water of Badr, turned back to the coast-line. Thereupon the Muslim army met the army
of Quraish by the water of Badr. Before the battle started, the Prophet (peace and
blessings of Allah be upon him) prayed to Allah for help against the enemy. The strength
of the formidable enemy outnumbered that of the Muslims by three times. The Muslims
were only 313 against 1000 well-equipped soldiers of the Quraish. Shaiba, 'Utba and
Walid, three stalwarts from the Quraish, challenged the Muslims and it was accepted by
the Muslim Generals : 'Obaida, Hamza and 'Ali (Allah be pleased with them all), The
Quraish fought gallantly but they were over-powered. The Generals were killed and the
rest of the army beat a retreat. They were chased, slain
and imprisoned. The number of the slain was 70 and Shout the same number were taken
prisoners." ADU Tahi the Commander of the Quraish and the blood thirsty enemy of the
Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) was killed in this battle. The Muslims
lost only 14 soldiers of whom 6 were emigrants and 8 Anşār. The prisoners of war were
treated with kindness and magnanimity.

The battle of Badr gave a new fillip to the Islamic movement and enhanced the prestige
of its followers. Had the Muslims not triumphed in this battle, Islam might have been
wiped out once for all. It was a “Divine Help" (Nasrmin Allah), a victory from Allah. The
Holy Qur'an says:
"'It was not you who slew them at Badr, but Allah slew them. You did not throw
dust against them, but Allah threw it."
(8:17)
In the same year the Prophet's daughter Fatima (Allah be pleased with her) was married
to 'Ali (Allah be pleased with him), the son of Abu Talib. All that 'Ali (Allah be pleased
with him) could offer by way of Mehr was his gauntlet and all that the Prophet (peace
and blessings of Allah be upon him) could give his daughter as dowry consisted of a
mattress, a water bag, two grindstones and two earthen pitchers.

The Battle Of Uhud

The fury of the Quraish at their defeat at Badr knew no bounds. Their hostility was
surcharged and they started making preparations for a decisive show down with the
Muslims. The tribes of Kinana and Tihama also joined hands with them. The strength of
the united enemy numbered 3000, it was a well equipped army under the command of
their unchallenged leader Abü Sufyan.

The Meccan army marched towards the citadel of Islam, and occupied a vantage point
near the mount of Uhud, at a short distance from Medina. The Prophet (peace and
blessings of Allah be upon him) came out of his city with a thousand men which
amounted to one-third of the Meccan force. His first aim was merely to defend Medina,
which 'Abdullah ibn 'Ubayy, the leader of the hypocrites (Munafiqun) strongly
supported. But the gallant Muslim soldiers who had fought at Badr and believed in the
Divine Help, did not approve of the plan. The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be
upon him) ultimately decided to come out of the city. 'Abdullah ibn 'Ubayy got offended
about this change and decided to withdraw with his followers, who formed one-fourth
of the l edinite force. Now the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). was
left with only 700 men. The odds were heavy against the Muslims. He took up a position
below the hill and posted 50 archers at a pass on the height of the hill to guard the
Muslims against enemy cavalry. After individual combats began a general encounter,
'Ali, Hamza and Abū Dajna (Allah be pleased with them) gave heroic accounts of their
valour. The Quraish were losing ground as tbey were falling back leaving their dead
behind. Thinking that the fight was over, the 50 archers who were guarding the pass, left
their posts to collect the booty, defying the order of the Prophet (peace and blessings of
Allah be upon him). Khalid bin Walid, the veteran General of the Meccans, was waiting
for such an opportunity, and he launched a furious attack from the rear. The Muslims
were taken aback in total surprise. In the general confusion that ensued, their ranks were
completely disorganized. The Meccans launched a fresh onslanght in which the Prophet
(peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) himself was wounded and a pro arose that
he was killed. This threw the Muslims into utter disrnay. Umar (Allah be pleased with
him) threw away his sword saying it was no use fighting when the Prophet (peace and
blessings of Allah be upon him) was no more. Suddenly Ka'b ibn Malik spotted the
wounded Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) and shouted at the top of
his voice that he was still alive. This was enough to bring the scattered and disheartened
Muslim soldiers rallying round the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him).
Abu Bakr, 'Ali, Talha, Zubair and Ziyäd (Allah be pleased with them) gathered round the
wounded Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) to protect his life. Umm
'Amara, a brave lady stood firm along with other stalwarts shielding the Prophet (peace
and blessings of Allah be upon him) against the shower of arrows. Finally the bulk of the
Muslim troop reached the place where the Prophet's life was in danger. After a furious
fight they managed to retreat to a secure place on the hill-side.

The Meccan forces had turned the tables on the Muslims even though they had to pay a
heavy price for it. They were too exhausted to accomplish this victory to the end either
by attacking Medina or by driving the Muslims from the mountain peak. They satiated
their desire for vengeance by committing ghastly brutalities upon the slain and the
wounded, cutting off their ears and noses and mutilating their bodies. The gallant Hamza
(Allah be pleased with him) was amongst the slain. His heart was torn out and chewed
by Hind, wife of Abu Sufyan. The defeat which the Muslims suffered on Mount Uhud
lowered their prestige in the eyes of the 'Arab tribes and the Jews of Medina. However it
did not totally demoralize the rank and file of Muslim soldiers. On the contrary, they
started strengthening their position. The Quraish had realized that they could Dot
annihilate the Muslims all by themselves. So they started instigating other tribes to join
hands with them. The influence of the Quraish extended far and wide and practically all
the 'Arabian tribes came in their contact at the time of the annual pilgrimage to Mecca.
The Jews were also constantly instigating these tribes against the Muslims. The Muslim
defeat at Uhud, moreover, had emboldened the nomadic tribes who were inimical to
Islam on account of their polytheistic practices. They attacked and murdered the
Prophet's followers when they went out of Medina in small bands. These tribes were not
only repeatedly attacking the Muslims, but also employing treacherous methods to sow
the seeds of discord among the Muslims. In 626 A.D., the chieftain of Banu Kalb
approached the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) and requested him
to send some Muslim preachers to his tribe. The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be
upon him) immediately despatched 70 pious Companions to Banu Kalb, but no sooner
had they reached the well of Mauna, than all of them were treacherously put to death.
Khubaib, one of the envoys of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him)
was captured by a nomadic tribe and sold to the Quraish who publicly tortured him to
death in Mecca.

The Jewish Conspiracy

The Jews were a prosperous people and money lending at exorbitant rates of interest was
their main profession. The expansion of Islam and its growing influence was a threat to
their economic preponder ance. Expediency had led them to enter into a pact with the
Muslims but soon they started conspiring and collaborating against Islam. They also
started distorting the Qur'ānic verses and mocking and jeering at the believers. They tried
to revive the rist between the major tribes of Medina, Bani Aus and Bani Khazraj. Some
Jews would accept Islam one day and renounce it the next in order to show that there
was nothing in Islam. They conspired with the hyprocrites and sent envoys to the enemies
of Islam. Ka'b bin Ashraf, a Jewish chieftain and a renowned poet even plotted to
assassinate the Prophet (peace. and blessings of Allah be upon him), but he could not
succeed in his attempt. Banu Nadir, a Jewish tribe very hostile to the Prophet (peace and
blessings of Allah be upon him), refused to renew the charic of alliance and secretly
prepared for a show-down.

The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) was now forced to take punitive
action against them. They were besieged in their strong towers anu fortresses and after.
eleven days of siege the Banu Nadir had to surrender. They were exiled from Medina and
were allowed to take away all their movables except their arms and weapons.

The War Of The Trench

In the fifth year of the Hijra, the Meccans made a big effort to annihilate Islam once for
all. The opportunity came in the spring of 627 A. D. The Meccans who were still under
the command of Abū Sufyan, attacked Medina with a mighty force. This time there was
a great alliance and confederation of the enemies of Islam (al-Ahzāb), the confederates,
as the Holy Qur'an calls them. Numerous contingents from various Bedouin tribes,
including the famous Ghatafan, gathered around Mecca. From the beginn ing the
Bedouins had been mere spectators of the conflict between Mecca and Medina, but as
deepened they began to be involved another; joining either the cause of Islam or that of
its enemies. It was then that a massive army of both Meccans and their allies, about
10,000 strong, attacked the city of the Prophet (peace Allah be upon him). The Muslims
could muster only 3000 men to face this army and save Islam from total annihilation. The
Prophet (peace and blessings of Allāh be upon him), with the advice of his companion
Salmãn, the Persian, ordered a deep trench to be dug in front of the city and himself
supervised the work of digging. The army of the confederates had to halt before the
trench. It was. a novel strategy in 'Arab warfare. It seemed impassable for the Meccan
cavalry which was the main strength of the Quraish. They camped in front of the ditch
and began attacking its defenders with arrows. With a few weeks of ineffective blockade
and with a few skirmishes on the part of the archers the Muslim army stood adamant and
solid like a rock. The will or capacity to mount an effective attack on the part of the
Quraish and their allies, in spite of the great concentration of their forces, was weakened
due to the delay in mounting the offensive, caused by the trench. They were now getting
restive. Then blew an awful wind, from the sea, for three days and nights. The wind was
so dreadful that “not a tent could be kept standing, not a fire lighted, not a pot boiled."
The confederates were in utter disarray. Their horses were perishing and their provision
were nearing exhaustion.

At length, one night, the leader of the Quraish realized that the suffering was no longer
bearable and so he gave orders to retreat. When their chief ally the Ghatafān woke up the
next morning they found had not come to fight. The first messenger to the Quraish was
ill-treated and his camel hamstrung. The Quraish on their side sent an envoy was
arrogant and spoke in threatening terms. Another of their emissaries was too informal
and casual and had to be reminded sternly of being respectful to the Prophet (peace and
blessings of Allah be upon him). It was he who, on his return to the city, said, “I have
seen Caesars and Chosroes in their pomp, but never have I seen a man honoured as
Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) is honoured by his
Companions.”

Finally 'Uthmän (Allah be pleased with him) was sent to persuade the Quraish to enter
into a treaty with the Muslims. While the Muslims were awaiting his return, news came
that he had been killed. It was then that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon
him) sitting under a tree took an oath from all his Companions that they would stand by
him to the last. This pledge known as Bai'at dr Ridwān is referred to in the Holy Qur'an
in the following words :
"Lo! those who swear allegiance unto (Muhammad) swear allegiance to Allāh. The
hand of Allāh is above their hands." (48: 10)

However, it was later learnt that the news of oman's death was not correct. After
prolonged negotiations a treaty was ultimately signed with the Quraish at Hudaibiya on
the following terms:

(1) That the Muslims should return to Medina that year without performing the
pilgrimage ("Umra).
(2) That they could return the next year with the Meccans undertaking to vacate the city
for three days to allow them to make the pilgrimage.
(3) That the Meccan fugitives to Medina were, in future to be sent back to Mecca by the
Muslims but the Muslim fugitives to Mecca would not be repatriated.
(4) That both the parties were to be free to contract alliances with any tribes or individuals
they might wish.
(5) That the treaty would remain in force for ten years,

There was a feeling of disappointment in the Muslim camp for accepting these terims.
Outwardly it appeared to be an unequal treaty with humiliating terms. They asked one
another: “Where is the victory that we were promised?" 'Umar (Allah be pleased with
him) was very much perturbed and so were many others. They asked the Prophet (peace
and blessings of Allah be upon him) anguishing questions and !! took all his authority
and prestige to restrain the discontent and to lead them back, with seemingly nothing
accomplished to Medina.
On their way back freedom to practice their own faith. In return for the protection
guaranteed they we. e required to pay a tax equivalent to half the produce of their hands.!!
According to the terms of the treaty of Hudaibiya the Muslims could visit Mecca a year
after the signing of the treaty. In March 629 A.D., the Prophet (peace and blessings of
Allah be upon him) accompanied by about 2000 Muslims proceeded to Mecca to perform
the Pilgrimage. The Quraish abided by the terms, left their houses and the Prophet (peace
and blessings of Allah be upon him) entered his native Mecca unopposed. The Meccans
watched the Muslims perform their sacred rituals from the surrounding heights. At the
end of the stipulated three days the Muslims withdrew and the Meccans reoccupied the
city.

The Battle Of Muta

In 630, in the eighth year of the Hijra, the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon
him) heard that the Byzantine Emperor was gathering a a force on the Syrian borders to
destroy Islam. The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) immediately
despatched 3000 men under the command of Laid ibn Haritha, his freedman and adopted
son, to meet the challenge. · The Muslims were far out numbered by the Syrian troops.
They gave a heroic account of their valour but the disparity in numbers was too great.
When their Commander Zaid was killed, the command was taken over by Ja'far bin Țalib
and after I ‘far's death, the veteran Khalid bin Walid assumed the command (Khalid
whose strategy was chiefly responsible for the set-back which the Muslims had received
in the battle of Uhud, had come to the fold of Islam soon after the treaty of Hudaibiya).
Khalid, after checking the Syrian onslaught, managed to preserve a remnant and returned
with them to Medina.

The Conquest of Mecca

In the same year, in the holy month of Ramadan, Banu Khuda'a, an ally of the Muslims
was attacked by Banu Bakr, another tribe which had made an alliance with the Quraish.
The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) sent an emissary to the Quraish
with three alternatives; payment of indemnity to Banu Khuda'a, breaking the alliance
with Banu Bakr or abrogation of the treaty of Hudaibiya.' The Quraish were now afraid
because of what they had done. Abū Sufyan, was still reluctant. Consequently the
Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) marched with ten thousand men on
the 10th of Ramadan and camped at a short distance from Mecca. Now Abü Sufyan came
out with a few scouts to ascertain the real strength of the Muslims. He was overawed,
and pleaded with the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) for the renewal
of the treaty and the prolongation of its terms but in vain. The Muslim army marched
into Mecca. The cavalry of the Quraish put up a show of defence before the city but they
were overpowered without any bloodshed and the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah
be upon him) entered his native city unopposed. “The city which had scoffed and jeered
at his Prophetic Mission, which had ruthlessly persecuted him and his disciples and
which had ultimately driven him away, now lay at his feet."1 At this hour of triumph he
could have taken the culprits to task but he had come as a "blessing unto mankind" and
not as an avenger. He proclaimed a general amnesty. Only a few known criminals were
proscribed and most of the others were ultimately forgiven. “Through all the annals of
conquest there has been no triumphant entry like this one.” Never before a conquest was
made without bloodshed and never before a general amnesty was granted like this. This
was not the triumphant entry of an emperor or a despot; it was the arrival of a Prophet
of Allah and a saviour of mankind. The Meccans had never expected such'a
magnanimous treatment from one who was the constant target of their inhuman
persecution. In relief and surprise, the entire population of Mecca hastened to swear
allegiance to Islam. The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) then entered
the Ka'ba and ordered all the idols which were in the sanctuary to be destroyed, reciting
the eternal verses from the Holy Qur'ân :
“Truth has come and falsehood has vanished away; indeed falsehood was bound
to vanish.” (17:81)

Having dwelt upon equality and brotherhood of mankind and the Oneness and
Omnipotence of Allah, the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) most
magnanimously declared: "I shall speak to you as Joseph spoke unto his brothers."??
Though Mecca lay conquered not a single house was plundered, nor any woman
molested. The emigrants were even asked to forego their houses and properties which on
their migration to Medina, had been occupied by the Meccans. The entire city of Mecca
overnight came to the fold of Islam. This was the fulfilment of the promise Allah had
made to the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) at the time of Hudaibiya.
Mecca having submitted to Islam, disciples were sent out to all the neighbouring Bedouin
tribes to call them to the Faith. The response was certainly overwhelming.

The Battle of Hunain

In the same year there was an angry gathering of Pagan tribes who planned to recapture
the Ka'ba and resume therein their polytheistic rites and rituals. The tribes of Thaqif and
Hawazin joining hands together collected a big force and marched upon the Muslims.
The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) led an army of 12,000 men
against them. A pitched battle was fought at Hunain in a deep revine, about ten miles
from Mecca. The enemy took the Muslims almost by surprise, attacking them in the early
hours of dawn. The Muslims, in the beginning, were almost overpowered and put to
fight. It was with difficulty that they rallied round the Prophet (peace and blessings of
Allah be upon him) again. But the victory, when it came, was complete and the enemy
was totally routed. Banu Thaqif sought refuge in their city of Ta'if but there also they
could not escape. Ta'if was besieged and finally conquered. Then the Prophet (peace and
blessings of Allah be upon him) appointed a governor at Mecca and himself returned to
Medina. The joy of the Anşār knew no bounds at the return of the Prophet (peace and
blessings of Allah be upon him) to Medina. They were afraid that now the Prophet (peace
and blessings of Allah be upon him) had regained his native city, he might forsake them
and make Mecca the capital. He proclaimed to them :
"I shall never abandon you. If all mankind went one way and the Anşār another,
verily I would join the Anşār.”
The Tabuk Expedition

The Roman Emperor Herculeus was very inuch perturbed by the indecisive battle at
Müla and being apprehensive of the growth and expansion of the Islamic
Commonwealth, he directed his protectorates to collect a huge force to meet the challenge
posed by Islam to Christian prepoderance. When the news of this military build-up
reached Medina, it caused great anxiety in the Muslim camp. To meet this eventuality,
the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) collected a force of 30,000
volunteers of whom 10,000 were horsemen. The long distance, the hot season and the
severe famine that had struck 'Arabia made a number of people excuse themselves and
many more to stay behind without any excuse. The Holy Qur'ān thereupon severely
denounced these defaulters:

O ye who believe! What aileth you that when it is said unto you: Go forth in the
way of Allah, ye are bowed down to the ground with heaviness. Take ye pleasure
in the life of the world rather than in the Hereafter? (9:38)

However the campaign ended peacefully. This was the first occasion when an appeal for
public donations was made. “Umar (Allah be pleased with him) donated half his wealth
while Abu Bakr (Allah be pleased with him) contributed every single penny he
possessed. Leaving ‘Ali (Allah be pleased with him) at Medina to look after the city in his
absence, the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) led his army to Tabük,
a place situated midway between Medina and Damascus. There they learned that enemy
had not yet gathered. The Muslim army returned to Medina after a stay of twenty-four
days at Tabūk.

The Year Of Deputations

The ninth year of the Hijra is called the year of deputations, because a large number of
deputations from all parts of 'Arabia came to Medina to pay homage to the Prophet (peace
and blessings of Allah be upon him) and embrace Islam. Among these deputations were
the people of Ta'if who had once mockingly driven away the Prophet (peace and
blessings of Allah be upon him) from their town.

Tcachers were sent to different provinces to preach the message of Islam. In the same year
'Ali (Allah be pleased with him) brought the tribe of Țay to obedience. ‘Adi bin Hārim,
the chief of the tribe fled but his sister Susana was taken prisoner. Having due regard for
the proverbial generosity of her father Hātim, the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah
be upon him) set her free with all the other captives. As a result, the whole tribe of Tay
including ‘Adi accepted Islam.
Towards the end of this year an order was issued prohibiting non-believers from entering
the Ka'ba. It is called the Declaration of Immunity. The Prophet (peace and blessings of
Allah be upon him) sent a copy of it through a messenger to Abu Bakr (Allah be pleased
with him), leader of the Pilgrimage with the instruction that 'Ali (Allah be pleased with
him) was to read it out to the public in Mecca. The Proclamation marks the end of idol-
worship in ‘Arabia.

Remarkable Achievements

The number of expeditions which the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him)
led himself during the last ten years of his life after his emigration from Mecca to Medina
was twenty-seven. The number of campaigns which he planned and despatched under
the command of others was thirty eight. After the establishment of the Islamic
Commonwealth with its capital at Medina, the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be
upon him) worked as the spiritual and temporal head of the Islamic State. He personally:
supervised and controlled every minute detail of organization and governmental
administration. He was the supreme judge and arbitrator and settled all disputes and
controversies. Unlike the · earthly monarchs he was accessible to all and sundry and ruled
without an authoritarian air like sa friend, philosopher and guide. The ten years of his
glorious leadership brought about a complete trans formation in the 'Arabian society. He
banished idolatry from the 'Arabian soil once and for all, raised women from the status
of chattels to complete equality with their men folk, eradicated the immorality,
licenciousness and corruption that was eating into the vitals of 'Arabian society, taught
people to love their faith and be sincere, honest and God-fearing in all their dealings,
metamorphosed the perpetually warring 'Arab tribes, both socially and ideologically and
united them, for the first time in history to be a great, advanced and progressive nation -
which was to illumine the Dark Ages and bring the groping humanity from darkness
unto light. The ‘Arabs, who had been for centuries content with ignorance were elevated
to a position from where they established the greatest civilization in human history and
became the torch-bearers of knowledge, science and spiritual enlightenment. The Prophet
of Islam (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), again for the first time in human
history, made universal human brotherhood an accomplished and living reality.

The Farewell Pilgrimage

In the tenth year of the Hijra, the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him)
sensed that his end was approaching and that his mission was now complete: Therefore,
he went to Mecca as a pilgrim for the last time, which is called the Farewell Pilgrimage.
He set out from Medina on the 23rd of February, 632 A.D., with a large number of
followers. On reaching Mecca he performed the rites of the Pilgrimage and then climbing
the mount of "Arafat he addressed the great multitude assembled for the Hajj ::
 "O people listen to my words: for I do not know whether I shall be in your midst
after this year ......O people listen to my words and remember that all Muslims are
brothers unto one onother.!!!
He reminded them of the duties Islam enjoined on them and that one day they would
have to meet their Lord who would judge each one of them according to his actions. The
khutba (Sermon) concluded with the divine injunction revealed to him on this occasion:

“This day I have perfected for you your faith and completed my blessings upon
you, and have agreed to declare Islam your
religion."

At the end of the khuiba he asked the mammoth

crowd:

Have I not conveyed the Message ?” The great multitude answered: “O Allah!
Yes!” The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) exclaimed “O Allah
be Thou witness."

The Prophet's Illness and Death

Soon after the return from Mecca the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him)
fell ill. The news of his illness caused great anxiety and anguish all over 'Arabia,
particularly ať Mecca, Medina and Ta'if. On the last day of his earthly, life he came out
from his room beside the mosque and joined the public prayers which Abü Bakr"(Allah
be pleased with him) had been leading since his illness. There was great rejoicing among
the people who thought that he had recovered from his illness. Soon after the rumour
went round that he was no more. 'Umar (Allah be pleased wish him) was emotionally
upset about the awful news of his Master's departure from this world. He publicly
threatened those who spread the rumour with dire punishment. Thereupon Abu Bakr
(Allah be pleased with him) came into the mosque and heard "Umar's outbursts. Then he
went to the chamber of his daughter, ‘A’isha (Allah be pleased with her), where the
Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) breathed his last. Having ascertained
the fact after a while that the great leader had passed away, he wept and kissed the
forehead of his beloved friend. He then hurriedly came back to the mosque where the
people were still seized by 'Umar's fits of emotion. He went up to 'Umar (Allah be pleased
with him) and tried to stop him by whispering into his ear. When he found that 'Umar
(Allah be pleased with him) was paying him no heed he mustered up all his strength and
shouted at the top of his voice. The people, hearing his voice, left 'Umar (Allah be pleased
with him) and gathered round him. He first praised Allah and then uttered the
memorable words which will remain unsurpassed in the annals of human history:
 “O people if you worshipped Muhammad, know that Muhammad is dead, and if
you worship Allah, know that He is alive; He shall never die."

The Prophet's Ideal Character

Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) was born in the full
blaze of history. Unlike other great figures of human history, his personality is not
shrouded in mystery. History provides an authentic account of his life and career.
Especially after his emigration to Medina he comes into the dazzling limelight and
becomes the focus of attention, reverence and admiration. His life was a very dynamic
one, full of thrilling events. It caused an upheaval and a drastic transformation in the
social, economic, political and religious life of a divided nation. The whole span of his
dynamic career has been most accurately recorded with the minutest details and with the
utmost authenticity:
"Prophet Muhammad was of a height a little above the average. He was of sturdy
build with long muscular limbs and tapering fingers. The hair of his head was long
and thick with some waves in them. His forehead was large and prominent, his
eyelashes were long and thick, his nose was sloping, his mouth was somewhat
large and his teeth were well-set. His cheeks were spare and he had a pleasant
smile. His eyes were large and black with a touch of brown. He was fair of
complexion and was altogether handsome.''
He advised the people to lead a simple life and himself practised great austerity. Even
after he became the unchallenged Master of 'Arabia he lived a very simple and austere
life. His wife ‘A’isha (Allah be pleased with her) reports that there was hardly a day in
his life when he had two square meals. By nature he was gentle and kind-hearted, always
inclined to be gracious in forgiving the faults of others. Politeness and courtesy,
compassion and tenderness, simplicity and humility, truthfulness and piety, honesty and
sincerity were his prime virtues. He had charming manners which won the hearts of his
followers. He was always the first to greet others. He did not like people to rise in his
respect. He avoided sitting at a prominent place in a gathering soʻmuch so that people
coming in had difficulty in spotting and identifying him. He claimed no prerogatives and
disliked people to address him with great titles. He used to visit the poorest of ailing
persons and exhorted all Muslims to do so. 'A'isha (Allah be pleased with her) reports:
"He always joined in household work and at times would mend his shoes, darn his
clothes and sweep the floor. He would milk and feed his animals and do the household
shopping.” He was very fond of children and used to get into the spirit of childlike games
in their company. He would have fun with the children who had come back from
Abyssinia and would try to Speak in Abyssinian with them. He used to entertain his
guests generously. He was fond of riding and would occasionally participate in races.
Often camel races were organized, and once when his fleet-footed camel was defeated in
a race, he said: Allah has a right to pull down anything which raises its neck. He was
always unruffled with the rude and uncouth behaviour of the rustic Bedouins. He had
forbidden his companions to tell him about anyone's weaknesses and used to say: "I wish
that when I leave this world I should go away with a good opinion of everyone."

Remembrance of Allah was his contant practice. According to “Ã'isha (Allah be pleased
with her): “Every time and every moment he was busy in the remembrance of Allah."
Complete faith and trust in Allah was the dominant feature of his character. However
great the danger that engulfed him, he never lost hope and never allowed himself to be
unduly agitated. His faith in Allah and his mission was so impregnable that when Abu
Talib begged him to renounce his mission, he calmly replied : “O my uncle, if they placed
the sun on my right hand and the moon on my left, to force me to renounce my work, I
would not desist from doing it until Allah made His cause manifest, or I perished in the
attempt." He had a keen sense of gratitude to his Creator, for His bounties and favours.
Whenever he received good news, he bowed to Allāh in gratitude. He was always
steadfast and patient in all his agonies and ecstacies, triumphs and failures, trials and
moments of peace. He was a great champion of the cause of justice and as a supreme
judge and arbiter he never deviated from the path of justice. He was very sociable, candid
and unassuming and mixed with everyone on equal terms. He ate with servants, slaves
and the poorest on the same sheet, refused all privileges and worked as an ordinary
labourer when the occasion demanded. He never retaliated against anyone for any wrong
done to his person. His faithful servant Anas states that he was not scolded or chided
even once, by the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) throughout his
lifetime. He was oft-forgiving and the best example of his clemency is the general
amnesty given to the Quraish at the fall of Mecca. He did not take revenge from his blood-
thirsty enemies when no one could prevent him from doing so. He even forgave the Jews
who had attempted to poison him at Khybar, and Hind who had chewed the liver of his
beloved uncle Hamza. He laid great emphasis on fulfilling pledges, contracts and
promises and was extremely particular about it. He had a great love for the poor.
**Poverty is my pride", he once declared. He advised his followers to give the labourer
his wages before his perspiration drie' up.
"He is not a perfect Muslim who eats his fill and lets his neighbour go hungry”, he
said in a public speech.'

Such was the sparkling and flawless character of the founder of Islam (peace and
blessings of Allah be upon him).

His Greatness

“Ah no: this deep-hearted Son of the Wilderness, with his beaming black eyes and open
social deep soul, had other thoughts in him than ambition. A silent great soul, he was one
of those who cannot but be in eamest; whom Nature herself has appointed to be sincere.
While others walk in formulae and hearsays, this man could not screen himself in
formulae; he was alone with his own soul and the reality of things. To the ‘Arab Nation
it was a birth from darkness into light, 'Arabia first became alive by means of it. A poor
shepherd people, roaming unnoticed in its deserts since the creation of the world : a Hero-
Prophet-was sent down to them with a word they could believe : see, the unnoticed
becomes world-notable, the small has grown world great; within one century afterwards,
'Arabia is at Grenada on this hand, at Delhi on that; glancing in Valour and splendour
and the light of genius, 'Arabia shines through long ages over a great section of the
world."

“Philosopher, orator, apostle, legislator, warrior. conqueror of ideas, restorer of rational

dogmas of a cult without images; the founder of twenty terrestrial empires and of one
spiritual empire, that is Muhammad. As regards all standards by which human greatness
may be measured, we may well ask, is there any man greater than he?”

"If a man like Muhammad 'were to assume the dictatorship of the modern world he
would solve its problems in a way that would bring it much needed peace and
happiness.”

“Muhammad not only created a religion, the latest of the four great historic religions of
the world, the other three being Judaism, Buddhism and Christianity, he also created a
force which shaped a new human society, a new civilization and a great political order.
From the purely secular view alone, he remains unsurpassed by any other personality in
the range and power of his influence on history and fellow-men. No single individual has
made history in his way. Not even Napoleon as a man of action, conqueror and political
figure brought about changes which were so far-reaching and so lasting."

PART II
THE CALIPHATE

CHAPTER 4
ABU BAKR (Allah be pleased with him)
(632 A.D.-634 A.D.)

The vanguard of Islamic revolution and the supporter in-arm of the Prophet (peace and
blessings of Allah be upon him), Abu Bakr (Allah be pleased with him) occupies a unique
place in the history of Islam. His services and sacrifices for the sublime cause and his
profound attachment and loyalty to its forerunner have no precedent in the annals of the
Faith. In fact the story of Islam begins with the conversion of Abu Bakr (Allah be pleased
with him). He was the first among the Meccan oligarchs to respond to the call of
Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). It was not a result of incessant
persuation or a gesture of courtesy to an age-old friend. The response was spontaneous,
a call from within, an urge of the conscience, for Abu Bakr (Allah be pleased with him)
knew that Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) could not but be true;
and when Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) told him that he had
overnight become the 'Messenger of Allah', Abu Bakr (Allah be plessed with him) at önce
believed in his Message, without the slightest hesitation. What a conviction it was! What
an unflinching faith and confidence in the honesty bf al-Amin.

Again, on the occasion of the Prophet's miraculous journey to the seventh heaven through
the celestial spheres (al-Mi'raj) it was he who first confirmed the reality of this astounding
and perplexing event, that too at a time when the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah
be upon him) himself had feared that none would believe him. It was this impregnable
faith in the integrity and trustworthiness of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be
upon him) and in his Divine Mission, that earned him the respectful epithet of al-Siddiq,
the Confirmer.

After having joined the great movement Abu Bakr (Allah be pleased with him) placed
his life, property and honour-in fact all that he possessed-at the disposal of his friend and
mentor. During the ensuing 23 years when the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be
upon him) went against the forces of ignorance, intransigence and obscurantism, there
was not a single important event in which Abü Bakr (Allah be pleased with him) did not
whole heartedly participate. His lone companion in the 'secret journey to Medina, his
deputy to steer the caravan of pilgrims to Mecca and his substitute for leading the public
prayers during the last few days of his life, Abu Bakr (Allah be pleased with him) was
destined to become the Prophet's successor when he was no more in this world.

Abu Bakr's Election

After the final announcement of the Prophet's death, Abu Bakr and 'Umar (Allah be
pleased with them) were still in the mosque when someone. from among the Medinites
brought the news that the Anşår had assembled to discuss the succession of the Prophet
(peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). Abu Bakr, 'Umar and Abu Ubaida (Allah be
pleased with them) rushed to the council hail. They found, on their arrival, that Sa'd bin
Ubåda had just finished his speech and the Anşår of Medina had agreed to elect , him the
Prophet's successor. Then the discussion started on the priority and superiority between
the two groups, the Quraish emigrants from Mecca and the "Helpers"' of Mediną. It was
suggested by the Ansar as a compromise that instead of one there could be elected two
successors, one from among themselves and the other from the Quraish. This would have
meant an immediate split in the Islamic community. After much persuation the Ansār
came round to Abu Bakr's nomination as the Caliph of Islam and thereafter came
forward, group by group, to pledge their fealty at the hands of the chosen Caliph. It was
thus due to the foresight and sagacity of both Abu Bakr and 'Umar (Allah be pleased with
them) that a major split was averted during the infancy of the Islamic Commonwealth.
After the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) was laid to rest, the pledge-
giving ceremony (Bai'at) started. When everyone pledged his fealty, Abu Bakr (Allah be
pleased with him) delivered his historic inaugural address to the congre gation
assembled there:
"O people, I swear by Allah that I never desired the leadership either by day or by
night, nor did I have an inclination towards it.....In fact a big task has been assigned
to me which is beyond my power to fulfil except with the help of the Almighty
Allah. Now undoubtedly I have been elected your Amir although I am not better
than you. Support me if I am right; correct me if I go wrong. Obey. me as long as I
obey Allah; obey me not when I disobey Him and His Prophet.”

Usama's Expedition

Abu Bakr's first act on his accession to the Caliphate was the despatching of an army
under the command of Usāmā to the Syrian borders. In fact, the orders for this expedition
had already been given by the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him)
himself when he fell ill. This great province of the Byzantine Empire had been a constant
source of trouble to the Muslims living in the eastern borders of 'Arabia, and it was to
check this barassment that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) had
desired to send an expedition. Usāmā was the son of Zaid, the Prophet's freedman and
adopted son who had died in the Mūta expedition. Usåmā was in fact ready to proceed
when the Prophet's illness took a serious turp. Subsequently the departure was
postponed. Abu Bakr (Allah be pleased with him), immediately after taking over the reins
of government, ordered Usāmā to proceed with the delayed expedition. The moment,
however, was very critical. The whole Arabian peninsula was in a state of turmoil.
Towards the end of the Prophet's life, apostasy had started spreading and false prophets
such as Musailima, Tulaiha and Aswad had arisen in different parts of 'Arabia and
Yemen. The news of the Prophet's death spread like wild fire and many tribes under the
influence of these imposters rose 10 revolt against Medina. To send an expedtion, at this
critical juncture, to the Syrian border was hardly advisable. The Companions approached
the Caliph requesting him to withdraw his orders but Abu Bakr (Allah be pleased with
him) remained adamant: “Who am I to withhold the army that the Prophet of Allah had
himself despatched?” was his answer.

Ultimately the Muslim army set out and the Caliph walked along on foot to see it
off. Addressing the soldiers he said ::

“Do not commit misappropriation or fraud, nor be guilty of disobedience to the

Commander. Mutilate not the dead and do not kill old men, women or children.
Injure not the date-palm, nor burn it with fire, and cut not down the tree wherein
is the fruit for men and animals. Slaughter not the sheep or cows or camels except
for the purpose of food.”
The army marched along and in about forty days it accomplished the task assigned to it
by the Prophet .(peace and blessings of Allah be upon him).

Apostasy And The Rise of False Prophets

In 631 A.D., the payment of the poor-tax (Zakāt) became obligatory and the Prophet
(peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) appointed officers for its collection in various
parts of the country. Soon after the Prophet's death the tribes who had embraced Islam
only recently were thrown into a state of confusion and chaos. With the news of his
demise, disorder and lawlessness began hovering over Yemen and other parts of 'Arabia.
The Muslim tax-collectors and officers were expelled and the authority of the infidels was
reinstated. The areas that were affected most by this wave of apostasy were Yemen and
the districts surrounding Medina, primarily because the people here were all recent
converts to Islam. Unlettered and uncouth as these Bedouins were, it was no easy task to
convert them to utmost conviction. There were many others whose only contention was
that no tax should be levied on them. Born in freedom, these dwellers of the desert were
strangers to the notion of a city-state with a centralized authority. Taking advantage of
the chaotic situation they refused to pay the Zakāt. Abu Bakr (Allah be pleased with him)
was unyielding on this point. Communali unity and solidarity was his utmost concern
and refusal to pay the Zakāt was bound to there the whole Islamic edifice. Abu Bakr
(Allah be Meased with him) issued an ultimatum to all such tribes who had refused the
payment of Zakāt, stating that war would be declared on them unless they paid the
Zakās. These rebellious groups were led and organized by four main imposters who by
declaring themselves to be prophets spear-headed the apostasy movement in their
respective regions. They were Musailima, Tulaiha, Aswad and Sajah.'

Aswad ‘Ansi

Of these false claimants to prophethood Aswad 'Ànsi was the first to rise in Yemen. He
was the chief of a tribe and a very influential man. Pretending that he was in spiritual
communication with Allah, he entered into a secret alliance with neighbouring chieftains
and rose in revolt against Islam. He invaded Najran and conquered it. Capturing San'a
the capital, he finally subjugated the entire province of Yemen. The Prophet (peace and
blessings of Allah be upon him) despatched Mu'adh ibn Jabal to quell his uprising in 632
A.D. Aswad 'Ansi was killed a day or two before the Prophet's death but the news of his
death came to Medina after Abū Bakr's proclamation to the Caliphate.

Musailima, The Liar

Of all the expeditions that Abu Bakr (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) had to
launch against the false prophets, the toughest and the most difficult was that which was
directed against Musailima who came from Yamama in Nejd and belonged to the tribe
of Banu Hanifa. He composed some incoherent sentences and declared them to be
revelations from Allah. He also pretended that he could work miracles. In a letter to the
Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) he claimed that he had been made a
co-partner with him in his Divine Mission and political power. Prophet Muhammad
(peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), in reply, declared : “Verily, the whole of this
earth belongs to Allah. He gives it to whom, He desires and as regards the Hereafter it
belongs only to the righteous." Two armies under the command of 'Ikrima and Shurahbil
bin Hasana were sent against Musailima but they were both defeated. Finally the Caliph
directed Khalid bin Walid, a veteran soldier 0 Islamic history, to meet the challenge. The
war that ensued was one of the toughest battles, according to the renowned historian
Tabari. The Muslims who were outnumbered by Musailima's 40,000 strong army were
almost defeated and compelled to beat a retreat, but Khalid with his indomitable courage
returned to the battle-field in renewed spirits, launched a severe onslaught and at length
put Musailima's troops to fight. Musailima was killed by a Negro slave called Webshi. In
all 7000 Muslims were killed in this battle, including a large number of Qur'ân Conners
(Hafiz) who had committed the Holy Quran to memory.

Tulaika

Tulaiha was the chief of the tribe of Banu Asad. Once while travelling in the desert, he
located water somewhere and calling it his miracle, declared himself to be a prophet.
After the death of Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) he
rose in open rebellion against the Muslim power. Khalid was in command in the
expedition against Tulaiha whose main support came from the tribe of Tay. Abu Bakr
(Allah be pleased with him) had also sent 'Adi bin Hātim to explain the real situation to
his tribesmen. Adi's first attempts ended in failure but subsequently he succeeded in
persuading them to reconsider the matter. Adi informed Khalid of the result of his
negotiations and finally the tribe of Tay re-embraced Islam and joined Khalid's forces.
The whole assair thus ended in a peaceful settlement without any bloodshed. Tulajha
ñow joined hands with Banū Jadila. In this battle that ensued, he was defeated by Khalid
and fled away to Syria where he re-embraced Islam.

Sajah

She was the fourth pretender to prophethood. She belonged to a tribe of central 'Arabia
which had settled in Messopotamia with the Christian tribes of Banü Taghlid. When Sajah
came to know about the chaotic conditions prevailing in the domain of Islam, she seized
the opportunity and entering into an alliance with the neighbouring Christian tribus to
march against Medina. Malik bin Nuwaira, the chieftain of Banű Tamim also joined
hands with her on the-way. She first directed herself to Yamama to crush her main rival
to prophethood, Musailima. Musailima, however, negotiated a compromise with her
which resulted in a temporary marriage between the two pretenders. After a stay of three
days with Musalima at rendezvous, she retraced her steps to her own people without
mustering up courage to fight against the Muslims. She embraced Islam during the reign
of Mu'awiya.

Along with the rebellion launched by the false prophets, the Muslim armies also had to
crush insurrections at Bahrain, Oman and Mahara. All the three campaigns proved totally
successful, and the 0175 elements in Yemen and Hadarmaut were eliminated. Thus
within a year Abū Baks Altah be pleased with him) succeeded in crushing all the forces
of disorder and anarchy in the Islamic Commonwealth.

The Byzantines and The Persians

Having suppressed the forces of rebellion and apostasy the Caliph now turned his
attention to the Byzantine and the Persian Empires which were the two formidable
enemies of Islam. The Persians had adopted an aggressive attitude by penetrating into
the territory of Islam and actively supporting the rebels. Abu Bakr's discerning eye
perceived the danger and confronted it with the quickness and courage so characteristic
of him. According to William Muir, now "the struggle widened and Islam was brought
presently face to face in mortal conflict with the two great powers of the East and the
West". The Romans were also constantly instigating the anti Islamic forces. Therefore in
the Persian and Syrian wars, Muslims were not the aggressors. All they wanted was to
fortify their own frontiers.

Muthanna's Expedition

Muthannà bin Harith had rendered much help in the suppression of the insurrection of
Bahrain. Now an expedition towards the north was undertaken to clear the territory of
the insurgents and their grand allies. This was the territory where several tribes were
smarting under the tyranny of the Persians, including Muthanna's own vibe. Conse
quently Muthannā entered into an alliance wih these tribes and raised an army of 8000
which was too small compared to the mighty forces of the Persian Empire. Therefore,
Abu Bakr (Allah be pieased with him) ordered the veteran General Khalid bin Walid to
reinforce Muthanna's army: Giving the enemy a tough time, Khalid launcher his
onslaught and marched on, along the western bank of the Euphrates upto Hira near
modern Kufa. All the territory to the west was conquered and annexed to the Islamic
Commonwealth. The Persian forces were driven to Mesopotamia. Hira capitulated and
the Christian rulers of that province entered into a treaty with the Muslims. "The basis of
the agreement is protection. If I, Khalid bin Walid. fail to give them protection then Jizya
will not be realized and if they (the people of Hira) violate the agreement by word or by
action then they will forfeit their claim to our protection."

The Battle Of Ajnadain

The Romans had started their hostility against Islam by joining hands with the enemy
during the 'Iraq campaign. On the completion of the conquest of Mesopotamia, the Caliph
started making preparations for a showdown against Heracleus, the Roman Emperor of
Syria. He despatched Khalid bin Sa'eed who assembled a host of tribesmen under his
banner at Tayma. Heracleus took immediate steps to meet the danger and assembled his
forces at a short distance from the Muslim camp. The Muslim army advanced towards
Palestine in four divisions under the command of Abu 'Ubaida, Shurhbil bin Hasana,
Yazid bin Abu Sufyan and 'Amr bin al- Aş. The total strength of the Muslim army was
37,000 which was far out-numbered by the Syrian force which amounted to 2,00,000. The
Caliph now instructed Khalid bin Walid, who was at that time on the Persian frontiers to
proceed to the help of Khalid bin Sa'eed. Leaving Muthanna in charge of the Persian
frontier Khālid marched to Syria with a contingent of 9000 soldiers. The two armies met
at Ainādain. Fighting continued with unabated fury till the afternoon. In the evening the
Romans began to lose ground and Khalid completed their rout by making a fresh charge,
separating their infantry from the cavalry. The Roman horsemen, unable to bear the brunt
of this attack, turned back and fled. The number of Muslims slain in this battle was 3000.
It was a splended victory for the Muslims which opened for them immense possibilities
of further success. The news of the victory of Ajnādain reached Medina just at the time
when Abu Bakr (Allah be pleased with him) was breathing his last.

Illness and Death

It was on the 7th Jumadi al-Thani, that Abu Bakr (Allah be pleased with him) fell ill and
for 15 days he was confined to bed. When the disease took a serious turn he called the
prominent Companions of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) and
consulted them regarding the choice of his successor. Finally he arrived at the conclusion
that 'Umar (Allah be pleased with him) would be the best choice. He died on Monday, 22
Jamadi ul-Thani, 13 A. H. The funeral prayers were led by 'Umar (Allah be pleased with
him) and he was buried in the apartment of his daughter ‘A’isha (Allah be pleased with
her), by the side of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), in such a
position that his head was in line with the shoulders of his great master. He was 63 years
of age at the time of his death and the duration of his caliphate was two years, three
months and eleven days.

Personality And Character

Abū Bakr bin Abi Quḥāsā (Allah be pleased with him) "had fair complexion and a slender
body with a thin face and deeply-set eyes and broad forehead: He had an awe-inspiring
voice and did not talk much but when he spoke his conversation was serene and full of
enthusiasm.” He was, like the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), an
embodiment of simplicity and lived a humble and austere life. According to William
Muir, he was “a man who was not only sagacious and wise, but throughout his life
simple, consistent and sincere." His love of Allah and His Prophet (peace and blessings
of Allah be upon him) was beyond any reckoning

By profession Abu Bakr (Allah be pleased with him) was a cloth-merchant and when he
embraced Islam he had a fortune of about 40000 dirhams which he freely gave away in
the cause of Islam and at the time of the Hijra he had only 5000 dirhams left with him. On
becoming Caliph he laid the foundation of his administration on the basis of the
principles incorporated in the Holy Quran and implemented by the Prophet (peace and
blessings of Allah be upon bim) and which was later on consolidated by his grand
successor 'Umar (Allah be pleased with him). This paved the way for the evolution of an
ideal political system for all time to come.

It was during Abū Bakr's reign that the collection of the Holy Qur'ān was accomplished.
In the battle against Musailima iany Companions who had memorized the Holy Qur'ān
were killed, and now it was necessary to preserve the Holy Book in an authentic volume.
Zaid bin Thabit (Allah be pleased with him), the scribe, was entrusted with this important
responsibility, and with undaunted zeal and painstaking labour he succeeded in putting
down the whole of the Holy Quran on paper.
Abu Bakr (Allah be pleased with him) introduced the democratic system of government
by counsel in which he always consulted the prominent Companions of the Prophet
(peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) in the affairs of the state whenever the
occasion demanded. Another brilliant trait in his versatile personality was his strength of
character which he frequently displayed in his power of decision. He had three sons and
three daughters 'Abdullah, 'Abd al-Raḥmān and Muhammad, and 'A'isha, Asma and
Umm Kulthüm.

CHAPTER 5
'UMAR, THE GREAT
(Allah be pleased with him)
'Umar the son of al-Khattāb was born in the clan of ‘Adi, a distinguished branch of the
Quraish, thirteen years after the Prophet's birth. In his early youth he had become an
expert in the genealogies of the ‘Arabs and had gained popularity as a gallant soldier and
sportsman. He frequently participated in the wrestling bouts at the famous fair of "Ukaz.
He was also a literate youngster with ardent zeal for oratory. Before his conversion to
Islam, 'Umar (Allah be pleased with him) was a blood-thirsty enemy of the Prophet
(peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) but in the sixth year of the call a miraculous
transformation of the heart took place and he embraced the new faith to the enormous
joy of the handful of believers. His conversion was regarded as a great victory for Islam.
During the Prophet's life time 'Umar (Allah be pleased with him) fought gallantly against
the enemies of Islam and became a source of strength to the emerging revolutionary faith.

The Conquests

Abu Bakr (Allah be pleased with him) died soon after the victory of Ajnadain and the
accession of the energetic 'Umar (Allah be pleased with him) to the Caliphate gave a new
and decisive impetus to the Islamic movement. Muthanna had come to the capital seeking
reinforcement. On the very first day of his rule 'Umar (Allah be pleased with him)
appealed for volunteers and a sizable army was at once raised. Abū “Ubaid, a rather
inconsequential soldier was put in command. With the help of Abu 'Ubaid, Muthannā
succeeded in defeating the famous Persian warrior, Rustam in the battle of Namaraq.
Hira which was taken back by the Persians after the battle of Ajnādain was now
recaptured.

Battle of The Bridge

Rustam was much infuriated at this crushing defeat. The Persians now met the Muslim
force on the other bank of the Euphrates. Abu 'Ubaid, against the advice of Muthannā,
crossed the river and it spelt disaster for the Muslims. The tide on the Persian elephants
could not be checked and the Muslim army had to beat a retreat to the riverside in utter
confusion. The reckless Abû. 'Ubaid was himself killed and out of an army of 9000 only
3000 remained firm under the banner of Muthangā! The 'Umar, The Great battle is known
as the battle of Jasr or the Bridge.”

The Clash At Buwaib

When the news of this disaster reached 'Umat (Allah be pleased with him) he
immediately raised considerable army under the command of Jarir. Some chieftains of
the Christian tribes also joined hands with the Muslims against their common fo¢.
Madain was the Persian capital situated on the Tigris some ilfteen miles from modern
Baghdad. The two armies clashed at a place called Buwaib near Kufa from the two banks
of the Euphrates. This time it was the Persians who crossed the river and they were
severely defeated. They filed from the battle-field in utter confusion.

The Battle of Qadisiya

The fire of vengeance once more flared up in Persia and it mustered all its strength, this
time to strike a decisive blow. The Persian Empire made a final effort to overcome its
internal differences and Rustam, the powerful marshal of the court and their greatest war
hero, was given recognition under the wing of the young monarch Yezdagird and he
marched with a massive force which far outnumbered the size of the neagre 'Arab forces:
The 'Arabs had about ten thousand soldiers, later joined by a reinforcement of six
thousand men, from Syria. They were under the command of Sa'd bin Abi Waqqaş, a
prominent Companion of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). The
two armies Inet at Qadisiya between the Eupharates and the Syrian desert about twenty
miles south west of Hira, The combat raged fiercely for three days and nights; the 'Arabs
matched the elephants and the heavy armaments of the Persians with the vigour and
fearlessness of their own attacks. They charged Rustam's army in tribal groups showing
a heroic contempt for death. Rustam himself fell in the battle and the imperial standard
fell into the hands of the conquering Arabs. A large quantity of spoils was collected by
the victors. The Muslim casualties during all the three days numbered 8500 but the
Persians suffered a much heavier loss. The victory of Qadisiya gave the 'Arabs definitive
possession of 'Iraq. This look place in the month of Ramadan 14 A. H. (October 635 A. D.)

Madain Captured

After a short stay at Qadisiya, Sa'd bin Abi Waqqāş, advanced on Babel and took
possession of the whole territory. In 15 A. H., with the permission 'Umar, The Great che
Caliph, Sa'd marched against the capital and hasieged the town. The siege lasted for
months and ultimately the Persians gavę in. Yezdagird had already removed his
treasures to Hulwān. 'After the fall of Madāin he took to fight. Sa'd's triumphant entry
into Madāin was a turning point in the annals of Islamic history.

Fall of Julala

In 16 A.H., Yezdagird who had taken refuge in Hulwan once again ordered the Persian
forces to advance and a part of his army occupied Jalūla, a strongly fortified place, Sa'd
despatched 12000 men under the command of Qafqa to meet the Persian challenge. Jalülā
was besieged for about 80 days before the Persians gave way. Hulwan was also - captured
and strongly garrisoned.

After that an understanding was reached with thc Persians and 'Umar (Allah be pleased
with him) issued strict orders to stop all advance towards Persia. But subsequently he
was compelled to. Ilft the ban. To quote William Muir:

“The truth began to dawn on 'Umar that necessity was laid upon him to withdraw
the ban against advance. In self-defence nothing was left but to crush the Chosroes
and to take entire possession of his realm.........He was compelled at last by the
warlike attitude of the Persian court to bid his armies take the field with the
avowed object of dealing the empire a final blow."
Total Victory Over Persia

The Caliph now withdrew his ruling and appointed commanders and followed the
campaign with anxious interest. This time the Muslims approached from the south-west,
invading Khuzistān. In about 640 they pushed on from their new camp at Başra, working
their way northward and forcing Hormuzān, the celebrated Persian. General to run away
from Ahwaz to Shustar. The Muslim army besieged the town and took Hormuzan,
prisoner in 642 A.D. He was sent to the Caliph at Medina and managed to obtain mercy
for his life by a trick. He, then embraced Islam and stayed at Medina as the Caliph's
advisor on Persian affairs. The year 642 also saw the occupation of Khuzistān. But there
was still a big battle in store for the Arabs. The battle took place at Nihāwand in the south-
west of Hana thän. It was the tottering Persian empire's last effort, in military terms, to
delay the moment of its collapse. A strong Persian army had taken up position at
Nihāwand. The ‘Arab army was led by Noʻman bin Muqarrin. The long struggle of
Qādisiya was repeated. The veterans of the Mesopotamiah campaigns battled
desperately for three days against forces who were again superior in numbers (some
Persian detachments were chained together to stop their members from fleeing). The
'Arabs finally won the "victory of victories” as it is called in the 'Arabic chronicles. The
Persian commander died in the battle and the imperial army was utterly dispersed. The
proud Sasanid army which had stood up to Rome and Byzantium had been destroyed,
and never again challenged the 'Arabs in battle.

The Syrian Wars

When Abu Bakr (Allah be pleased with him was on his death-bed the Muslims had
defeated the Romans on the Syrian frontiers. After the initial set back, Heracleus, the
Roman Emperor, took refuge in Antioch whereas the veteran Khalid bin Walid marched
on Damascus in the same year and reached its walls. For six months he blockaded rather
than attacked the capital of Syria. Ultimately the Byzantine garrison managed a secret
retreat and a Christian bishop negotiated surrender with Khālid on the 10th September
635. Khalid promised the inhabitants their lives, property and freedom of religion in
exchange for tribute money. Khalid did not stay longer in the conquered capital but went
straight on with his march towards the north. He took Himş peacefully and penetrated
as far as Hamat. Meanwhile Yazid bin Abi Sufyān and Shurhabil bin Hasana made a
complete and thorough conquest of Jaulân, Haulan and Eastern Jordan. At the end of 635
the whole of Syria and Palestine had fallen into the hands of the Muslims.

The Battle of Yarmak

The Romans were very much perturbed at the fall of their important centres like
Damascus and Hims, and they started raising a large army to protect their honour,
Jerusalem. When the news of this massive preparation reached the Muslims, Abu
“Ubaidā, in consultation with his war experts, decided to evacuate the occupied territory.
He abandoned Hims and returned towards Damascus. Finally the troops of Abu 'Ubaida
and 'Amr bin al-'Aş rallied at the place east of the Sea of Galilee on the bank of the river
Yarmūk. In the summer of 636 the two armies faced each other there to fight out the last
round to settle the fate of Syria for ever. The total strength of the Muslim army was forty
thousand against two hundred thousand Byzantines.

The battle of Yarmük had, undoubtedly, more important consequences than any other
battle in all world history. The Muslims were repulsed several times but they fought
gallanty till the Romans lost their footing and took to their heels. “Hard pressed by the
victorious sons of the desert, their superior commander, and their fanatical will for
victory, the Greeks were gradually forced back.” Their last organized attempt to defend
the heritage of Rome ended with this disastrous collapse. Heracleus, the Roman Emperor,
on his departure for Constantinople tragically exclaiized:-"Farewell Syria. What a good
country for the enemy."

Khalid Bin Walid

The victory of Yarmūk was the summit of Khalid bin Walid's glorious military career. As
Khalid stalled the Byzantine counter-offensive and confirmed his conquest of Syria, he
already had the country's new victory at his side. “Umar (Allah be pleased with him) had
appointed an eminent Companion of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon
him). the respected Abu 'Ubaida bin Jarrah to succeed him.

Inspite of Khalid's military penius and great captains: "Uniar (Allah be pleased with him)
disapproved of his lack of scruples. Now will the conquest virtua? complete, it seemed
better for the man of war make way for a peace-maker and organizer, As
Ubaida. Abū “Ubaida was an influential advisors the first two Caliphs. However, he did
not relise Khalid immediately after the decisive victory. Yarmük but kept him on for a
while, and thus free began working together towards a rapid and comples occupation of
Syria. They look back Damascus ar Hims and also captured Baalbek, Aleppo, Antioc and
Qinnasrin: There is something pathetic in se obscure eclipse of Khalid, the "Sword of
Allah After he had obediently yielded his command to be “Ubaida, he went on working
with him in reconquest of Damascus and Hims. Once he bitteen remarked : “ Umar made
me Governer of Some when things were difficult : now that it has there pacified, and all
is milk and honey, he has take away from me." However he preserved a dignita silence
in the face of the tribulations. When can to give a report on this administration, the Card
fined him and confiscated some of his property. V a civilian again, the great veteran
captain and bear's soldier spent the last years of his life in Hims when he died, still young
in 642. The memorable ex2053 of loyalty and obedience he set elevates his standing.
Islamic history is aglow with Kher achievements who was one of the most brilliant figures
of the heroic age, and posterity will count him among the greatest military geniuses of all
time.
The Capitulation of Jerusalem

After the victory at Yarmük the Muslim forces besieged Jerusalem. Abū ‘Ubaida also
came to assist the Muslim army. The inhabitants of Jerusalem offered to capitulate on
condition that Caliph 'Umar (Allah be pleased with him) personally came over to sign the
treaty. “Umar (Allah be pleased with him), after consultation with his colleagues, decided
to grant their condition and left Medina for Jerusalem in the same simple coarse dress
that he usually wore, with a few attendants. It was a unique sight to which the
commander of the Faithful and the king of 'Arabia, Mesopotamia and Syria travel with
such simplicity and austerity, and that too to accept the surrender of such a universally
important city like Jerusalem. The treaty was drawn up and signed! According to the
terms of the treaty it "guarantees them protection of life and property, of the churches
and crosses.........they should be subjected to no compulsion in matters of faith, nor shall
they be in any way molested.”

The Conquest of Egypt

Scarcely was the conquest of Syria over than the Muslims started off on the long road to
the west. The fertile valley of the Nile south of Palestine, rich in grain, and governed by
the weak Byzantine empire, attracted the victorious spirit of conquest. However ‘Amr
bin al-'Āş had great difficulty in persuading 'Umar (Allah be pleased with him) to
authorise the invasion of Egypt.' 'Amr did not possess Khalid's exceptional qualities, but
he was a man of affairs, a good negotiator and diplomat. In 640 'Amr marched out
towards Egypt with 5000 men under his command. After encounters at a few towns on
the way, siege was laid to Fustāt, the site of modern Cairo. Fustāt was a most strongly
fortfiied place on the bank of the Nile. The siege lasted for seven months till the garrison
surrendered and was granted amnesty. Then defeating the Byzantines at Heliopolis near
Babylon, 'Amr began to move on slowly towards Alexandria. The capital of Egypt,
defended both by the sea and its own strong fortification, was certainly no easy prize.
The seige dragged on for a considerable length of time but at last the city was captured
in 642. The whole of Egypt thus came into the Muslim possession. It need hardly be
mentioned that the 'Arabs did not burn the library of Alexandria as has erroneously been
maintained. It had already been destroyed centuries earlier. According to William Muir.
“The story of the burning of the library of Alexandria by the 'Arabs is a late invention."
After the conquest of Egypt, Fustat was made the capital on instructions from the Caliph.

'Umar's Administration

Umar's achievements are not confined only to the military conquests and the territorial
expansion that took place during his reign: his contributions to the political system,
administrative set-up and social organization remain unsurpassed in the annals of
Islamic History. 'Umar (Allah be pleased with him) is rightly regarded as the greatest
administrator of all time. He laid the foundation of a comprehensive democratic system
in which efficiency in administration, individual participation in the functioning of the
governmental institutions, freedom and social justice were the main pillars of the body
politic. As an excellent organizer and sincere head of the Islamic Commonwealth he
introduced many pioneering reforms for the welfare of society, both material and
spiritual in order to promote the ideal social order incorporated in the Qur'an and in the
precedents of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). In the words of
Ameer 'Ali:
“During the thirty years that the Republic lasted, the policy derived its character
chictly from 'Umar both during his lifetime and after his death."

Majlis-e-Shura

Being endowed with a democratic disposition, *Umar (Allah be pleased with him)
systematically organized and expanded the Majlis-e-Shura, introduced by his
predeccessor, Abû Bakr (Allah be pleased with him). The advisory body consisted of the
prominent Companions of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) like
'Ali, Abu 'Ubaida, 'Uthman, Talha, Zubair and “Abdur Rahman ibn 'Auf: This Advisory
Council was frequently consulted in all important matters of the state. The council sat in
the mosque in regular sessions and much resembled the cabinet in the modern political
system in which the Prime Minister executes policies of the government in cooperation
with his cabinet-colleagues. In his position as the first among equals”, “Umar (Allah be
pleased with him) once emphatically declared : “There can be no Caliphate except by
consultation. He always regarded himself as a common individual, the servant of the
masses and not their master. Matters of national importance were sometimes brought out
of the scope of the Advisory council and thrown open for public referendum in the Friday
public prayer or in the annual gatherings at Mecca.

In these gatherings the Caliph himself was open to all criticisms, and amendments
without the slightest fear of his displeasure or wrath. The chronicles provide various
instances in which the Caliph took back or modified his decision in the light of public
opinion, or individual criticism. In the light of these facts 'Umar (Allah be pleased with
him) stands as the greatest example of a true democrat in the history of the world.

Provincial Governors

For the sake of efficiency and smooth functioning of the administrative system, 'Umar
(Allah be pleased with him) divided the Commonwealth into several provinces and
principalities, and placed each of them under an efficient governor or lieutenant
governor. Mecca, Medina, Jazira, Başrā, Kūfä, Palestine and Egypt formed the main
provinces. The provincial governor was called Wali or Amir and he was not only the ruler
of the province but also its military and religious head. He was appointed by the Caliph
and was responsible to him. For all his matters and policies he was accountable to the
Caliph and could be promptly recalled or dismissed for misrule, inefficiency or
corruption. The provinces were further divided into districts and the districts into sub
divisions. The district officers were known as “Amils. These high officials were appointed
by the Caliph in consultation with the Advisory Council, and the Caliph exercised strict
control over them.

Revenue System

Umar (Allah be pleased with him) introduced certain drastic changes in the revenue
administration, He established, for the first time a department of finance to regulate the
fiscal policies of the government. This department was called the Divan and it was
formulated on the Persian model which existed in the Persian territories. The principal
sources of revenue were the poor-tax (Zakāt), the poll-tax (Jizya); the Land-12% (Kharaj),
the spoils of war (Ghanimā) and Fay (income from state-property). Zakāi was assessed
upon reserved cash, crops and animals. The assessment of land-revenue depended upon
the fertility of the soil and it was collected by instalments. Jizya was paid by the non-
Muslim citizens of the state against exemption from compulsory military service and
with the guarantee or protection of their life and property. 'Uslr was levied on big estates
and it was one tenth of the produce. After the assessment tlie revenue was deposited in
the public treasury or the Bait al-Mal as it was called. The main sources of expenditure
were the public institutions and the military organization. Public works, such as
construction of roads, canals, bridges etc., received a major share.

Umar (Allah be pleased with him) took special care to promote agriculture by introducing
useful Tood reforms. He ordered a thorough survey of the fonds, divided them into plots
and fixed taxes according to the fertility of the soil and location of the land, In all the
provinces the assessment was fixed after proper survey. Canals were dug out throughout
the empire and facilities were provided to the farmers. In order to keep alive the incentive
of the farmers in the conquered territories, 'Umar (Allah be pleased with him) prohibited
the acquisition of lands by the conquering ‘Arab soldiers from the natives of the soil.

Military Administration

'Umar (Allah be pleased with him) divided his armed forces into regular and irregular
divisions. The regular soldiers worked on a permanent basis and the irregular army was
raised in times of emergency in the form of volunteers. Infantry and the cavalry formed
the two main wings of the army and the soldiers were regularly paid from the Bait al-
Mal. besides their shares from the spoils of war. The Caliph himself acted as the supreme
commandes and all the generals and commanders were appointed by him from the
Capital. The soldiers were placed in cantonments in the conquered territories.
Administration of Justice

'Umar (Allah be pleased with him) was a great champion of the cause of justice and it
was for his sound discrimination and perfect sense of justice that he was called al-Farooq,
the distinguisher between truth and falsehood. For the sound administration of justice he
separated for the first time, the judicial functions from the executive. He appointed Qadis
in all provincial towns, to administer justice to the people. To ensure their integrity and
impartiality these Qadis were given full independence and they were not subject to the
authority of the provincial governors; they were directly responsible to the Caliph and
more precisely to Allah, the ultimate Sovereign of the Islamic State. “Umar (Allah be
pleased with him) introduced, for the first time in the history of the world, the allotment
of a pension to the retired officials and disabled soldiers. According to William Muir.
"The pension system of 'Umar (Allah be pleased with him) is a spectacle probably without
parallel in the world.” He fixed allowances for the needy and the physically handicapped.
He founded mosques, schools and orphanages in different parts of the empire. It was
again he who introduced the Muslim era corres ponding to the migration of the Prophet
(peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) from Mecca to Medina.

‘Umar's Assassination

'Umar (Allah be pleased with him) was fatally attacked by a Persian slave of Mughirā
named Abu Lū'lū' while leading the public-prayer in the mosque. This slave was brought
to Medina along with other Persian knifemen skilled in the art of stabbing to train the
Muslim soldiers. Abū Lü'lū’ (Firoz) nourished a personal grudge against the Caliph and
looking fofan opportunity he slipped into the mosqué and stabbed him. The assassin,
while trying to escape, stabbed several others and committed suicide when he was
trapped. The fatally wounded Caliph succumbed to his injuries after four days on the 1st
of Muharram 24 A. H. (644 A. D.). Before passing away, the great leader of the Muslims
sought permission from 'A'isha (Allah be pleased with her), the wife of the Prophet (peace
and blessing of Allah be upon him), to be buried by the side of his Master. When asked
to appoint bis successor he appointed a council (of six most prominent Companions of
the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) whom he thought most
competent and deserving for the sublime office of the Caliphate. They were 'Ali, 'Uthman,
Talha, Zubair, Sa'd bin Abi Waqqās and Abdur Rahman ibn 'Auf, of whom 'Uthmān was
subsequently elected Caliph.

“Umar's death”, says Ameer ‘Ali was a real calamily io Islam....... extremely stern but just,
'Umar Was especially fitted for the lcadership of unruly
Arabs. He stood like a bulwark and protected his people against every assauit that was
made to under mine their strength."

The Greatness of 'Umar

Umar (Allah be pleased with him) as a great military organizer, a matchless administrator
and above all, as the "Commander of the Faithful", occupies the most prominent place,
after the Prophet. (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) in the subsequent history
of Islam. His glorious. Tule of a decade inaugurated a new era in the East with the
emergence of a grand Islamic State that moulded the destiny of the entire world in the
ensuing centuries. The discomfiture of the mighty Roman Empire and the downfall of the
Khosroes of Persia, were, perhaps, the two most significant achievements of 'Umar's great
leadership. He, with his dauntless zeal and indomitable spirit, made the 'Arabs the
unchallenge able masters of the then known world. The historians. wonder as to how
within such a small period of time the insignificant Arabs became, the most significant
on the political map of the world........and that too against such heavy odds in the midst
of two great empires of the world. It was due, mainly, to 'Umar's beat leadership and
military organization that the numerical and material superiority of the great numerical
and material Romans and the Persians was rendered ineffective. He not only
consolidated the conquered territories from Medina to Egypt but also gave the Common
wealth a superb administration which became the best model of an ideal republic in the
centuries to come. 'Umar (Allah be pleased with him) was the real founder of political
administration in Islam.

Apart from being a great conquerof and administrator, 'Umar (Allah be pleased with him)
also possessed the towering personality of a grand Caliph in the truest sense of the word.
He was a true vicegerent of Allah and His Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon
him). Worldly achieve ments, conquests and power did not touch the inner core of his
personality and he remained as simple, God-fearing and pious as he ever was. His dress
was spotted with numerous patches and he ate simple food. Like his Master he used to
do all little works for others and personally carried to the various families letters received
from the battle-field. The most glorious conquests did not produce the faintest air of pride
in him. Master of four kingdoins, 'he walked on Allah's earth with the meekness of the
humblest man. He did not touch a single thing belonging to the Bait al-Māl except the
fixed amount sanctioned by the Council for his bare subsistance. When the spoils of Jalūlā
and Madāin were brought to the capital, “Umar (Allah be pleased with him) was seen
shedding tears. Being asked the reason, he replied that he saw in those spoils the future
ruin of his people and history, later showed that he was not wrong.

‘Umar (Allah be pleased with him) lived in a simple house and received the imperial
ambassadors of the great Byzantine Empire on the floor of the Prophet's mosque in
Medina. He employed no body guards for his personal security and walked in the streets
like an ordinary citizen without any escort. In spite of possessing a very imposing
personality he did not instil awe in the hearts of his subjects. They feared him only when
they violated the law but at the same time thcy did not hesitate to ask him questions when
they had any doubts in their minds. All the provincial governors and high officials,
including the powerful Mu'awiya and Amr ibn al-.. fared as dutiful subordinates before
his strict and unsparing reckoning, such was the greatest and the most powerful ruler of
his time.

CHAPTER 6
'UTHMÄN (Allah be pleased with him)
(644 A. D. to 656 A.D.)

“Uthmān ibn 'Affan (Allah be pleased with him), the third Caliph of Islam was born in
the Bani Umayya clan of the Quraish in 573 A.D., three years after the birth of the Prophet
(peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). He was honest and upright from the days of
his childhood. As a young man he engaged in business activity and flourished as a rich
merchant. Because of his modesty and integrity of character he enjoyed great esteem in
the Meccan society. In spite of being a member of Bani Umayya who were very hostile to
Bani Hashim, the clan to which the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him)
belonged, he was among the earliest converts to Islam. Soon after his conversion, the
Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) give his daughter Ruqayya in
marriage to him. When the Quraish started persecuting the Muslims, he migrated to
Abyssinia with the first batch of emigrants.

After the Hijra, 'Uthmān (Allah be pleased with him) rendered yeoman service to the
cause of Islam at Medina. His financial assistance proved vital to the emerging faith. On
various occasions he helped the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him),
purchased land for public utility. He also participated in the various battles that the
Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) fought against the Quraish except at
Badr during which his wife Ruqayya passed away. Thereupon the Prophet (peace and
blessings of Allah be upon him) gave his second daughter Umm Kulthum in marriage to
him and hence he was given the epithet Dhuin Nürain (possessor of two lights). He also
enjoyed a place of prominance during the caliphate of Abu Bakr and 'Umar (Allah be
pleased with them) and served as a member of the Advisory Council.

Election

It will be recalled that 'Umar (Allah be pleased with him) on his death-bed, had appointed
a council of six from amongst whom the future caliph could be elected. They were, ‘Ali,
'Uthman, Talha, Zubait • Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas and 'Abdur Rahmân ibn 'Auf.
Subsequently the number was reduced to three co ‘Abdur Rahman, Sa'd and Zubair
withdrew their nominations. Talha was away from Medina. He the choice was left
between 'Uthmān and 'Ali (Allah be pleased with them). Being authorised by the Council
to make the final choice, "Abdur Rahmin consulted the prominent figures of the
community and the tribal chiefs from various parts of the country. When he found that
the trend of general opinion was in favour of 'Uthmān, he declated 'Uthmân as the duly
elected Caliph and thereupon the masses took their pledge at the hands of the new
Caliph, Ali being the first among them.”

Mutiny in Persia

Yezdagird, the Persian monarch in exile, was waiting for an opportunity since "Umar's
death. Hardly six months had passed of 'Uthmēn's caliphate, when he raised the standard
of rebellion against the Muslim domination. Uthman (Allah be pleased with him) acted
firmly and suppressed the revolt with an iron hand, and re-established the treaty
relations with the Persians. But now the Persians could not be trusted any more and in
order to put an end to their uprisings and collaborations, the Muslim troops were ordered
to march forward and extend the frontiers of the Islamic Empire. Thus were conquered 1
urkistan and Balkh. The provinces of Ghazna Herat and Kabul were also subdued. In 650
A. D., major parts of Khorasan such as Tols, Nishāpur and Mețv came under the sway of
Islam Yedagird died the same year and the Muslim army ud an inconclu sive encounter
with the Turks in the valley of Azarbaijan. Thus 'Uthman (Allah be pleased with him)
succeeded not only in restoring peace in the disturbed areas but also consolidated it
through territorial expansion.

Trouble in Syria

Mu'awiya bin Abu Sufyan was appointed governor of Damascus by 'Umar (Allah be
pleased with him). But soon with his dexterity as an administrator he consolidated his
power and with his shrewd tactics and knack for political strategem, hold his sway over
the entire province of Syria. In the second year of 'Uthmān's caliphate the Romans poured
into Syria a large army en-route to Asia Minor, Mu'awiya did not have sufficient forces
at his disposal and asker for reinforcements from the capital. The encounter resulted in
further expansion of the Islamic territories: The Muslim forces penetrated right into the
heart of Asia Minor and annexed the territories of Armenia the Islamic Commonwealth.
In 649 A. D., the island of Cyprus was overrun and Muinwiya succeeded in occupying
this important strategic point.

War In Egypt

The death of 'Umar (Allah be pleased with him) and the insurrections in Persia and Syria
encouraged the Romans to invade Egypt. In 646 A. D., they arrived in Alexandria and
captured the town. But “Amr ibn al-'As, the Egyptian governor, was not a man to be
easily cowed. He retaliated and drove the Romans out of Alexandria, thereby restoring
peace and order in the province. Soon after that, differences arose between 'Amr ibn al-
'As and ‘Abdullah bin Sa'd, a foster brother of the Caliph and 'Uthman (Allah be pleased
with him) recalled 'Amr to Medina and appointed Abdullah in his place. The new
governor 'Abdullah also had to face a challenge from the Roman commander Gregory
who marched against him with a mighty force. 'Uthmān (Allah be pleased with him, sent
reinforcements from Medina and ultimately the Romans were defeated and put to flight.
In this war the stalwarts “Abdullah ibn 'Umar, Abdullah ibn Abbâs, and 'Abdullah ibn
Zubair, also took part.

Discontent Results In Chaos

During the first six years of his rule, 'Uthman (Allah be pleased with him) had the same
reputation which bis two illustrious predecessors had. He con solidated the power of the
state and enhanced its glory, by suppressing revolts and expanding the territories. It is
perhaps the greatest tragedy in the history of Islam that towards the latter half of
'Uthmān's reign, circumstances arose which spelt great disaster for the entire social and
political structure of Islam and ultimately resulted in a gigantic civil war which not only
destroyed the great republic of Islam but also divided the noble faith into Sunnite and
Shiate camps. The causes of this colossal disaster are numerous, but chief among them
was the wide-spread discontent among the people arising out of some lenient policies of
the Caliph. 'Uthmān (Allah be pleased with him), being a very kind-hearted and
courteous man, made some allowances for his kinsmen who exploited him to the
detriment of public interests. Thus the innocent Caliph was grossly misunderstood and
accused of nepotism, favouritism and incompetence. The two main charges levelled
against the old unfortunate Caliph were as follows:

(1) "He was accused of appointing his own relatives to high offices and dismissing
the able and efficient governors who were replaced by his corrupt and
incompetent relatives.”? An impartial examina tion of the facts, however,
reveals certain basic factors which cannot be overlooked. So far as the
appointment of Mu'āwiya to the viceroyalty of Syria is concerned, it is a
historical fact that Musāwiya was appointed governor by 'Umar (Allah be
pleased with him) and 'Uthmān (Allah be pleased with him) merely continued
his services. It is also a fact that after the demise of 'Umar (Allah be pleased
with him). Mu'awiya was rather emboldened and, taking advantage of his
close relationship with the Caliph, he enormously consolidated his position in
Syria and made the province his stronghold.

The dismissal of Sa'd bin Abi Waqqaş from the governorship of Küfa was an outcome of
compelling circumstances. The dispute between Sa'd and his treasury officer Ibn Mas'ud
over a personal loan became prolonged and the Küfites were divided into two rival
camps, one supporting Sa'd and the other demanding his dismissal. 'Uthmân (Allah be
pleased with him) could have dealt with the situation mote prudently and tactfully. But
he erred in his judgment, dismissed Sa'd from the governorship of Küfa and appointed
Walid bin 'Aqba, a close relative, in his place. Walid was an incompetent man of loose
character and did not deserve the high post. Later when he was dismissed and punished
for his drunken ness, 'Uthmān (Allah be pleased with him) appointed another kinsman,
Sa'd ibn al-As, in place of Walid. Sa'd was equally incompetent and the Caliph was forced
to end his misrule by dismissing him and appointing Abu Musa Ash'ari to be the next
governor of Kūfa. 'Uthman (Allah be pleased with him) certainly was not a very good
judge of men and matters and his appointments and dismissals often proved wrong. The
most fatal mistake was the dismissal of 'Amr ibn al-'Aş from the viceroyalty of Egypt
and the appointment of his foster brother ‘Abdullah ibn Sa'd in his place. 'Abdullah was
no doubt, an able and competent ruler but he did not possess the prudence and political
sagacity of Amr bin al-'Āṣ. “It would have been more desirable, had the noble Caliph
adhered to the policy of his two great predecessors of appointing capable men from
amongst the most prominent Companions of the Prophet who had lived the greater part
of their life under the superb guidance and training of the Prophet (peace and blessings
of Allah be upon him) and not relied on the Umayyad youngsters who, though in some
cases were very competent, did not have that upbringing and refinement so essential to
run the affairs of the state in the true Islamic spirit under the enternal sovereignty of
Allah."}

(2) The second charge levelled against 'Uthman (Allah be pleased with him) was
that of extravagance and misuse of the public funds. It was alleged that he gave
away huge sums to his relations from the public treasury. Tabari, the famous
historian, maintains that 'Uthman (Allah be pleased with him) gave away one-fifth
(Khums) of the war indemnity which 'Abdullah ibn Sa'd had exacted from the
archbishop of Tripoli in Africa, to his cousin and secretary, Marwan bin al-Hakam.
Marwan was a notorious character and always tried to throw dust in the eyes of
the pious Caliph Uthmān's undue Teliance on Marwan was disliked by the people
and the prominent Companions of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be
upon him). On one occasion when ‘Ali, Sa'd, Zubair and Talha were discussing
this matter with the Caliph, 'Uthman explained: "My predecessors adopted a strict
policy regarding them selves and their relations but I follow the policy of the
Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) in this matter. I belong to a
family whose members are mostly poor and I help them from the treasury against
my services to the nation." After that the amount paid to Marwan was recovered
and deposited in the Bait al-Mäl. Howeverthe people in general were not happy
with the Caliph's great patronage of his kinsmen. The appointment of a men like
Marwān to the chief-secretaryship of the state was also a major cause of discontent.
"The people thought that most of the works attributed to the Caliph were
Marwan's own individual decisions which he executed without the prior sanction
of the Caliph."2 When the discontent was spreading fast, ‘Ali (Allah be pleased
with him), once exclaimed: “Whenever I try to improve the situation, Marwān
spoils it again.”

The Conspiracy

The general discontent arising out of some miscalculated policies of the noble Caliph and
the concentration of power in the hands of the Umayyads. prepared the ground for a
dastardly conspiracy against the Caliph which finally resulted in his brutal assassination.
'Abdullah ibn Saba, a Yemenite Jew who had become a Muslim took the leading part in
this conspiracy by gathering around him a group of mischief-mongers and collaborators.
All sorts ol imaginary charges were concocted against the Caliph to instigate the masses
against his authority so as to aggravate the already existing discontent among them. A
massive propaganda campaign was launched among the Beduin tribes to the effect that
the Quraish were exploiting them by monopolizing all authority in their hands. The
propaganda succeeded in sowing the seeds of discontent and discord among them. A
long list of allegations was prepared against the Caliph, most of which were totally
baseless and fabricated. Among them was also the charge that 'Uthman (Allah be pleased
with him) had committed an act of great sacrilege by ordering the sacred volumes of the
Holy Qur’an to be burnt for preparing the authentic version. This great service of
'Uthmān (Allah be pleased with him) to the cause of Islam was deliberately
misinterpreted so as to mislead the people who were away from the Capital and did not
know the real facts. Ibn Saba made Egypt his headquarter for his propaganda machinery
where he received the support of Muhammad bin Abu Bakr who had a personal, grudge
against the Caliph. From Egypt the movement spread to Küfa where the fing-leaders
started denouncing the. Caliph in public.
The ring-leaders from Egypt, Kūfa and Basra then * -mutually conspired to make a
sudden dash to tredina
to force the Caliph to relinquish his office. They were a small group and their number did
not exeed D2000.11 On Teaching the outskirts of Medind, they ztried to persuade 'Ali,
Zubair and Talhā to join their a cause but the veteranis flatly refused. Ultimately
they entered Mediña and .besieged Uthmān's house Cand demanded his abdication,
which he justifiably refused.

Assassination

Ali Talha and Zubair (Allah be pleased with them all) had appointed their sons at the
entrance to a defend the life of the Caliph. The conspirators did not succeed in breaking
open the door and consequently went found to a neighbouring house and from there,
entered his apartment, where the venerable Caliph was reciting the Holy Qur'an.
Muhammad bin Abū) Bakr stepped forward and caught the Caliph by the beard. The old
noble-Caliph calmly altered:

“O son of my brother; if your father were alive he would not have liked this act of
yours.” Thereupon the son of Abu Bakr stepped back but his accomplices stepped
forward and struck the helpless Caliph with their swords. Nā'ila, the Caliph's wife
tried to intervene and in the bargain got her fingers chopped off. Finally the Caliph
collapsed, smeared with blood. The guards rushed in but it was too late. The
murderers plundered his house and triumphantly marched out of it. The news of
'Uthmān's murder spread: like wild fire and the city of Medina was rocked with
awe and horror. The citizens of Medina - had never expected that the situation
 would take such Ta ghastiy turn, and now they were repenting, fog their sinability
to read the writing on the wall- As a matter oof fact, Uthman's death proved his
greatness more - that anything else. In spite of the alarming situation Sthe adopted
a noble: attitude that could only be the a characteristic of a sublime soul and not
of a worldly et monarch. I Had he wished he could have summoned
the troops from all over the empire, to Jiquidate the conspirators. But he did not
want a civil war and a dance of destruction in the holy city of the Prophet {peace
and blessings of Allahbbe upon him)vo He u sacrificed his life to save the lives of
several hundred fellow Muslims and thus set an example of dedication and
selflessness in the service of Islam. This tragedy occured on 17th June 656 A. D.,
and with it befelt curse of civil war on Islam.

CHAPTER 7
ALI
(Allah be pleased with him)
(656 A.D. 10 661 A.D.)
'Ali (Allah be pleased with him), the son of the Propbet's beloved uncle, Abu Talib, was
born ferr years before the attainment of Muhammad's Prophet hood and was thus thirty
years junior to him. After Abu Talib's demise he came under the prophetic patronage and
was among the four earliest converts to Islan--the other three being Khadija, Abu Bakr
and Zaid (Allah be pleased with them all). At the time of the Prophet's emigration to
Medina, he slept in the Prophet's bed, endangering his own life and thus enabled the
Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) to reach Medina unhurt: In Medina
the * Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) gave his beloved daughter
Fatima (Allah be pleased with 'her) in marriage to him. He was twenty four then. Of this
marriage two sons Hasan and Husain and two daughters Zainab and Umm Kulthüm
were born to him. He was affectionately nicknamed Abil Turas (Father of the dust) by the
Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) when he once saw him lying on the
ground in a mosque.

In the early battles that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon hini) fought
against the enemies of Islam, “Ali (Allah be pleased with him) played a significant role.
Gifted with extraordinary valour and fortitude, he fought most gallantly and heroically
on various battle-fields. Among his most outstanding feats of bravery were the defeat of
Iba Abd Wudd in a duel in the war of the Trench and the capture of Qamus, the famous
fort of Khayber. On account of these outstanding achievements he earned the proud
epithet of Asad-Allah (the Lion of Allah). After the Prophet's death 'Ali (Allah be pleased
with him) served as a prominent meinber of the Advisory Council during the reigns of
Abu Bakr, Umar and 'Uthmān (Allah be pleased with them all). No important affair was
settled without his advice.
Election

When 'Uthman (Allah be pleased with him) was brutally murdered, the Muslim nation
was rendered leader-less, and the chaotic conditions that prevailed everywhere in the
Commonwealth made it necessary to entrust the leadership to "Ali (Allah be pleased with
him) immediately lest the situation went out of control. There was no one more deserving
than 'Ali (Allah be pleased with him) for the highest office, not only in Medina but in the
entire world of Islam. Therefore the Companions of the Prophet (peace and blessings of
Allah bd upon him) and the other prominent citizens of Medina approached 'Ali (Allah
be pleased with him) and requested him to take charge of the Caliphate. Earlier, when a
few people had approached him for the same purpose, he had fiatly refused by saying:
“You do not have the right (to appoint melani This will be decided by the advisory
council and the veterans of Bads. We will gather together and think over the problem.”
Finally, in the Mosque of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), “Ali
(Allah be pleased with him) was, sworn cas Caliph and all the Emigrants and Heipers
pledged their fealty, with the exception of a handful of people.

The Civil War

“Ali (Allah be pleased with him) took over the reins of government under an extremely
critical situation. The seeds, of dissension sown by the rebels batalien, 2 were now ready
to sprout forth. The Muslim nation hours a hostile to each other and was divided into
two camps, hostile to each other and the interests of Islam were at stake. There were three
major factors responsible for this chaos which prevailed till the end of the Islamic
Republic and the inception of monarchy: (1) The active support of those people to Ali
(Allah be pleased with a had participated shamelessly in the manispa a over-throw
'Uthmān (Allah be pleased with him) and had spearheaded the movement against him.
Among them were also the murderers of 'Uthman (Allah be pleased with him) like Ibn
Saba, Malik al-Ashtar and Muhammad bin Abu Bakr. The circunstances were such that
'Ali (Allah be pleased with him) could not, at once, get rid of those elements or make
them to task for their heinous crime. He was waiting for an appropriate occasion by first
trying to set the house in order. (2) The refusal of some companions to pledge their fealty
also added to Ali's troubles by creating suspicion in certain sections of society regarding
the legitimacy of 'Ali's caliphate. (3) The most disastrous factor, however, was the cry for
retribution for the blood of: 'Uthman (Allah be pleased with him) raised in Damascus.
The blood -stained, clothes of the murdered Caliph and the chopped off fingers of his
wife Nā'ils were exhibited by Mu'awiya throughout the province of Syria who now stood
as the sole champion of the Umayyad cause.
There were two major parties which were demanding the capital punishment for the
assassins without any delay. The attitude adopted by both the parties, however, was
highly emotional and illogical. At the outset these parties were challenging the very
legitimacy of 'Ali's Caliphate and at the same time demanding justice from him. The first
party was led by 'A'isha (Allah be pleased with her), the respected wife of the Prophet
(peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) and Talha and Zubair, his two promillent
Companions. The second and more intransigent group consisted of Musāwiya and his
protagonists in Syria. Instead of approaching the Caliph at Medina and placing before
him their grievances, they were demanding of 'Ali (Allah be pleased with him to hand
over the culprits to them so that they themselves could avenge the murder of 'Uthman
(Allah be pleased with him). ** Ali (Allah be pleased with rim) was repeatedly, trying to
assure Talha and Zubair that as soon as he had established himself in power and the
situation became normal he would take the culprits to task." However, Talha and Zubair
were not convinced. They. met ‘A’isha (Allah be pleased with her) in Mecca and finally
decided to fight against 'Ali (Allah be pleased with him) by amassing troops from Başra
and Küfa which were their spheres of influence.

The Battle of Camel

At. Başra they were joined by Sa'd bin al-'Ās and the notorious Marwan whose cunning
intention was to weaken the forces of 'Ali (Allah be pleased with him) in the first
encounter and then fall upon them in the second round. "Ali (Alla'y be pleased with him)
who was preparing his troops to march on Damascus and crush the rebellion of Mu'awiya
wis now forced to divert his route and first deal with this uprising in Başra. On one side
was the widow of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) , A'isha (Allah
be pleased with her) leading the revolt and facing her was 'Ali (Allah be pleased with
him), the beloved cousin. The perplexing situation prevented many Companions of the
Prophet and their followers from participating on either side. Before the war started 'Ali
(Allah be pleased with him) called for Talha and Zubair and reminded them of their
intimate bonds with him and the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) as
a result of which Zubair retired from the battle-field and Talha went back to the rear. The
battle that ensued spelt a great disaster. ‘A’isha (Allah be pleased with her) mounted a
cainel and went about for which the battle is known as that of Jamal (Camel). Ten
thousand Muslims were slain on both sides including Zubair who was treacherously
killed by a certain 'Amr bin Jurmuz and Talha who was struck by Marwan himself while
in retreat. When the fighting came to an end, 'Ali (Allah be pleased with him) led the
funeral praver of the dead on om sides and sent back 'Ã'isha (Allah be pleased with her)
to Medina with due respect under the escort of her own brother Muhammad bin Abu
Bakr. “When the murderer of Zubair demanded a prize, 'Ali (Allah be pleased with him)
most bitterly, gave him the assurance of hell and seeing Zubair's sword in his hand, he
emotionally exclaimed. "How many times I have seen this sword shielding the Prophet
(peace and blessings of Allah be upon him).
The Battle Of Siffin

The entire Islamic empire with the exception of the rebellious province of Syria, had
accepted the legitimacy of Ali's Caliphate and there was no confusion whatsoever
regarding the seat of central authority. Mu'āwiya was desperately trying to conceal his
ambition for the Caliphate and his rebellious designs under cover of his demand for the
revenge of "Uthman's blood. "Ali (Allah be pleased with him) took a decisive step and
instantaneously dismissed the rebellious Mu'awiya from the governorship of Syria.
Mu'awiya had concentrated his power in Damascus for the last sixteen years of his
viceroyalty and was now preparing to wrest power from Ali (Allah be pleased with him).
He now openly held ‘Ali (Allah be pleased with him) responsible for “Uthinan's murder
and declared total war against him. All attempts by the mediators to bring about
acompromise between the two failed and finally 'Ali (Allah be pleased with him) set out
from 'Iraq and Mu'awiya from Damascus. The two armies, met at Siffin a place situated
on the OMA cuphrates towards the south-east of Alc u 29th July 657 A.D., the
confrontation took place. I ne battie raged furiously for three consum o and when Ali's
forces were on the point of victory, the shrewd Amr bin al-'As came forward with a trick.
He ordered the Syrian troops to raise copies of the Holy Quran on their lances and
procedure 66This is the arbiter (hakam) between us. purpose was to create dissension
and con ta “Ali's camp and thereby gain a respite for the Syrian troops. The scheme, as it
was envisaged; worked in obtaining the desired results. Hostilities stoppes -forth with as
"Ali's troops declined to fight in 1860 of the arbitration of the Holy Qur'an. 'Ali (Allan be
pleased with him) desperately tried to warn mis hoop against the cunning scheme of Amr
but without any avail. Mu'awyia now proposed the appointment of two arbitrators. one
from either side to the * unanimous verdict on the authority of the Holy Qur'ān. 'Ali
(Allah be pleased with him) accepted Mu āwiya's proposal to arbitrate the case so as to
avoid further -bloodshed. He wanted to appoint Abdullah ibn 'Abbâs to represent his
side but his Kafan army forced him to send Abū Mūsa al-Ash'ari, who was a pious and
simple man against the tactful diplomat 'Amr ibn al-'AŞ who represented the Umayyad
point of view. Finally Abü Mūsa and “Arr met at Dumat al-Jandal each with his four
hundred followers. The final verdict was to depose both 'Ali and Mu'awiya from their
respective posts and elect another caliph with general consensus; but when the elder of
the two, Abū Mūsa, stood up and declared the caliphate of 'Ali (Allah be pleased with
him) null and void, 'Amr betrayed his colleague and proposed Mu'awiya. The verdict
made 'Ali (Allah be pleased with him) the loser as Mu'āwiya had no caliphate to be
deposed from; he was only the governor of Syria. "The sentence of the judges deprived
Ali of a real office, and Mu'awiya of 4 fictitious claim which he had not yet dared publicly
to assert.?!? The verdict, partial and unjust as it was and nat based on the authority of the
Holy Qur'ān failed to improve the situation.

The Kharijite Uprising

The acceptance of the principle of arbitration had dire consequences. A large body of
'Ali's followers, in disillusionment, deserted his camp and hacame his blood-thirsty
enemies. They were called the khawarij (sing. Khariji), the seceders who carved the first
schism in Islam. Vader the leadership of Abdullah al-Rasibi, they rose in armed revolt
against Ali (Allah be pleased with him), with the slogan “arbitration belongs to Allah
alone."!! On hearing the news “Ali (Allah be pleased with him) set out against them to
Naharwan, in 659, and struck them a deadly blow in a battle in which they were
completely uprooted.

In the meanwhile, Ali (Allah be pleased with him) was desperately trying to muster his
troops to deal a final blow to the rebellious authority of Mu'āwiya. But unfortunately the
defiant nature of his Kūfan troops and the internal indiscipline among their rank and file,
rendered the noble Caliph almost helpless. Further more, Musāwiya's propaganda in
Egypt against 'Ali's alleged slackness in dealing with murderers of 'Uthman (Allah be
pleased with him), created trouble in that province also. Here 'Ali (Allah be pleased with
him) committed a political mistake. Recalling the generous and statesmanlike Qais bin
Sa'd from the governorship of Egypt, he appointed the short-tempered Muhammad bin
Abu Bakr who had also earned a bad reputation for being an accomplice of the murderers
of 'Uthman (Allah be pleased with him). Consequently, a widespread rebellion broke out
in Egypt which encouraged Mu'awiya to despatch 'Amr ibni al-'Āṣ for the invasion of
Egypt. 'Amr, ultimately, succeeded in defeating Muhammad bin Abu Bakr and
conquering Egypt for Mu'awiya.

Martyrdom

Even after the defeat at Naharwan, the Kharjits were not completely annihilated. They
were still active and were bent upon ending the rule of Ali Allah be pleased with him).
In January 661, as All (Allah be pleased with him) was on his way to the mosque for the
morning prayers; Abdur Rahman ibri Muljam, a Kharjite conspirator struck him on the
forehead with a poisoned sabre, which penetrated to the brain, and he succumbed to this
fatal wound on 17th of Ramadan.. Ibn Muljam was one of the three Kharjite accomplices
who had jointly conspired to kill'Ali; Mu'awiya and Amr ibn al-'Aş simultaneously on
the same daycin Küfa, Damascus and Fustat respectively. b Ibn-Muljam succeeded in his
plan but SiMu'awiya cwas saved by, his bodyiguards and 'Aihr üdid not come out for the
public prayer on account of e his indisposition. Ali'sbrule lasted for about four r years
arid nine months and with his death came to an wend the glorious seram of the Islamic
Republic. Ibn b Müljam?s dagger not only killed the mortal body of be pleased with him)
but it also strangled the democratic spirit of the grand “Righteous Caliphate."

The Lion of Allah

The chronicles describe 'Ali (Allah be pleased with him) as a man of ruddy.complexion,
rather short in stature, but strong and stout, with a flowing beard and soft grey eyes. His
extraordinary feats of valour in the battles of Badr, Uhud, Khandaq, and Kbayber had
won him the title of Asod-Alalt, the Lion of Allah. A man of mild temperament, he
included in his personality the qualities of compassion,, Jove, meekness, forbearance and
selflessness. Besides being one of the earliest converts to Islame he was also La comrade
of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) in exile, his faithful companion
in the grand struggle, his intimate associate in life and his most beloved kinsman. Wordly
power and wealth had no fascination for him and he took pride in the life of destitution
in the manner of his illustrious Mentor (peace and blessings of Allah be. upon him). In
the virtues of piety, devotion and dedication to the great cause of Islam, he was second
to none.. 'Ali (Allah be pleased with him) was the greatest intellectual of Islam after the
Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him); He was an acknowledged authority
on the Holy Qur'an and a commentator of very high standing. He possessed a gare skill
in interpreting the Holy Qur'an and was regarded as the best vuunid and Faqih (urist)
among his contemporaries. The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him)
freonently praised 'Ali's learning and scholarship and on one occasion he is reported to
have said: "I am the city of learning and Ali is its entrance." Physical valour and
intellectual gifts rarely coincide in an individual but “Ali's personality had a marvellous
combination of these two qualities in all their richness and perfection. "Valiant in battle,
wise in counsel, eloquent in speech, true to his friends, magnanimous to his foes, he
became both the paragon of Moslem nobility and chivalry and the Solomon of Arabic
traditions; round whose name poems, sermons, proverbs and anecdotes innumerable
have clustered”

PART III
THE UMAYYAD DYNASTY

CHAPTER 8
MUAWIYA - 1 (661 A.D. to 680 A.D.)

Republic Turned Into Monarchy

Mu'awiya's accession to the throne was a turning point in the political history of Islam.
With it ended the republican Caliphate, and kingship made inroads into the body politic
of Islam. The Uniayyad monarchs introduced certain drastic changes in the Islamic
political structure which ultinately led to a reversal of the democratic spirit of Islam and
unleashed forces which conditioned the shape of things to come in the history of the
Islamic Common wealth.

Abolition of Electoral College

It was an established principle during the Caliphate that no individual could make a
personal claim for the office of the Caliph. It was left to the discretion of the Advisory
Council (Shura) and the electoral of the citizens of Mecca" and Medina to nominate or
elect a successor. The Umayyads gave up this practice. Mu'āwiya who founded the
Umayyad dynasty was not himself elected by the people. He had forced himself to power
with the help of the sword. In i speech at Medina, he once declared: “I know that you are
not happy with ny rule, nor do you desire. it............But I have overpowered you with my
sword.........Now if you find that I do not give you your full rights, then be satisfied with
the part."" Not content with his own imposition, he nominated his son, Yazid, as his heir-
apparent and crown-prince during his lifetime and thus introduced the practice of
bereditary succession in Islam. This practice was absolutely alien to the Islamic political
system envolved by the Propbet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) and his
illustrious successors and to the Arabian. social structure at large.

State Treasury Converted Into Personal Wealth

According to the Islamic principle the Public Treasury (Baii al-Māl) was a divine trust
with the Caliph and he was required to manage it in the best interests of the people in
accordance with the precedents established by the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah
be upon him) and followed by his successors, The Ummayyad rulers misused their
authority and converted the Public Treasury into personal wealth. The rulers used the
funds as they desired and the public had no right to make any
enquiry about their misuse.

End of freedom of Expression

Islam had not only bestowed the right of freedom of speech but also had enjoined the
people to use it for the promotion of good (Ma'ruf) and prevention of evil (Munkar). The
righteous Caliphs not only allowed the people to evaluate and criticize their policies in
public but also encouraged them to actively participate in matters of policy and
administration, As a result of this people fearlessly denounced the oppressing officials
and got their grievances redressed. However during the reign of the Umayyad monarchs
tongues were tied and consciences sealed. Those who would fearlessly raise the voice of
their conscience were severely persecuted and ruthlessly punished. Mu'ā wiya killed a
Companion, Hujr_ bin 'Adi, and his seven comrades for declining to denounceAli (Allah
be pleased with him) in public. «Alisha (Allah be pleased with her), the respectable
widow of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), reacted sharply .to this
brutality and warned him: “O' Mu'awiya, did you not fear the wrath of Allah' when you
ordered Hujr to be killed?”

Abolition Of The Advisory Council

In the days of the Republic. the Caliph Has assisted by an Advisory Council (Shura). No
government without consultation was the motto of Caliph 'Umar (Allah be pleased with
him).' The righteous Caliphs always consulted the pronuntent Companions before
arriving at an important decision, Matters of national interest were referred to the public
for a general discussion and consensus (Dpa). The Umayyad monarchs gave up the
practics of consultation and abolished the Advisory Council only to be replaced by
individual authoritarianism and autocracy.

Emergence Of Racial Discrimination

Islam had vehemently denounced the racial feelings and tribal prejudices prevailing
among the *Arabs and had succeeded in bringing about equality and liberalism in society,
both among the 'Arabs and the non-Arabs. The Umayyad monarchs however shattered
this harmony by adopting a strictly pro ‘Arab policy. They imposed the Jizya on all me
non-'Arab converts of Islam which created butter feelings and distrust among the non-
Arab Muslims and especially among the Persian converts thought that they were
enslaved by the 'Arabs. un-Islamic discrimination against the non Arab population
culminated in the emergence of Persian chauvinism which, in the subsequent century,
helped the 'Abbasids considerably in overthrowing the Umayyad dynasty.

Mu'awiya was the son of Abu Sufyān, the leader of the Quraish and a forinidable enemy
of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) before the conquest of Mecca.
He and his father both accepted 'Islam on the eve of the fall of Mecca. After the
reconciliation the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) married Abū
Sufyan's daughter Umm Habiba. Mu'awiya's political career started during the Caliphate
of 'Umar (Allah be pleased with him) when he was appointed 'Amil of a Syrian district
after the death of his brother, Yazid bin Abu Sufyan. Being a competent and efficient
administrator, he was entrusted with the governorship of Syria, a post which he held for
seventeen long years and it was the governorship of Syria which finally paved the way
for the inception of the Umayyad dynasty.

Immediately after the assassination of 'Ali (Allah Pe pleased with him), Mu'awiya was
declared Caliph at Jerusalem in 40 A. H., 660 A.D. No sooner he accepted the office, than
he shifted the Islamic capital from Medina to Damascus. (Towards the end of 'Ali's
Caliphate Küfa had become the seal of government). The people of Küfa were still
opposed to Murāwiya's rule and they had declared Hasan, the eldest son of 'Ali (Allah
be pleased with him), his legitimate successor. The citizens of Mecca and Medina were
also not in favour of making the Umayyads their master. Murāwiya threatened to invad.
Kufa. His enormous might and the lukewarm loyalty of the Kūfan troops finally forced
Hase to abdicate his position as Caliph and acknowledge -Mu'āwiya's authority against-
some assurances and guarantees.

Balance of power
Even prior to the advent of Islam, 'Arabia was inhabited by people claiming descent from
two different stocks, the one from Quhtan and the other from Ismāʻil, the son of Prophet
Ibrahim (peade be upon him). The former lived in Yemen and the latter in Hijāz. The
Yemenite stock originated from Himyar, a king who had assumed the title Hipyar
meaning the red, as he always wore a red mantle. After him they were called the
Himyarites. The Ismāʻili tribes of the nothern parts were called Bani Modhar or
Modharites of Modhar, a grandson of Murādh. Between these two races, the Himyarites
and the Modharites, there existed perpetual rivalry and antagonism. Their language,
customs, 'manners and tastes were similar, and yet the differences between the two races
were sharp and clear-cut. The teachings of the Prophet (peace and blessiags of Allah be
upon him) bear to citace the racial hatred towards moulding these tribes into a
homogenous nation. After the great Islamic conguests the two tribes were more or less
equally discoved, especially in the eastern provinces as well as in Egypt and Africa, but
wherever they went they carried the old feelings of hatred with them. "Under the stern
rule of the great 'Umar (Allah be pleased with him), it was kept down with a strong hand."
ner the fall of the Caliphate, Mu'awiya adopted a shrewd policy towards these rival
forces. He checked their anta gonism from being aggravated and very wisely maintained
a balance of power between the two. While leaning for support chiefly on the Modharites:
he held the balance quite fairly between them and the Himvarites, not permitting one to
unduly opp CSS other. The maintenance of this equilibrium herpes Mu'awiya
considerably in re-establishing politica! stability in the empire and consolidating his own
power.

Conquests In Africa

Mu'awiya's reign witnessed not only me establishment of political stability and the cu
tion of the empire but also the territorial commonwealth. The conquest et Egypt did not
cost the Arabs much time or effort. The conquest of North Africa however tells a very
different story. The new phase began when Mu'awiya appointed 'Amr bin al-'Aş, the
Governor of Egypt for the last time. “Uqba bin Nafey, the nephew of 'Amr was th¢ hero
and leader of the Arab advance. He had already shown signs of boldness and
independence in the earlier battles. After the defeat of Gregory during 'Uthmān's rule,
the Roman governors had recccupied the abandoned territories in North Africa. But the
burden of taxes they exacted from the native Berbers was so intolerable that the Barbers
invited the Muslims to liberate them from the Byzantine yoke. Mu'awiya entrusted this
task to 'Uqba who marched into North Africa and conquered that territory for the
Muslims.

‘Uqba, The Founder of Qairawan

In 670 A. D., 'Uqba bin Nafey founded the city of Qairawan in North Africa which later
became the capital of the entire al-Maghrib. The triumphant march of 'Uqba into al-
Maghrib and the crushing defeat he inflicted on the Byzantine and the native Rerbers had
far-reaching effects in the history, bf Africa. However 'Uqba's bold and indomitable
spirits made him more suited to active military service than the task of administration. A
more suitable administrator was his successor Abü al-Muhajir who as sent from Egypt to
replace him for a certain period. “Uqba rappeared on the scene in 680 and began his epic
march from Qairawan to the West. His famous march in the sea not only followed the
coastline but also penetrated the Algerian interior and then Tangier. From Tangier he
crossed the Atlas ridge and reached the occan north of Agadir. There he rode into the sea
and exclaimed : “O’ Allah, I call you to witness that if my advance were not stopped by
the sea I would go still further.” In the same year countless Berbers emerging from the
Atlas mountains fell upon the Muslims and besieged Qairawan. “Uqba daunt lessly
accepted the challenge and breaking the scabbard of his sword with a resolution to win
or to die thrust himself into the midst of the invaders. He ended his fantastic ride with a
heroic death in 683 A.D. 'Ugba is regarded as one of the greatest military geniuses in the
history of Islam.

Muhallab

While 'Uqba was conquering al-Maghrib, another great general Muhallab bin Abi Sufra
was engaged in bloody battles in castern Afghanistan. He subjugated the territory and
came down as far as the Indus valley. Ghazna, Kabul, Qandhar, Balkh, Samarkent,
Bukhara and Tirmidh' were all conquered one after another and annexed to the Islamic
Commonwealth. In the subsequent period and especially during the reign of 'Abd al-
Malik, Muhallab played a very dominant role in suppressing thc Kharijite revolts and
restoring peace and order. Mu’āwiya also had a plan to conquer Constantinople and with
this ambition in mind he sent a formidable expedition to conquer the Byzantine capital
under the command of his son Yazid. The expedition, however proved a failure.

Navy

Mu'āwiya will be remembered in the Muslims bistory as the builder of the first Muslim
navy. He had initiated his naval build-up as early as the reign of 'Umar (Allah be pleased
with him) when he was the Governor of Syria. The Romans who were now taking
advantage of the civil war and making encroachments upon the Muslim territory. They
were defeated in several battles and their fleet fled in front of the Muslins in the
Mediterranean. This fleet of 500 ships conquered Cyprus, Rhodes and other Greek
islands. on the cost of Asia Minor.

Yazid's Nomination

Mughira bin Shauba, the Governor of Küfa who was anticipating his dismissal, came
forward with the idea of Yazid's nomination as the future caliph. To persuade Mlu'awiya
further he sent a paid delegation from Kūsa to press the demand, under the leadership
of his own son Mūsa. Consequently Mu'awiya decided to nominate Yazid as the
successor to the Umayyad throne. He first tried to buy the allegiance of Abdullah bin
'Umar who flatly declined him. After taking the oath from 'Irāq and Syria, Mu'āwiya
personally visited Medina and persuaded, bribed and forced the citizens to take the oath
of allegiance. 'Abdullah ibn 'Umar, Husain ibn 'Ali, Abdur Rahman ibn Abu Bakr and
'Abdullah ibn Zubair, however, did not yield and left Medina for: Mecca. Mu'āwiya
passed away in April, 680 at the age of 75.

Mu'awiya’s Success

Mu'āwiya's great success as the founder of the Vmayyad dynasty can, in no small
measure, be attributed to the support he received from 'Amr ibn al-'Āṣ, Mughira ibn
Shuaba, and Ziyad ibn Abih of whom 'Amr was the greatest political genius of his time.
Apart from the favourable circumstances and the support of the three stalwarts, the secret
of Musāwiya's tremendous success. lay in his personal quality of forbearance. His
prudent mildness. by Wlaich he tried to disarm the enemy and his absolute self-control
made him, under all circumstances, the master of any situation. "I apply not my sword
where my lash suffices, nor my lash where my tongue is enough,” he is reported to have
said. or. an occasion. Ameer 'Ali describes him as:
“Astute, unscrupulous, clear-headed, miserly, but lavishly liberal when necessary,
out wardly observant of all religious duties, but never permitting any human or
divine ordinances to interfere with the prosecution of his plans or ambition."

CHAPTER 9
YAZID
(680 A.D.-683 A.D.)

In accordance with the scheme of Mu'awiya, Yazid ascended the throne in 680 and with
Safe the hereditary principle of succession monarchical dynasties. As the corean WAS
ALSO upon the people by Mu' wiva. it was bound to have Its repercussions when the
power any no more. Even when Mu'awiyat nad paround arrived in Mecca and Medina
to obtain the concen of the people in favour of his impious and son Yazid the stalwarts
like lisannonser Abdullah bin Umar Abdur Rahman om nou and 'Abdullah bin Zubair
had flatly refused to swear unei allegiance to the great dispirasi Umayyads. Later on
Abdullah ibn 'Umar, who was now a frustrated man, after the great
rated man, after the great political turmoil, gave up the opposition and retired 10 9 But
Husain and Ibn Zubair who claimants to the Caliphate rema the last. Husain was
undoubtedly la and capdale man to lead the nation and Ibn Zubair who themselves were
Caliphate remained adamant till s undoubtedly the most deserving lead the nation in the
true spirit of Islam. He was sincere, honest and upright and was noted for his chivalry,
prudence, truthfulness, piety.and forbearance. He had inherited most of the excellent
virtues from his illustrious parents, 'Ali and Fatima (Allah be pleased with them) and was
brought so in the most ideal atmosphere found in the housy of the Prophet (peace and
blessings of Allah be upor -him).. This virtuous and noble grandson of the founder of
Islam was highly respected in Medina, His indomitable spirit could never bow down
before the sinful, incompetent and ill-tempered Yazid who, by the irony of fate, was now.
placed at the helm of Islamic affairs. He was restlessly waiting for an opportunity to rise
against the most un-Islamic rule of Yazid.

Tragedy of Karbala

The opportunity came when the citizens of Kufa sought his help against the tyranny of
Yazid. Husdin knew his limitations in terms of military strength. His conscience forced
him to respond to their request. Most of the veteran Companions ind sympathisers of
Husain were against this adventure as they knew the capricious nature of the Küfans
who always lacked firmness and stability in their decisions. “They did not know their
own minds, from day to day. One moment ardent as fire for some cause or person, the
next moment they were as cold as ice and , as indifferent as the dead." This instability of
the Küfan mind had been one of the major causes of ‘Ali's helplessness against Mu'awiya.
Husain's friends were desperately trying to persuade him not to trust the Kūfans and
embark upon an infeasible plan. Husain was in two 'minds, but the repeated assurance
of the Kūfans ultimately prevailed. He then sent his cousin Muslim bin Aqil to ascertain
the situation. Being convincingly assured by the Kúfans, Muslim bin 'Aqil gave him a
green signal. Husain inimediately left for Kūfa with his family and a small band of friends
and associates. He had hardly crossed the desert when news came that Musliin bin 'Agil
had been killed by the Governor of Kūfa. He was taken aback but now he could not step
back. Leaving Küfa on the right, he diverted his march to the left in the west of the
Euphrates. 'Obaidullah ibn Ziyad, the Governor of Küfa who was closely following the
march of Husain, immediately sent 'Umar bin Sa'd with a cavalry of 4000 to encircle the
small band, Husain was forced to encamp on the field of Karbala on the bank of the
Euphratesi, about twenty five.miles north of Kūfa. It was the first day: of Muharram.
'Obaidullah demanded an uncondi tional surrender. Husain proposed the three honour
able conditions : that he should be allowed to go back to Medina without any warfare; or
he should be stationed in a frontier garrison to fight against the enemies of Islam; or he
should be allowed to meet Yazid in Damascus. The General did not relent and ordered
his cruel leiutenant to bring Husain to Kula dead or alive, without further delay. 'Umar
bin Sad then cut off the access to the river so that thirst might fçrce him to surrender, but
in vain.

On the morning of the tenth day of Muharrain, Husain entered the battle-field with his
small and insignificant band for the finale. The battle with uttefly disproportionate armies
on the two sides began amnidst the cries of women and children. Husain's little nephew
Qasim was struck with an arrow and died in the arms of his uncle. The sons and brothers,
frieiids and cousins fell one after another "uatill at last there remained but the grandson
of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him)........ Raising himself for one
desperate charge, he threw himself among the Umayyads who fell back on every side.
Faint with loss of blood, he soon sank to the ground, and then the murderous crew rushed
upon the dying hero. They cut off his head, trampled on his body and with savage
ferocity, subjected it to every ignominy: They carried his head to the castle of Kūfa and
the inhuman Obaidullah ibn Ziyad struck it on the mouth with a cane. “Alas!” exclaimed
an aged Moslem, “on these lips have I seen the lips of the apostle of Allah."

The tragedy of Karbala is rolled as one of the most horrifying events in the Primery of
Islam.. Its disastrous effects were far-reaching and more than anything paved the way for
a final split in the Islamic brotherbood. Leaving aside the judicial gestion whether it was
right for Husain to revolt against the established authority of Yazid min such & Sandhu
insignificant band of followers. 20 Whent permits such an uprising onco pice and we had
peen restored, the stand taken wine grand Prophet (peace and blessings of all be upon
any in response to the voice of his discience, shines in the galaxy of such heroic souls in
Socrates and Jesus Christ who safe-guarded the honor of humanity sacrificing their own
lives. Husain's. sincere name and his noble spirit which was burning with me ne of truth
and Islamic justice could not tolerate the sublime principles of the noble lith, so
scrupulouse guarded by its founder and his Caliphs, being dastu to the ground at the
hands of a wicked and gegenerass despot who was bent upon converting the nigd out of
caliphate into a tuthless. Inhuman and con monarchy. The blood that Husain shed a lot
more of Karbala not only inmortalized his name bulan the indomitable human spirit to
figisu ascendancy of truth.

"The blood of Husain even more than that of his father, proved to be the seed.
proved to be the seed of the Shiite church” Shi'ism was born on the Muharram.”
tenth of The massacre of Karbala gave the Call's a battle-cry which stood for the
vengeance of Husain's blood, just as Mu'awiya, Talha and Zubair had stood for the
vengeance of 'Uthmān's blood. But the after-effects of Karbala proved more bitter and
long lasting than those of Jamal and Siffin. After this tragedy the Muslim nation was more
pronouncedly divided into two antagonist camps which ultimately resulted in the fall of
the Umayyads at the hands of the ‘Abbasids.

The Desecration of Medina

Medina was shocked to hear the horrible tales of the massacre of Karbala and there arose
a revolt against the barbarous rule of the Umayyad tyrant. Yazid immediately despatched
a task force, consisting mainly of Christian Syrians, under the command of the one-eyed
Muslim bin 'Uaba, an old and infirm soldier of bad repute. The punitive expedition made
a halt on the volcanic plain of al-Harra, east of Medina. The 12000 strong army of the one-
eyed General invaded the holy city of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon
him) in August 683 A.D. The citizens of Medina were ultimately defeated and the city
was conquered by the Umayyad troops. The incidents that followed will always remaiti
an ineffaceable blot on the name of Yazid and the Umayyads. The Syrian troops were
allowed to sack the city the way they liked. For three consecutive days Medina witnessed
a horrid dance of destruction and sacrilege. According to Zuhri, seven hundred
prominent citizens and ten thousand people were butchered. In their loot and plunder
the Syrian trocps entered the houses of Medina. All these inhuman atrocities were
perpetrated in no other town than the city of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah
be upon him) himself, about which he had once said: "Any one who intends evil against
Medina will be melted like lead in the fires of Hell." The desecration of Medina proved
to be the last nail in Yazid's coffin.

Abdullah Ibn Zubair

After the elimination of Husain, the main obstacle that remained in the way of Yazid was
'Abdullah, the son of Zubair and a nephew of 'A'isha (Allah be pleased with her). After
the martyrdom of Husain, Abdullah remained the sole claimant to the caliphate. He had
refused to accept Yazid's nomination to the caliphate even when Mu'awiya was alive.
Immediately after the massacre of Karbala, as a reaction to Yazid’s inhuman and brutal
acts, the Meccan's declared Ibn Zuhair as the legitimate caliph of Islam, and soon the
whole of Hijāz followed suit. For Yazid, the situation was not only alarming but was
going out of hand. Therefore, immediately after the desecration of Medina, he ordered
the one-eyed Muslim bin qua to proceed to Mecca and wipe out the menace created by
'Abdullah once and for all. Muslim bin 'Uqba died on the way and was succeeded by
Husain bid Nume who fixed his catapults in the surrounding hills of Mecca and
showered stones upon the inviolable Sanctuary of Mecca where 'Abdullah ibn Zubair had
taken refuge. "In the course of the siege the Ka'ba itself caught fire and the sacred Black
Stone developed cracks, and the House of Allah looked like the born bosom of a wailing
maid.” Whether the fire was a deliberate act or a mere accident, the historians are divided
over it; but there are no two opinions about the raining of stones on the Haram.

In the meanwhile Yazid died and the Umayyad general suspended the operations,
fearing consequent disorder in Syria. The war came to temporary halt and Ibn Zubair
rebuilt the Ka'ba after the withdrawal of the Umayyad army.

Yazid's short rule of two years tells a horrible tale of misrule, debauchery, corruption and
inhuman atrocities. Apart from the martyrdom of Husain, it was the tragedy of Islam that
in its noble and ideal caliphal office, a man of Yazid's low and ignoble character could
manage an unlawful entry. Hasan al-Basri the celebrated jurist, once declared: “The
affairs of the Muslims were thrown into commotion by two persons, 'Amr bin al-'Aş'
when he advised Mu'āwiya to raise the copies of the Holy Quran on lances and Mughira
bin Shoaba who suggested to Mu'awiya to take the oath of fealty to Yazid."

Yazid's reign is noted for three misdeeds. "He killed Husain bin 'Ali in the first year of
his reign. In the second year he plundered Medina and desecrated it for three days, and
in the third year he raided the Ka'ba."
 CHAPTER 10
MU'AWIYA-II
(683 A.D. 10 684 A.D.)
Mu'awiya bin Abu Sufyān had introduced the practice of hereditary succession in the
Islamic polity and it was maintained by the ensuing Umayyad generations. Thus after
Yazid's death, his son Mu'äwiya-II ascended the Umayyad throne. He was a . man of mild
disposition. Unlike his two predecessors, he was more spiritually oriented and did not
have the ambition to wield absolute power and authority over his subjects. But there was
no place for a pious man like him in the Umayyad court. In the beginning of his rule
Mu'awiya-II desperately tried to amend the matters and wipe out the black spots of his
father's heinous crimes, but Marwan and other Umayyad oligarch would not let him do
so.

At last, having got fed up with the court intrigues, the noble Mu'awiya abdicated the
throne and retired to a solitary life after a reign of a few months. According to some
historians, Mu'awiya bin Yazid did not die a natural death but was poisoned by some
conspirators at the instigation of Marwan.

CHAPTER 11
MARWAN-I
(684 A.D. 10 685 A.D.)
At the time of Mu'awiya's death Marwåa bin al-Hakam, the notorious cousin and chief
secretary of Caliph 'Uthman (Allah be pleased with him), was still alive. It was chiefly
due to his designs that the Umayyads had come into power. During the first civil war
between 'Ali (Allah be pleased with him) and Mu'awiya, he had supported the latter's
cause by sympathising with ‘A’isha (Allah be pleased with her) and treacherously killing
Talha in the Battle of the Camel (Jamal). After the assassination of 'Ali (Allah be pleased
with him), when Mu'awiya ascended the throne, he became a prominent member of the
Umayyad oligarchy. Nevertheless, his ambitious soul was not content with that position
and inwardly he was clamoưring for the Umayyad crown and the opportunity came
when Mu'awiya-11 abdicated the throne. Mu'awiya-II had left no child but he had a
brother, Khalid, the younger sono Yazid. But Khalid was a mere lad at the time and
Marwān the Umayyad oligarchs refused to acknowledge him as their ruler. They
demanded the accession of an elder statesman because the situation was critical. Immedi
ately after the death of Yazid, Abdullah ibn Zubair had been acknowledged as the
legitimate Caliph all over Hijaz, 'Iraq and even Khorāsān, Egypt and parts of Syria. The
position was so critical for the Umayyads that had Ibn Zubair invaded Syria at that time,
they would have been completely wiped out, but unfortunately for Islam, Ibn Zubair
missed the opportunity. In these critical circumstances the butcher Ibn Ziyād tried to
declare himself as caliph in Başra. Failing in this attempt, he approached Marwan and
instigated him to snatch power. Old age had not dimmed Marwan's genius for intrigue.
He first won over the most influential 'Amr by promising him his successorship. At the
same time he promised the supporters of Khalid that no sooner the young lad comes of
age, than he would abdicate the throne in his favour. Not only that, he bribed the
Himyarites of Syria with lavish presents and ultimately succeeded in ascending the
Umayyad throne thus fulfilling his age-old ambition.

Marj Rahat

After winning the support of the Syrian Himya rites, Marwān immediately launched a
campaign of extermination against the Modharites. The Modharitd chief Dhahhaq was a
staunch protagonist of 'Abdullah ibn Zubair. The hostilities started at a place called Marj
Rahat, a few miles in the north-east of Damascus. The battle was hotly contested. The
Modharites were ownumbered by the Himyarites, vet they gave a gallant account of
themselves. Ultimately Marwan came forward with a political stratagem which brought
about the death of the Modharite chief. Dhahhaq's death spelt disaster for the Modharites
and they were severely defeated in the battle. The discomfiture of the Modharites at Marj
Rahat resulted in the subjugation of the whole of Syria. Soon after that Egypt was also
won over. Now Marwan, as he had designed earlier, violated his pledge given to Khalid,
the younger son of Yazid who was supported to succeed him, and appointed his own son
'Abd al-Mālik as his successor. He also persuaded 'Amr to withdraw his claim.

Marwān died in 685 A.D., at the hands of Yazid's widow whom he had married in order
to arrive at a compromise with her son Khalid who was promised the throne after him.
In the words of Ameer 'Ali, “It was a fitting end to a life of intrigue and violence."

CHAPTER 12
ABD AL-MALIK
(685 A.D. 10 705 A.D.)
Marwan was succeeded by his worthy son al-Malik. 'Abd al-Malik's 'head was uneasy
after wearing the crown. From the very beginning of his reign he had to face a great
number of difficultjes. Finding himself hemmed in by many antagonists, he devoted
himself with the sagacity of his eminent predecessor Mu'awiya-I, to the elimination of all
problems and consolidation of the Empire. He was an energetic man having a brilliant
mind and extra ordinary ability. He left" no stone unturned in gathering the scattered
threads of the Umayyad policy. The task was formidable but he proved worthy of it.
Mukhtar, The Avenger

No sooner had 'Abd al-Malik assumed the reins of government than Mukhtār bin Abu
'Obaid rose in open revolt against him, after establishing his power and influence in Iraq.
It was a politico-religious movement started by Sulaimān bin Sarrad who had issued
forth against the Syrians with a large body of the 'Irāqis mourning the brutal murder of
Husain in the field of Karbala and vowing vengeance upon his murderers. After
Sulaiman's death Mukhtar Thaos led the rebellion of the “avengers.” Adopting all
methods of intrigue and political expediency. Mukhtar succeeded in amassing a large
number of 'Alawis around him, and with their help gained possession of Kūfa and
rapidly extended his sway over the whole of 'Iraq. Thereafter, he despatched a force
under the command of Ibn al-Ashtar to eliminate 'Obaidullah ibn Ziyad. Ibn al-Ashtar
succeeded in defeating 'Obaidullah in the battle of the Zab and this victory made Mukhtār
the undisputed master of 'Iraq, although for a short period of time.

'Abdullah ibn Zubair who had established himself as the legitimate Caliph in Hijāz, 'Iraq
and parts of Syria, could not tolerate the anarchy resulting from Mukhtar's ruthless
rebellious movement. Therefore he had to despatch his brother Mus'ab bin Zubair, whom
he had appointed governor of Başra to meet the challenge. The struggle was severe and
prolonged but the dissensions among the "avengers" themselves helped Mus'ab and he
ultimately succeeded in defeating Mukhtār and eliminating the “Avengers.” After
Mukhtar's death, Ibn Zubair once again became he unchallenged master of "Irāg,
Mesopotamia and Khcräsän.

Ibn Zubair would have certainly succeeded in bringing about political stability and
efficient adminis tration in his domain had it not been for the freak nature of Kufan
loyalty and the disastrous uprisings of the Kharjités. At last Mus'ab despatched
Muhallab, a renowned soldier, on a punitive expedition against the Kharjites. Muhallab
did succeed in his extermination campaign after a prolonged struggle, but by then tilese
incessant fights had considerably weakened the power of 'Abdullah ibn Zubair.

Hajjaj Bin Yusuf

In a few years ‘Abd'al-Malik had eliminated most of his enernies by sending massive
forces against then and had firmly established his power in Damascus. Now he turned
his attention towards his host formidable enemy, 'Abdullah ibn Zubair. He advanced
towards Mesopotamia where 'Abdullah's brother was ruling as the deputy. The split and
defections arnong the Kofans encouraged him to storm Küfa. In the battle that ensued the
heroic Mus'ab and his lieutenant Ibn al-Ashtar were killed and Mesopotamia once again
came under the Urbayyad sway. In the pican male Hajjaj bin Yusuf, a young school-
master of the Banu Thaqifa of Ta'if had come into the limelig a man of military genius,
"who had laid down pen and taken up the sword in support of the totterin Umayyad
throne.” It was he who, after becoming the viceroy of Mesopotamia, unsheathed his
sword shed blood everywhere on the 'Arabian soil and thus earn the title of "a blood-
thirsty tyrant.” A matchless orator, Hajjaj, when called upon to pacify the fickle minded
Kūfans, entered the grand mosque of Kura in disguise, accompanied only by twelve
companions and addressed the massive gathering thus : "I am he who scatters darkness
and climbs lofty sumínits; as I life the turtan from my face you will know me. o people of
Kūfa, certainly I am that man. I see heads ripe for cutting and indeed I am the man to do
it. I see blood flowing between your turbans and beards.”

The Siege of Mecca

After defeating Mus'ab and recapturing Meso potamia, 'Abd al-Malik wanted to
eliminate the greatest hurdle in his way, 'Abdullah ibn Zubair, who was ruling over a
large part of the Commonwealth as a recognized Caliph with Mecca as his stronghoid.
This time he entrusted the command to the gallant but notoriously cruel Hajjāj bin Yusuf.
Hajjaj marched with an overwhelming force into Hijāz. He captured Medina without
much difficulty and then marching triumphantly on, arrived at Mecca and besieged it. It
Con the time of the annual pilgrimage and the sacred period in which bloodshed was
forbidden for all Muslims. Pushing aside all the norms of moral decency and religious
dignity, the tyrant placed battering engines (Minjaniq) on the hills surrounding the holy
city and hurled massive missiles on the Meccans and the pilgrims. ‘Abdullah gave stiff
resistance and Hajjāj turned the siege into a blockade. The residents of Mecca were
compelled to desert the city on account of the acute shortage of food and ‘Abdullah was
left only with a few followers. Bidding farewell to his mother Asma bint Abu Bakr, he
kissed her tenderly on the forehead and then unsheathed his sword with a determination
to win or die. Like a lion he fought against the Umayyad onslaught but fell over-powered
by the enormous enemy. Then his head was chopped off and hung on a lamp-post in
Mecca for several days to rot there after being exhibited in Medina and Damascus.

Abdullah had a heroic personality. An ambitious but admirable character, he had a strong
sense of justice. In many respects he resembled Husain ibn *Ali. Before his martyrdom he
was acknowledged as the legitimate Caliph of the Commonweilth by a majority of
Muslims as, during that time, he was in control of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina,
After the death of 'Abdullah ibn Zubair, Abd al-Mālik became the undisputed master of
the Islamic world. The Friday sermon began to be read in his name everywhere. Even
Muhallab, the gallant lieutenant of Ibn Zubair, now gave up his resistance and swore his
allegiance to 'Abd al-Malik.

The Kharjites

The Kharjite rebels were not yet totallyannihilated by the men in power, and taking
advantage of the war between 'Abd al-Malik and Ibn Zubair, they had considerably
strengthened their position. Soon they started creating trouble and 'Abd al-Malik had to
launch a massive campaiga against th=n. He entrusted the Persian campaign to Muhallab
who, with his great military powers, destroyed most of the Kharjite strongholds.

Al-Maghreb

After the death of the brilliant 'Uqba bin Naley the situation in North-Africa was
undergoing change. The Berbers and the Byzantines made common cause and joil, ng
hands against the Muslims they had forced them to evacuate Qairawan. For next few
years the Berbers chief Kusaila and his hordes made persistent raids through the interior
of al-Maghreb and the urban centres which still had Byzantine populations and
governors ruiing with almost total autonomy. 'Abd al-Malik immediately took up the
challenge and turned towards the restoration of Muslim domination in Africa. He
despatched a Syrian governor Zubair to mount an attack on the Berbers and Kusaila was
killed in a battle near Qairawan in 688 A.D. Qairawan was recaptured and soon Hassan
bin Nu'man, an energetic and wise administrator, arrived from Damascus with
reinforcements. He, as an able governor, succeeded in consolidating the 'Arab presence
in Africa. Like his predecessor Abu al-Muhajir, Hassan aimed at separating the Berbers
from the Byzantines by winning the natives over to the cause of Islam. In 697 A.D.,
Carthage, the hitherto impregnable capital of the province, was finally conquered.

The next serious danger which the Muslims had to encounter was the revolt of a woman
named Kahina who declared herself a divine incarnation and claimed supernatural
powers. Inspiring the Berbers with a new zeal she inflicted a severe defeat on the Muslim
forces on the banks of the river Nini. However in 701 A.D., she was finally defeated and
put to death. Hassan thus ultimately succeeded in bringing the previously hostile masses
into the orbit of Islam.

'Abd Al-Malik as a Reformer

Alter restoring law and orde 'AN al-Mālik introduced some vital administrative petons.
First during the reign of 'Umar (Allah be please with him). When the expansion of the
Empie in the foreign territories had been accomplished oilical accounts and registers were
allowed to be maintamed in the regional languages which sometimes creating confusion.
'Abd al-Malik abolished this system and in order to achieve uniformity in administration
Salaute the official language of the entire Island Common wealth. Second, in the early
days of Isian, Roman and Persian coins were the currency. In the reign of Umar (Allah be
pleased with line), alter the great termtorial expansion, all sorts of colus polis or al-Malik
took upon himself the task of standa. Mas de currency. He established an official mint at
Damascus and issued the first Arab cous bus silver and copper with the denomination,
Dirham and Fals, following the Byzantine style of coinage. Third, another important to
went of the 'Arabic script. The moving spirit behind it, however was the veteran schon
Hajjaj bin Yusuf. Hajjāj introduced diacritical marks in the 'Arabic marks in the 'Arabic
script which made it easier for the non-Arabs to learn difficulty and with correct pronung
'Abd al-Malik also improved the pre non-'Arabs to learn it without much with correct
pronunciation. Fourth,
improved the provailing postal service ("l-barid). He increased the number of postal units
and nade the service efficient and regular.

'Abd al-Mālik died at the age of 62 in 705 A, L., after two decades of eiïicient rule. He was
cruel when cruelty vas the best weapon and just when justice was not opposed in the way
of imperial interests. "Daring and energetic, resolute and ambitious, he never faltered in
the pursuit of his designs.” He was an ardent lover of poetry and a great builder. He built
the Dome of the Rock at Jerusalem at the site of the Prophet's halt during 1: celestial
journey (Mi'rāj). 'Abd al-Mālik also founded the city of al-Wasit in 'Iraq.

CHAPTER 13
WALID-I
(705 A.D. 10 715 A.D.)
Walid-I succeeded to the Umayyad throne in 705 A.D. On the advice of his father 'Abd
al-Malik, he retained Hajjāj with the viceroyalty of the Eastern Provinces. Hajjāj who had
a personal grudge against Yazid bin Muhallab removed him from Khorāsán.

Qutaiba Ibn Muslim

The ‘Arab conquest of Transoxiana, (Ma-vara-al Nahr) was carried out under the able
command of Qutaiba ibn Musliin. In 705 A. D., he was appointed governor of Khorāsân
to replace Yazid bin Muhallab. Qutaiba was a loyal lieutenant of Hajjaj and being a
member of a rather obscure tribe, he was not involved in the tribal disputes of Modharites
and Himyarites. He was a shrewd diplomat and statesman. During his viceroyalty the
'Arab conquest reached its rantees! limits in Central Asia in less than ten years. Qutaida
was now prepared to commence operations against the territories east of the river Oxus.
The lands of Transoxiana were ruled by a number of petty Iraniar and Turkish rulers who
nominally recognized the sovereignty of China and that of the Khaqan of Turkey.
Qutaiba first marched into the rebellious town of Balkh and subjugated its prince. The
campaign against Bukhara took the next two years. Qutaiba's policy in the conquered
provinces was to keep the petty local dynasties in their official positions to ensure their
obedience and payment of tributes to him. Khwarizm and Samarkand, the capital df
Sogdiana, also came under Qutaiba's control very soon. The next to fall was Shash, the
present day Tashkent. Then he penerated straight on to Kashghap, in the heart of Central
Asia on the borders of China. The 'Arab conquest of Transoxiana was thus inseparably
linked up with Qutaiba's name. But his campaign was soon cut short by Hajjāj's death.

Mohammad Bin Qasim

At the time when Qutaiba was making advances into Sogdiana, another very young Arab
General, Muhammad bin Qasim was organizing operations in the Indus Valley.
Muhammad bin Qasim was a co tribesman and a cousin of Hajjaj; they were members of
the small tribe of Thaqif from Ta'if. Hajaj entrusted the south-eastern conquest of westem
India and Sind to his seventeen-year old cousin. In 710 A.D., with a chosen battalion of o,
first invaded the port of chosen battalion of 6,000 Sun contingents the ng General set off
from the host coastal region of Makran towards the Indure where the Brahinin prince
Dahir was ruling as a fumant Muammad bin Qāsim invaded the port of Daibul in all and
captured 1. In June 712 Dahir was defcand and killed in a cupied his capital. bed battle
and the conqueror on his way up to the Indus Valley, Muhammad Din Qasim crossed the
Rais where Alexander, the Ureai halted) and invaded Muirao. It fell after a Long siege in
713. - At Multan the victorious General received the news of Hajjaj's death and soon after
aiman's accession to the that al-Walid died. Sulaiman's acce meant the end of Muhammad
bin Qāsim's career as it did for Outaiba. He was sent back in chains and put to death.

Musa Bin Nusair

In North Africa Musa bin Nusair carried on Hassan's policy of winning over the Berbers
to Islam. Musa, an 'Arab from the east, was appointed governor after Hassan and was
busy subjugating and pas the al-Maghreb. He is principally famous for the conquest of
Spain, but.no less deserving for his eficient and peaceful governorship of North Africa.

Tariq and The Conquest of Spain

Two Muslim conquerors were mainly responsible for the rápid conquest of Spain, they
were Mūsa bin Nusair and Tariq bin Ziyâd who came from a Berber fasily converted to
Islam several generations earlier After the conquest of Tangier, Mūsa had left Tarly there
as his lieutenant and gone back to Qairawan Here Tariq, who had an ambitious plan to
go farine received further encouragement from Count Julian 01 Ceuta on the coast of al-
Maghreb, who was ve much impressed by Müsa's excellent administration in Africa. He
invited Tärig to invade Spain and deliver its people from the exploitation and misrule of
the Gothic princes. Tariq carried out a preliminary recon naissance in a raid during 710
A.D. Then, in spring 711, Tariq himself took the daring step of crossing the straits with
an army of 7,000 men, mostly his fellow Berber converts to Islam. He landed in Spain
near the mountain which was to bear his name for ever (Jabal al-Tariq or Gibraltar) as it
was known. Täriq's superior Mūsa had himself worked out the plan for invasion with
Julian and had authorised him to march on, after obtaining rather reluctant approval
from al Walid. The Gothic kingdom was wrecked by dynastic disputes and discontent
among its subjects over economic difficulties."

On hearing news of Täriq's landing, Rodrigo came down from the north and mobilised
troops from Cordova and Medina Sidonia to drive him back. After receiving
reinforcement, Tariq re-embarked and marched northwards to meet the enemy. The
decisive battle took place in July 711 near the Lake of Janda south of Medina Sidonia.
Rodrigo was severely defeated and died soon after a narrow escape. Encouraged by the
victory, Tariq rushed forward and besieged Cordova and set out straightway to the
capital Toledo. The Gothic capital opened its gates without resistance.

When the news of his lieutenant's amazing success reached Mūsa in Qairawan, he
decided to go to Spain himself as his help was necessary for military and political reasons.
In June 712, at the head of 18.000 men, this time mostly Arabs, Müsa bin Nusair started
his own campaign. His task was to consolidate the ‘Arab position, leaving garrisons in
the vanquished cities. He occupied Medina Sidonia, Carmona and Seville without much
difficulty. 'After conquering Medina be went towards Toledo and met his lieutenant
Tariq. Sargossa surrendered to the joint expedition of the two captains. But Musa and
Tariq were now at the end of their work. The Caliph had sent word ordering thin both to
return to the capital. In September 714 Mūsa left Spain for good, entrusting the
governorship of the newly conquered kingdom to his meritorious son 'Abd al-Aziz, in
the company of his lieutenant Tariq. When Müsa and Tariq finall, reached Syria, Walid
was dying and his successor Sulaiman gave them a very strange welcome. Deprived of
their rank and subjected to heavy financial impositions, the two great conquerors of Spain
ended their days in Syria in complete obscurity.

Walid died in 715 A. D., after a glorious reign of nine years and seven months. He was a
despot but less cruel than his predecessors. Following in the footsteps of his father he
built the grand mosque of Damascus and renovated the mosques in Medina and
Jerusalem. He fortified the important and strategic cities against foreign invasion. He
constructed roads and established schools, hospitals, asylums and orphanages
throughout the empire. Historian al Masudi records that Walid personally visited the
markets and marked the fluctuations in prices. He was also a great person of art, industry
and literature. The Syrians regarded him as the greatest of all Umayyad rulers. The
splendid decade of Walid is the golden page of Umayyad history.

CHAPTER 14
SULAIMAN
(715 A.D. to 717 A.D.)

Sulaimän succeeded his brother Walid in accordance with his father's covenant.
Immediately after ascending the throne, he adopted a liberal policy and granted freedom
to the thousands of people who were imprisoned by the cruel Hajjāj. He dismissed most
of the officials appointed by Hajjaj and scrapped his unjust ordinances. But he was not
bestowed with the "Wisdom of Solomon.". In his anti-Hajjäj fury, he fell heavily upon the
Modharites who had supported Walid and Hajjāj. The Himyarités now had a free hand
to settle the old scores with the sons of Modhar. Yazid bin Muhallab who was once
dismissed by Hajjaj now became the Viceroy of Mesopotamia. Occupying Hajjäj's
position, he now let loose a reign of terror against the supporters and relatives of Hajjaj.
He persuaded the unwise Sulaiman to recall Qutaiba from Transoxiana when he was
about to enter China. The gallant Qutaiba tried to declare war on the new Caliph but
failed in the attempt. The victorious general died in a military riot in Farghana.

The same kind of treatment was meted out to Le great Muhammad bin Qāsim who also
fell a prey to the anti-Hajjāj feelings of Sulaiman and Yazid bin Muhallab. Even the two
great conquerors of Spain were not spared. On their arrival in Damascus, Mūsa and Tariq
were received like culprits and were continually harassed till the end of their lives.

Siege of Constantinople

The second and last siege of Constantinople, the Byzantine capital was conducted in
September 716 by Maslama. Sulaiman had despatched him with a dream of conquering
another Spain. The mission would have proved successful, had the Byzantian general Leo
not deceived the Muslim commander by withdrawing his pledge and had Sulaiman
helped Maslama with adequate reinforcements. The expedi tion was a failure and
Constantinople could not be conquered.

Sulaimān died in 717 A.D., after a not very note worthy rule of two and a half years. On
his death bed he nominated 'Umar, the son of his uncle 'Abd al-'Aziz, as his successor.
Sulaiman's character was full of contradictions, Generous and liberal though he was, at
times he was as cruel and rurk as his predecessors. Fond of pleasure and en he was not
altogether foolish and idle. His the act of benevolence was the opening of the prisons
Hajjāj that won him the title Miftah al-K2the key of benevolence.

CHAPTER 15
'UMAR BIN 'ABD AL-AZIZ
(717 A.D. to 720 A.D.)
'Abd al-Aziz was the brother of 'Abd al-Maut and was the governor of Egypt during his
test Umar was the illustrious son of Abd al-Aziz. Sie assumed the reins of the Caliphate
in accordance with Sulaiman's covenant. He was closely related to “Umar the Great from
his mother's side and had imbibed in him most of the virtues and grand qualities of his
most illustrious ancestor. He was an embodi ment of piety, uprightness, simplicity,
moderation, sincerity and devotion; and was a great admirer of the Righteous Calipns.
Immediately after his accession, he tried to reshape the administrative set-up after the
model of “Umar-I and his attempt to revive the ideal rule of the Righteous Caliphs was a
great success.
Reforms
(1) "He inaugurated his rule with the sale of the horses of the royal stables and deposited
the proceeds in the public treasury. He also asked sie Wife Fatima, the daughter of Ibd
al-Malik to retuer to the treasury all the jewellery and valuables she had received from
her father as gifts and she cheerfully complied with the request.”
(2) He restored to the laws and the Christians their synagogues and churches which
had been unlawfully taken away from them by his predecessors.
(3) He then abolished the foul and most up Islamic practice, of denouncins 'Ali and his
descendants from the mimbars of mosques, Mia warning of stern punishment
reconciliation of hearts and und of the Muslims.
(4) He directed all his governors and omais 10 deal severely with breach of law, immoral
pracuees and cruel and oppressive acts of injustice. He did not spare even the governors
and their lieutenants and made them equally punishable for their misdeeds, injustice,
tyranny and laxity of morals.
(5) The Umayyad monarchs had amassed great of taxes. They had newly converted
Muslims which was un-Islamic and illegal. by heavy extraction of taxes. - also imposed
the Jizya on the newly co Muslims which was un-Islamic and illegal governors exploited
the situation and i couraged the non-Muslims from accepting : *Umar abolished these
illegal taxes and dist the governors who were exploiting the people. the governor of
Egypt complained against the la revenue due to mass conversion of the non-Muslims,
“Umar wrote to him: "Allah had ordained Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be
upon him) as the Prophet and not as a revenue-collector."
6) Hithertofore, the Mawali (the client soldiers), who fought for the cause of Islam were
not duly paid. 'Umar regularized their payments and abolished the military aristocracy
of the 'Arabs by introducing a uniform-policy to all the regiments. He restored the
pension paid to the children of the dead soldiers which was stopped by Mu'āwiya.
(7) Against the policy of 'Umar the Great -(Allah be pleased with him) the Muslims had
started purchasing lands from the vanquished non-Muslims. This had resulted in
concentration of population in the cities which adversely affected agriculture. 'Umar-II
took legal measures to check this tendency.

Republic Restored

The reign of 'Umar bin 'Abd al-Aziz formie most attractive period of the Unavyad Empire
restoration of the spirit of the Righteous Calls was a great relief for the hitherto oppressed
a s and the revival of the democratic practices and individual liberty, along with a clean
and event administration, was most enthusiastically weloved in all parts of the empire,
Even the ever-agenes Kharjites took a pause and withheld their acte activities, as they
realized that 'Umar-II was ruhig in the ideal fashion of a true Caliph of Islam. Ove
occasion they exchanged views with him of the problem of Caliphate and voiced their
main obratnom regarding Yazid succeeding the pious "Umar bu 'Umar was miserably
helpless as he was nominaith by Sulaiman in his secret covenant, to succeed hinth. He
was even thinking of evolving a solution but the hand of death did not give him a chance
to do so.

“Umar-II revived the Advisory Council of the days of the Righteous Caliphs, democratic
governmental institutions and encouraged me ty and fearless participation of the people
in matters day-to-day administration. He took strict account of his governors and
officials, listened to the grievances of the people and tried his utmost to redress them. He
adopted simple ways of living and his austerity followed the example of “Umar and 'Ali
(Allah be pleased with them). He did not spend money from the Bait als al for his personal
needs except for the bare subsistence to which he was lawfully entitled, and thus once
again restored the State Treasury to the position of a public trust. (The Umayyad had
turned it into personal wealth.)

Economy

“Umar bin 'Abd al-Aziz concentrated his energies more on the work of consolidation than
on expansion and conquest. He recalled the army of Maslama from the walls of
Constantinople and stopped all territorial conquests. He encouraged the reople to engage
in agricultural and industrial activities so that the economy could prosper. He was dead
against over-burdening the people with taxes. “Do not try to exact from the subjects
anything beyond their capacity," was his ordinance to the provincial governors. He
exhorted his governors not to accept presents on festive occasions, not to impose taxes on
travellers and marriages and to govern mildly and without harshness.

‘Umar died at the age of thirty-nine in February 720 and was buried at Dair Siman near
Hims. A keen sense of justice, tolerance towards other faiths, modcration in policies,
dedication to the cause of the welfare of the people, love of orthodoxy and righteousness,
and utmost simplicity in life were some of the main features of the towering personality
of 'Umar bin `Abd al-Aziz. A friend of the poor and distressed, a soe to the tyrant and the
corrupi, his rule was known for efficiency and benevolence, His successful attempts to
restore the Republic of the early Caliphs carned him a great reputation among those who
sincerely believed in the matchless democratic system propounded by Islam. Deservedly
he was called the Pious Caliph (al-Khalifa al-Saleh) or the fifth of the Righteous Caliphs
(Rashidun). The short reign of 'Umar bin 'Abd al-Aziz was like a solitary oasis in the
boundless desert of Umayyad despotism.

CHAPTER 16
YAZID-II
(720 A.D. to 724 A.D.)

Yazid-II succeeded 'Umar bin 'Abd al-Aziz, in accordance with the secret covenant of
Sulaiman. He was third son of 'Abd al-Malik and was married to a niece of Hajjāj. On his
accession, he tilted the balance, so scrupulously maintained by his prede cessor “Umar-
II, in favour of the Modharites and consequently the Himyarites had to suffer a lot at his
hands.

Revolt of Yazid Bin Muhallab

Yazid bin Muhallab had succeeded Hajjāj in the Viceroyalty of the Eastern Provinces
during the days of Sulaiman and was later dismissed and imprisoned by 'Umar-II on
charges of misappropriation. He was a thorn in the eyes of Yazid-II whose wife had
suffered terribly at the hands of the tyrant on account of being a niece of Hajjāj. Ibn
Muballab knew well what would be his fate once 'Umar-II died and Yazid II came into
power. Thus the moment de came to know that 'Umar-II was breatliing his hidi he
escaped from the prison, arrived in Mesopotami and collected a large number of
supporters around him to rise against Yazid-II. The forces of the man Yazid met on the
field of Akra on the bank of illo Euphrates. In the hotly contested battle the red Yazid was
defeated and killed. The rebellion crushed to save the Umayyad power, but it was
disastrous consequences. The civil war between the Modharites and the Himyarites now
spread far and wide. It engulfed the entire Commonwealth, inchida ing the Eastern
Provinces, North Africa and Spalth, The enemies of Islam took advantage of the internal
disorder and led successful revolts against the Umayyad power, weakening it
considerably.

Yazid-II adopted the ruthless policies of Manaj by treating his opponents harshly and
filling me prisons. He deviated from the policies of 'Umar om 'Abd al-'Aziz. He
overburdened the people with heavy taxes and alienated them by revoking the list
ordinances issued by 'Umar-II. The Kharjites nad withheld their hands during 'Umar's
regime but they started their abortive bids with increased fury against the impious and
cruel Yazid-II. Yazid died after four years of inglorious rule in 724.

CHAPTER 17
HISHAM
(724 A.D. to 743 A.D.)
Hishäm was the last son of 'Abd al-Malik and also the last grand monarch of the
Umayyad dynasty. For his ability and statesmenship he is counted among the most
outstanding Umayyads like Mu'awiya, 'Abd al-Malik, Walid and "Umar bin 'Abd al-
'Aziz. He ascended the throne when the empire was rocked by the tribal fratricidal wars
between the sons of Modhar and Himyar everywhere. The widespread civil war had not
only encouraged the Turkomans in the eastern provinces and the Kharjites in the central,
but it also had given birth to the anti-Umayyad propaganda of the Banu ‘Abbas who were
now working underground to overthrow the Umayyad power. The Banū ‘Abbâs were
the descendants of “Abbās, the uncle of Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon
him) whose son 'Abdullah was the right hand of the last Caliph 'Ali (Allah be pleased
with him). “Abdullah's grandson Muhammad, a man of great ability and vigour, first
conceived the idea of becoming the caliph with a new doctrine to justify his claim. The
'Alids gathered around him and exte.ided to him their full support.
Hisham was definitely an improvement upon his predecessor Yazid-II. He changed the
atmosphere of the Umayyad court by introducing simplicity and decorum and purging
the unwanted and parasitic elements.

Khalid al-Qasri

Cautious in preserving the father's political heritage, Hisham appointed Khalid al-Qasri
as the most important viceroy of Iraq after Hajjāj. A man of talent and enlightened views,
Khalid pursued the policy of maintaining the balance of power between Modharites and
Himyarites. Throughout the fifteen glorious years of his governorship there was hardly
clash between the two rival groups. He also adopted a liberal policy towards the non-
Muslim population which displeased the fanatical Kharjites. Soon after he took charge a
rebellion took place in Sogdiana and Transoxiana. Khalid deputed his brother Asad al-
Qasri to restore order in the disturbed provinces. The rebellion was crushed and the
insurgents were repulsed from Farghana. The Turkomans once again rebelled and Khalid
now fell upon jem like a hawa This time they were completely routed and their Khaqan
was killed.

Nasr Bin Sayyar

Asad al-Qasri was succeeded by Nasr bin Sayyar, in the governorship of Khorāsān. Nasr
was a wise and courageous . mari and with his sincerity and devotion he established a
just and efficient administra tion. He adopted a reconciliatory attitude towards the
Turkomans and gained their goodwill by adopting a liberal economic policy. He ruled
gloriously over Khorāsân till Abū Muslim overthrew the Umayyad yoke in that province.

Trouble in Africa

After Spain had been conquered and annexed to the gigantic complex of the Muslim
Empire, more furious Berber revolts broke out in Morocco, threatening 'Arab supremacy
on the entire coast of al-Maghreb. The Kharjites who had already settled down in Africa
collaborated with the native Berbers and rose in rebellion against the Umayyad governor.
From Tangier they marched upon Qairawan the capital of al-Maghreb. Ibn Habib who
was recalled from Sicily to stemn the insurrection intercepted the rebels. Far
outnumbered by the enemy, the Arabs , fought with heroic valour but they were all
surrounded and put to death. This disastrous battle is known as the battle of Nobles
(Ghazwāt al-Ashras).
Hanzala Bin Safwan

Hisham now appointed Hanzala bin Santan to the viceroyalty of Africa. On reaching
Qaitawan, Hanzala strongly fortified the capital to face the Berber challenge. Soon more
than two hundred thousand Berber fell upon Oairawan and besieged it. Hanzala, with
heroic valour gathered all the resources at his disposal, inciuding a reserve of women
volunteers and attacked the enemy. In the fierce battle that ensued the Berbers were put
to öght after a heavy toll. Hanzala now succeeded restoring peace and order and in
establismus au efficient administration in the whole of al-Magreb.

'Abd Al-Rahman Al-Ghafeqi

The appointment of 'Abd al-Ramhän al-Ghafeqi to the viceroyalty of Spain was hailed by
all. He was a good administrator and a military genius. His justice, liberalism and
benevolence made him immensely popular among the civilians and me soldiers alike.
After the internal consolidation or the kingdom, 'Abd al-Rahmån was compelled to
march against the rebellious Christian principanties of the north. Through Aragon he
entered and in 732 A. D. Arles capitulated after a bloody Then Bordeaux was conquered
and Burguria overrun, The victorious general, then, marched towards the Frankish
capital. Now the French prince Eudes appealed to the famous warrior of Germany,
Charles Martel to come to his rescue.

The Battle of Tours

Charles collected a large army from the borders of the Danube and marched to the south.
The Muslims, in the meantime, had advanced upon Tours. The numerical superiority of
the enemy forced Abd al-Rahmān to retreat and take up a position in the rear. After initial
skirmishes the general confrontation began on the ninth day. Whilst on the verge of a
grand victory the rumour spread that the 'Arab camp with all its booty was in peril. It
created havoc in the Muslim ranks and they ran for saving their gains. •Abd al-Rahman's
efforts to Testore order failed and he himself was killed fighting zallantly against the foe.
The fall of the commander demoralized the Muslim army and Charles, taking advantage
of the situation, created great havoc. “Thus on the plains of Tours the 'Arabs lost the
empire of the world when it was almost in their : grasp”

Abu Muslim of Khorasan

Muhammad, the great-grandson of 'Abbās who had launched the 'Abbasid propaganda
to oust the Umayyads from the sovereignty of Islam and entrust it to the Family of the
Prophet (Hashimites) found a grand ally in Abu Muslim, a native of Isphahân and being
impressed by his intellectual gifts and trem endous organizing capacity, deputed him to
Khorasan . to head the 'Abbasid movement. Abu Muslim continued his work even after
Muhammad's death with utmost dexterity and incredible ability.
Hisham died in Qinisrin in February 743 A. D., after two decades of majestic rule. With
Hisham the Umayyad golden age came to an end. The Arab historians rightly considered
him the third and the last statesman of the house of Umayyad. During his reign the
Muslim Empire had reached its extreme limit.

CHAPTER 18
WALID-II
(743. A.D. 10 744 4.D.)
Walid-II was a totally different character. A pleasure-loving prince addicted to drinking,
he soon became unpopular with the masses. He adopted a cruel attitude towards the
family of Hisham because Hisham was opposed to his succession. Walid-II tried to
remove the popular discontent by increasing the allowances of the poor and the disabled
but in vain.

In Khorasan

In Khorasan the youthful Yahya rebelled against Walid's tyranny; he was hunted and
killed. The death of Yahya created great havoc in Khorasan which accelerated the
Umayyad downfall. The people of Khorasan now flocked to the standard of Abu Muslim
who stood forth as the “Avenger of the House."

Walid's neglect of the affairs of the state and his devotion to music and horse-racing not
only alio him from the members of his family but also his best supporters. Then Khālid
al-Qasri, retired governor of 'Irāg who was quite por among the people was killed on
Walid's instit The Himyarites of Syria were infuriated yarites of Syria were infuriated and
rose in rebellion against Walid under the leader of Yazid, a son of Walid-I. Walid-II was
besics. his citadel in the suburbs of Damascus and finally killed. His head was chopped
off and pain in the streets of Damascus.

CHAPTER 19
YAZID-III
(744 A.D. to 745 A.D.)
Upon the death of Walid-II, the leader of the successful rebellion succeeded the throne as
Yazid-III. He was a pious and virtuous man. He promised the people a clean and efficient
administration. Unfor tunately his short tenure did not allow him to fulfi his task. The
internal dissension further added to paralyse the central administration. The only reform
that Yazid-III was able to introduce was the reduction in the pay-scales of the troops
which although justified, made him unpopular among the legionaries. This change, or
rather going back to the pay-scales of Hishảm's days, earned him the title al-Nagis (the
Reducer). Yazid-III died after a reign of 6 months.

CHAPTER 20
MARWAN-II
(745 A.D. 10 750 A.D.)
Yazid-III was succeeded by his brother Ibrāhim who ruled only for two months. Marwan-
II, a grandson of Marwān-I and a cousin of Hisham now marched upon Damascus.
Ibrahim's troops en countered him in a bloody battle in which they were severely
defeated. The triumphant march of Marwān-II into riot-torn Damascus was welcomed
by the populace and he was promptly acknowledged Caliph.
Marwān-II had combined in hiniself the qualities of a gallant soldier and an able
administrator. His remarkable tenacity and will-power along with his ascetic piety and
simplicity made him an admirable person. He was vigorous, adamant and wise but his
one fatal weakness was tribal prejudice. According to al-Masudi : "Marwān's fanatical
attachment to his family against the Himyarites detached the latter from his side, to the
advantage of the 'Abbasid propaganda and finally brought about the transfer of power
from Banū Umayya to Banu Hishān." The old rivalry once again came to the fore-front
and the sons of Modhar and Himyar were now cutting each other's throats with horrible
fury.

The Kharjite Insurrection

No sooner had Marwān-II ascended the throne than violent insurrections broke out
against him at Aleppo and Jerusalem. The Kharjítes were this time in the lead. With
lightning speed they took over Hijāz, Yemen and 'Iraq. Marwan took up the challenge.
Displaying his gallant command, he won. back Aleppo and Jerusalem and marching
upon 'Iraq, he expelled the rebels from Mesopotamia. One after another he defeated
Kharjites and cleared Yemen and Hijaz.

Revolt in Khorasan

While Marwan-II was busy quelling the Kharjite Uprisings in Syria, the eternal enmity
between the Modharites and the Himyarites was cutting at the foot of the Umayyad
power. Khorasan was torn between these feuds with riots breaking out night and day.
Abu Muslim, the vanguard of the ‘Abbasid movement was now waiting for an
opportunity to 1. Al-Masudi, Muruj al-Dhahab strike the final blow. “A Machiavellian
dexterity 10 playing upon the vanity of Modhar and Himpun and the bitterness which
animated both, cable him to carry out his design with sufficient immunt from either side."
Abu Muslim found this oppor tunity for the revolt in 'these fratricidal contes and
Khorāsān became the den of Banu The movement had now grown into an organik
rebellion. Nasr bin Sayyar, the able and vigoroint governor of Khorāsān, was now unable
to cope 1 with the situation alone. He sought help from thi Caliph at Damascus but
Marwan-II was hardpress by the Kharjites in Mesopotamia. The despchart Nasr, then
sent an SOS to the Caliph: "Arise, me hour is come.” Marwan-II responded to his urgent
appeal and despatched reinforcements, but before they could reach there Farghana and
Khorisän mit fallen into the hands of Abu Muslim.

Hearing the news of Nasr's defcat, Marwan swooped upon Ibrahim, the spiritual leader
of the revolt and brought him to the capital. Ibrahm arrest, however, did not deter Abu
Muslim's forcer: Hassan, a lieutenant of Abū Mūsa, clashed with me Umayyad general
Yazid on the bank of Euphrates Karbala and conquered Kūfa. Marwan's sury khen no
bounds and he ordered the imprisoned Ibrali he ruthlessly executed. Before his death the
me tupate Ibrahim succeeded in passing a testament” his brother, Abu al-'Abbäs to
succeed him in the Abbasid lcadership. Upon Ibrāhim's death Abu al-'Abbas swore an
oath of vengeance. Hassan was joined by Abü Salma, "the designated viziur of the
descendants of Muhammad” in Küfa.

Proclamation of Abu Al-'Abbas

Hassan and Abü Salma then jointly summoned the citizens of Küfa to assemble in the
grand mosque to elect a Caliph. After leading the prayer Abi Salma, delivered a speech
praising Abu Muslim and his successful mission. Then extolling the virtues of Abu al-
'Abbâs, he proposed him for the Caliphate. The fickle-minded Küfans once again lost no
time in changing their loyalty and betraying the 'Alids. “No sooner had the words passed
from the lips of Abti Salma, proposing Abu al-'Abbas as the Caliph than they burst forth
with loud acclaimation of “Allahu Akbar," signifying their approval,” Abu al-'Abbis was
instantly called from his den and the multitude rushed to swear allegiance on his hand.

Battle of The Zab

After defeating Marwan's son, Abū 'Aun, the "Abbasid general, passed over the
command to Abdullah bin 'Ali, an uncle of Abu al-Abhal Marwan crossed the Tigris with
1,20,000 troops to face the ‘Abbasid challenge and advanced upon the Zab, a river
between Mosul and Arbela. The battle took place at a village called Kushaf. With usual
boldness Marwān threw a bridge across the river and led the first onslaught. The
“Abbasids were pushed bork but soon 'Abdullah bin 'Ali incited them to avenge the death
of Ibrāhim. This time the Syrians gave way, before the ‘Abbasid charge and were severely
defeated, and put to flight. Marwān hurried back to Harra and then fled to Damascus.
The ‘Abbasids were chasing him like a blood-hound. Finding Damascus unsafe, he went
to Palestine.
The Fall of Damascus

The ‘Abbasids fell upon Mosul, "Harran and Aleppo like vultures and occupied them.
Damascus gave tough resistance but the city was stormed and the governor was killed.
Thus the capital of the Umayyad Empire fell into the hands of the Banu ‘Abbās in March
750 A.D., and their black ‘Abbasid standard floated triumphantly over the imperial
palace of Banü Umayya.

From Palestine, Marwan had fled to Egypt. Abdullah despatched Abû 'Aun to trace
Marwan who was ultimately found in a small church on the western bank of the Nile.
The fallen sovereign irumediately rushed out and fell defending himself gailantly, in
August 750 A.D. "Thus perished one of the bravest and best of his house and with him
fell the house of Umayya.” Abu al-'Abbās, who had assumed the title of *5 Avenger of
Bani Hashim" ordered a genocide of the Umayyads. The men were hunted and killed
wherever found. Search as were made in the remotest spots and every fugitive discovered
was put to death. The ferocious vindictiveness and the savage hatred displayed by Banü
‘Abbâs remains unsurpassed in the annals of Islamic history. Among those who saved
their lives was ‘Abd al-Rahmän, a grandson of Hisham who escaped to Spain and laid
the foundation of a new dynasty.

CHAPTER 21
CAUSES OF THE DECLINE
The grand edifice of the Umayyad power, in spite of all its splendour and glory, tumbled
down in the tremour of the mighty ‘Abbasid propaganda. However it was not entirely
due to the intensity of the revolt or the genius of its vanguard. There were some loopholes
inherent in the system itself which finally caused the downfall of the gigantic Umayyads

(1) Ultra-'Arabism

The Umayyads, right from the inception of their dynasty, believed in the exclusiveness
of the 'Arab race. Hajjaj bin Yusuf was the chief architect of this policy. The subordinate
departments of the civil administration were largely managed by the Persians (New-
Muslims) but they were excluded from high military and executive posts. In this regard
Hajjāj bin Yusuf went to the extent of issuing orders that sino person other than an Arab
should lead prayers." This pro-'Arab policy of the Umayyad rulers cut at the very root of
the concept of equality between Arabs and non-Arabs, so vigorously propounded by the
Prophet of Islam (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). The Unayyad monarchs,
with the exception of ‘Umar bin 'Abd al-'Aziz, also imposed the poll-tax (Jizya) on the
Arab converts of Islam. Its natural corollary was that the 'Arabs held themselves aloof
from the natives in their racial - pride. This criminal violation of the principle of
equality and universal brotherhood completely alienated the non-Arab population from
the ruling class. The Persians especially were very disgusted with this policy of the racial
discrimination and their hatred of the policy-makers finally culminated in a big flare-up
when Abu Muslim led a massive revolt against the Umayyads.

(2) - Tribal Conflicts

The age-old antagonism between the Modharites and the Himyarites, which was so
prudently and tactfully contained by the early Caliphs, once again came to the fore during
the Umayyad period. With the exception of Mu'awiya and 'Umar bin 'Abd al-Aziz, who
maintained the balance of power between the two eternal rivals, all the Umayyad
monarchs flung themselves into tribal dissensions by adopting a partisan attitude. Later
on these racial feuds spread all over the Empire from Khorāsân to Spain, resulting in
prolonged clashes and large-scale blood-shed which created anarchic conditions and
accelerated the collapse of the Umayyad authority.

(3) Incompetence of The Rulers

With the exception Mu'awiya, 'Abd al-Malik, Walid-I, “Umar-II and Hisham, most of the
Umayyad monarchs were incompetent and pleasure-loving. They were addicted to wine,
women, music and sport. They had no time to devote to public anars or for redressing
their grievances. They were com pletely out of touch with their subjects nor was there
any bond of sympathy between them and the people. The citizens of Damascus rejoiced
when Walid-II was dethroned and killed.

(4) The Law of Succession

Mu'āwiya introduced the hereditary principle of succession but the later Umayyads
could not stick to it in a systematic order. The tribal principle of seniority among the
'Arabs further complicated the problem. In spite of the natural urge, the Umayyad
sovereigns could not designate their sons, as homage by the people had become the only
sure title to sovereignty. Of the fourteen monarchs only four were able to nominate their
sons for the throne. Umar bin 'Abd al-Aziz, in spite of all his sincerity and benevolence,
could not alter the secret coienant of Sulaiman against Yazid-Il. Sulaimãn himself had to
face the opposition of his brother al-Walid who wanted to nominate his own son against
the covenant of 'Abd al-Malik. All these factors led to internal dissensions and court
intrigues.

(5) The ‘Alids

The Alids who were never reconciled to the Umayyad rule, nor accepted the legitimacy
of their caliphate, always remained active against them. By appealing to the emotions of
the people, they gathered round their Imāms a large number of adherents who were not
happy with the Umayyad rulers. The 'Alids also joined hands with the ‘Abbasids when
the latter undertook to restore the caliphate to Bans Hachim.

(6) The Kharjites

The fanatical sect of the Kharjites was a blood thirsty enemy of the Umayyads.
Throughout the Umayyad period, excepting the days of 'Umar-II, the Kharjites proved a
constant source of trouble. Their insurrections and abortive activities were not only
confined to the Central Provinces but they were also active in the farthest confines like
Khorasan, al Maghreb and Spain. Their underground activities
Glimpses of Islamic History and frequent uprisings considerably weakened the structure
of Umayyad polity.

(7) The ‘Abbasid Propaganda

And last but not the least was the massive propaganda campaign launched by the
'Abbasids who made a common cause with the 'Alids to overthrow the Umayyads and
restore the caliphate to its legiti máte claimants from Banu Hashin. Abu Muslim of
Khoräsân was the genius behind the movement.

CHAPTER 22
THE ADMINISTRATION OF BANU UMAYYA
Central Government

The Caliph at Damascus was the head of the state and the supreme commander of the
armed forces. As he ascended the throne by right of hereditary succession and not in
accordance with the general will of the populace, as was the case during the period of the
early Caliphs, he was fully independent in executing his policies and was not responsible
to the people. The Umayyad monarchs, by abolishing the Mailis Shurd, an indispensable
organ of the Righteous Caliphate, became fully independent in the exercise of their
authority. The voice of the people had to role to play in the administration of the country.
The subjects could only request the monarch or the governors in certain matters but they
had not the power to insist upon redressing their genuine grievances.

Provincial Administration
The administrative division of the Umayyad Empire comprised:
(1). Syria-Palestine (2) Küfa and 'Iraq (3) Başra with Persia, Khorāsān, Bahrain, Oman and
Najd (4) Armenia (5) Hijaz (6) Karmän, Sind and Multan (7) Egypt (8) North Africa (9)
Yemen and South Arabia.

Later on Mu'awiya combined Başra and Küfa into one viceroyalty with Kūfa as its capital.
The viceroy of this mighty province Hajjäj enjoyed almost imperial powers. - The largest
viceroyalty was, how ever, North Africa or al-Maghreb, which included the whole of
northern Africa, Spain and the south of France, with its capital of. Qairawan. "Uqba and
Müsa were its most celebrated viceroys.

The viceroy bad full charge of political and military administration in his provinces, but
the revenue department was under a special officer, Sahib al-Kharāj, directly appointed
by the Caliph from Damascus and not responsible to the provincial governor.

Revenue System

The revenue of the state was derived from the same sources as under the Righteous
Caliphs, namely, (1) Land-tax (Kharāj), (2) Poll-tax (Jizya), (3) Poor tax (Zakāt), (4)
Customs and tributes and (5) Spolis of war (Ghanima). In the financial matters, the
administration was decentralized. In the provinces all local revenues were deposited in
the provincial treasury and the expenses of local administration were, met from the local
income; the balance was deposited with the State Treasury at Damascus. There was 10
uniform system or a fixed standard followed in the collection of provincial revenues but
in every province it depended on the objective conditions of the province concerned. The
Amils were entrusted with the collection of revenues and also exercised some executive
powers. Mu'āwiya also started the system of deducting the poor-tax (Zakāt) from the
fixed income of the Muslim subjects.

Judicial Organization

The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) and the early Caliphs
administered justice in person as did their governors in the provinces. 'Umar, the Great
(Allah be pleased with him) was the first to appoint a judge over Egypt. Under the
Umayyads, appointment by the monarchs became more common. The judicial officials,
in the provinces, were appointed by the provincial governors, they were always recruited
from the faqih class of learned scholars, jurists and theologians. The Islamic law applied
only to the Muslims and the non-Muslims were given autonomy under their own
religious heads.

State Chancery
When Mu'awiya discovered that some of his official correspondence was forged, he
introduced a safeguard, by creating a Chancery Department or Bureau of Registry
(Diwan al-Khatin) whose duty was to make and preserve a duplicate of all official
documents before sualing and despatching the original ones.

Military Set-up

The Umayyad army was inodelled on the pattern of the Byzantines. Küfa and Başra were
the main recruiting centres for the armed forces. Military service was compulsory for all
able-bodied and sane Muslims of 'Arab origin. The division was into five corps : the
centre (Qalb), two wings (Maimana and Maisara), vanguard and the rear-guard. The
infantry generally used lances, arrows, javelins and swords; the cavalry plain and
rounded saddles and the artillery was represented by the mangonel (manjaniq) and the
battering-ram (dabbaba). The chief commander had his seat in the qalb which he left only
in exceptional circumstances. The ariny of the fisrt Umayyad, Mu'awiya consisted of
60,000 soldiers and that of the last Umayyad Marwān. The 'Arab navy was also fashioned
on the -Byzantine pattern. Mu'awiya had built the first Muslim navy as early as when he
was the governor of Syria during the Caliphate of 'Umar (Allah be pleased with him). At
the start of his own regime, 19 established a ship-building factory at Akka on the Syrian
coast and by the end of his reign the 'Arabs possessed a great fleet of 1700 ships. "In
addition to the ship-building yards on the Syrian coast, several others on the Egyptian
coast were engaged in ship building," Most of the islands in the Mediterranean as well as
Spain, Sicily and Sind were conquered by the Arab naval force. The fleet was under the
command of an officer who was called “Commander of the Sea,” (Amir al-Bahr or the
admiral).

The Royalty

Mu'āwiya, the founder of Umayyad dynasty was very fond of listening to historical
narratives and anecdotes. Mu'awiya's son Yazid was the first confirmed drunkard among
a series of Umayyads and the first who adorner his hunting dogs with gold anklets and
assigned to cach a special servant.! Walid-I was the first to patronize public races and
Hishām had more than 4,000 race horses in his roval stable.

Damascus

Damascus, the ancient citadel of the Byzantines was a great centre of commerce and trade.
Under the Umayyads, it became the capital of the Islamic Commonwealth and one of the
most splendid cities in the world. The Umayyad monarchs adorned it with magnificent
palaces and grand mosques, fountains, gardens and places of entertainment. Other
important cities in which art, literature and other cultural activities flourished, were
Medina in Hijāz, Küfa and Başra in 'Iraq, Mosul in Syria, Qairawan in North Africa and
Cordova in Spain.

The twelfth century traveller Ibn Jubair called it “the paradise of the Orient.” According
to a legend the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) on a journey from
Mecca refused to visit the city because he wanted to enter paradise only once, and that
when he died. Here al-Walid built the famous Umayyad Mosque, the fourth respected
sanctuary of Islam. "The Umayyad Mosque built on the site of Roman temple to Jupiter,"
was originally the Cathedral of St. John the Baptist, and for a was a symbol of the co-
existence of faiths. Al armies under the command of the famous Gene Khalid ibn al-Walid
took Damascus in 636, ending thousand years of Western occupation. Thereupon the
cathedral was divided into two sections, allowing both Muslims and Christians room for
worship. In 705 the Umayyad ruler al-Walid converted it into tbe mosaic-rich arcaded
mosque."
The Umayyads ruled the Islamic world from Damascus for eighty-nine years; from
its verdant the oasis they created an empire stretching from Indus to the Pyrenees, a
dominion larger even than the Roman Empire at its height.

PART IV
THE ABBASID EMPIRE

CHAPTER 23
AL-SAFFAH
(750 A.D. to 754 A.D.)

Just a few months before the fall of the Umayyads, the 'Abbasid revolutionaries
assembled in the grand mosque of Kūfa, to install their new caliph Abû al-'Abbās and to
establish the 'Abbasid dynasty. In his inaugural speech delivered before the Kūfan
congregation, the first “Abbasid caliph referred to himself as al-Saiah, the blood shedder,
which later on became his honorific title and he proved its worth by giving a blood-bath
to the fallen Umayyads. Thus rose the 'Abbasids to power and Abu al-'Abbas al Saffah
became the founder of the world's most celebrated grand monarchy in the history of
human civilization.

The Uprisings

Al-Safrah inaugurated his reign by launching an extermination campaign against the

fallen house of Umayya. In his wild frenzy to annihilate them from the surface of the
earth, he let loose a reign of terror against them. Thousands of Umayyads were merci
lessly killed or burnt alive in this genocide. The most brutal and barbaric atrocities were,
however, perpetrated by the Caliph's uncle, 'Abdullah bin 'Ali in Palestine where he
indulged himself in an orgy of human slaughter.

This massacre brought its natural reaction when the supporters of the fallen Umayyads
rose in revolt against al-Saffah in Damascus, Aleppo, Palestine and in various other parts
of Syria and Mesopotamia. The 'Abbasid forces, however, tactfully: quelled these
uprisings and persuaded the rebels to surrender without much blood-shed. The town of
Wasit was still held by Umayyad viceroy Yazid bin Hubaira who had declined to
surrender. To capitulate the last stronghold of the Uñayyads, Al-Saffah despatched his
galant brother Ahi L'far with a celebrated general Hassan. Wasit was besieged by the
'Abbasid forces and the siege lasted for eleven months. At last Yazid bin Hubaira
surrendered to Abu Ja'far against the solemn pledge of safe conduct for him and his
family, The pledge was, however, not honoured. According to Ibn Khaldun, Abu Ja'far
did not want to violate the covenant but Abu Muslim of Khorāsār, the brain behind the
‘Abbasid revolt, advised al-Saffah to kill Yazid bin Hubaira whom he considered a
dangerous and influential Umayyad protagonist and a potential enemy of Banū ‘Abbās.
"A path in which Ibn Hubaira stands cannot be straight,” he wrote to the Caliph. Against
his wishes Abū Ja'far was compelled to execute the orders and Ibn Hubaira was killed
along with his family members.

The Governors

Al-Saffah appointed only his trusted men and patrons in the important viceroyalties ; Ahi
Jaffar, his brother in Mesopotamia, ‘Abdullah bin 'Ali, his uncle in Svia, Abū saun in
Egypt, Yazid bin 'Obaidullah in Hijāz and Abu Muslim in Khorāsān. All the governors
worked in co-ordination as a team in order to promote a smooth and well-knit adminis
tration.

In the administration of al-Saffah, the two key posts were held by Khālid bin Barmak who
was the chancellor of the exchequer and Abü Salma Khallal who was made the grand
vizier. Abu Salma was an Alawite who as the chief spokesman of the family of the
Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), had been mainly instrumental in
bestowing the caliphate on al-Safiah. Abu Salma's dominating influence on the Caliph
was disliked by Abu Muslim of Khorasan who consequently plotted against him and had
him assassinated. His murder was attributed to a Kharijite.

Al-Saffah had to crush several rebellions before establishing himself in power. The
uprisings in Bukhara, Yamama, Oman, Sind and Khorāsān were quelled one after another
and thus the entire Islamic Commonwealth was brought under the ‘Abbasid. control,
with the exception of North Africa and Spain. These two kingdoms remained virtually
independent and never came under the ‘Abbasid sway.
Abu al-'Abbās al-Saffah died at Anbaar in 754 A.D., after a reign of four years and eight
months. Before his death he nominated his gallant brother Abū Ja'far to succeed him on
the ‘Abbasid throne. In spite of all his despotism and cruelty, al-Saffah was a generous
monarch devoted to the welfare of his subjects. According to Ibn al-Tiqtaqa he was
modest, prudent, simple and possessed an unblemished character.

CHAPTER 24
ABU JA'FAR AL-MANSUR
(754 4. D. to 775 A.D.)

Abu Ja'far was away from the capital on a pilgrimage to Mecca when al-Saffah died of
small pox. On hearing the sad news of his brother's death, he immediately rushed to Küfa
and assumed the reins of government, under the honorific title of al-Mansür, the
Victorious Although al-Saffah was the first 'Abbasid monarch, al-Manşür is rightly
regarded as the real founder of the 'Abbasid dynasty. It was mainly because of his
foresight, prudence and administrative genius that the ‘Abbasid power was firmly
established and consolidated in spite of the heavy odds against the infant dynasty. With
his remarkable grasp of human nature, al-Manşür emerged as one of the most
outstanding sovereigns in Islamic history.

Revolt in Syria

No sooner had al-Manşür ascended the throne, than his uncle 'Abdullah bin 'Ali rebelled
against him. 'Abdullah, the arch-enemy of the Umayyads was the governor of Kūfa.
Manşūr promptly despatched the versatile Abū Muslim of Khorāsān to nip the rebellion
in the bud. Abu Muslim defeated 'Abdullah in a hotly contested battle at Nasibin and
'Abdullah Bed to Başra, seeking the protection of his brother Sulaiman who was the
governor of that province. Manşūr promptly dismissed Sulaiman from the governorship
of Basra and imprisoned 'Abdullah in a castle where the brutal murderer of the
Umayyads died in a house collapse. Some historians regard it as an intentional murder
and not a mere accident.'

The Fate of Abu Muslim

Abu Muslim, the vanguard of the "Abbasid revolution had a perfect hold over his
province Khorāsān which virtually amounted to his indepedent kingship. His subjects
regarded him as a Prophet King like Solomon of the Bible. Such an over powering
prestige of Abu Muslim posed a threat to the authority of al-Manşür, who now wanted
to get rid of him. Abu Muslim could dismantle the ‘Abbasid kingdom the way he had
built it. At the same time Manşūr realized that once Abu Muslim was back home, he
would become an insurmountable, barrier. Therefore he immediately offered him the
viceroyalty of Syria which Abu Muslim tactfully declined to accept. Now it was almost
impossible for Mansur to stop him from returning to Khorasan. He resorted to treason,
persuaded him to visit the court and had him disarmed and assassinated almost in his
présence at the hands of a band of assassins.

Abu Muslim of Khoräsān possessed an impres sive figure which no defeat or success
could affect. "He received the news of the most important victories without expressing
the least symptom of joy; and when angered he never lost his self-control."

The Foundation of Baghdad

After removing the obstacle of Abu Muslim from his way, Manşür felt secure enough to
embark upon less hazardous adventures. Damascus was not the ideal capital for the
‘Abbasids as it had remained the seat of Umayyad power for about a century. Kūfa and
Basra also did not appeal to him as they were always surrounded in uncertainties. Finally
after an extensive search, he located the site for the new capital. The beautiful sight of the
deserted "Garden of Justice" (Bagh-e-Dad) of the olden days of the Khosroes caught the
eye of al-Manşür and the golden city of the 'Abbasids was founded on the western bank
of the Tigris. Baghdad presented a beautiful and imposing appearance, fit for the grand
and mightiest empire of its time.

Al-Nafs al-Zakiya

The Banü Hasan and the Banu Husain formed the nucleus of the Alids, who were the
cousins of Banū ‘Abbās. The 'Alids lived peacefully in Medina, busy in their intellectual
pursuits, and were held in high esteem by the citizens of Medina. Their enormous
prestige alarmed the suspicious nature of Manşür. As early as when the Umayyad power
was tumbling down, a meeting of Banu Hashim was held in Medina in which
Muhammad, a great grand-son of Hasan was chosen as Caliph. Muhammad was a
virtuous man of noble character and had earned the title of al-Nafs al-Zakiya (the
Genuine Soul). When Manşür ascended the throne, he remembered that event. His spies
further poisoned his mind and he ordered the arrest of Muhammad and his brother
Ibrahim, but they escaped. Manşür launched a wild search to irace them but failed,
Muhammad now decided to rise against him. He sent his brother Ibrāhim to Ahwaz to
declare Manşûr deposed. A similar proclamation was to be made in Medina
simultaneously by Muhammad himself. But Muham mad declared himself caliph before
his brother was fully prepared, and thus Manşür got the opportunity of dealing with
them individually. Virtually the whole of Hijāz had accepted Muhammad's claim
including the celebrated Imam Malik and Imām Abu Hanifa. Manşür despatched his
nephew 'Ia against Muhammad and al-Nafs al-Zakiya fell in the battle giving a heroic
account of his valour! 'Isa now turned towards Ibrähim. It wähim's hands were cut by the
failure of his brother's mission. However he succeeded in gathering a large force behind
him. In a battle on the bank of the Euphrates, the 'Abbasid troops had to suffer many set-
backs but ultimately Ibrāhim was overpowered and killed.

Manşür, now, took revenge from those who had supported the movement of al-Nafs al-
Zakiya. The Alids were hunted and killed, their houses razed to the ground and their
estates confiscated. Even the celebrated Imams were persecuted and punished.

Manşūr now became the acknowledged Caliph all over the Islamic World. Even in Spain,
which did not formally acknowledge his sovereignty, the Friday Sermon was read in his
name.

In the subsequent years, rebellions were crushed in Georgia and Khorasan and the Kurds
were suppressed in 'Iraq. Africa was a constant source of trouble. In 770 A.D., the
Kharijites rose again and besieged Qairawan. Manşûr despatched Yazid bin Haitham, a
man of remarkable spirit and ability who defeated the rebels and ruled over Africa
magnificently for about fifteen years.

Manşür had now made up his mind to nominate his son Muhammad to succeed him. He
persuaded 'Isa, the son of al-Saffah to withdraw his claim and nominated Muhammad as
his successor with the. honorific title of al-Mahdi, the Guided. Realizing his approaching
end, Manşür sent for the Crown Prince. After handing over the authority to him, he gave
him a piece of admonition and left Baghdad for Mecca to end his last days in the Holy
City but died on the way in October 775 A.D.
Abu Ja'far al-Manşür's character was a blend of contradictions. Exeríplary in his conduct
and a statesman and administrator of the highest order, he was both cruel and cold-
blooded, calculating and vindictive at times. Endowed with farsightedness and wisdom,
he spared none whom he thought dangerous for himself and the ‘Abbasid power. The
assassination of Abu Muslim who was one of the chief architects. of the Abbasid dynasty
and the scheme against 'Abdullah bin Ali, an equally important king-maker, speak
volumes about Manşür's scanty regard for the bonds of kinship and solidarity.

Manşür's long reign for more than two decades, however, is a glowing example of a
benevolent rulę so far as the efficiency of administration and well-being of the subjects,
are, concerned. According to the historian Ibn al-Athir, he devoted the main part of his
tenure in safeguarding the frontiers and improving the conditions of his subjects. Yazid
bin Hubaira once said : "I have never seen a man more vigilant in war and peace taan
healthy maintenance. He renovated and extended the Mosque of the Prophet (peace and
blessings of Allah be upon him) in Medina and ordered spacious and comfortable houses
to be built all along the route to Mecca and Medina for the convenience of the pilgrims.
Mahdi's treatment of his foes was exemplary, He set free a son of Marwan-II who had
tried to rise against him. His wise Khaizuran, mother of the celebrated Hârün, allotted
apartments to Marwān's widow in her own palace.
Al-Muqanna

Al-Muqanna, the so-called veiled prophet of Khorāsān who posed as an incarnation of

Allah and for years defied the 'Abbasid forces, made his appear ance during the reign of
Mahdi. The imposter's real name was Hashim bin Hakim, a short ugly-looking scientist
who constantly veiled his face with a golden mask and thus earned the title of al-
Muqanna, the veiled one. Khorasan, a fertile soil for all heretical movements, was the
sphere of his influence. He proclaimed himself to be Allah incarnate, in the fashion of
Hindu mythology, and taught his followers that faith was enough for salvation and
practice was irrelevant. His doctrines which indirectly preached immorality and licence,
attracted a large following among the youngs ers. His followers adored him as audacity
and used to prostrate in the direction of his home town, Merv. A scientist of some genius
he is also said to have created an artificial noon. His movement, though spiritual in its
pretensions, had assumed military overtones and posed a threat to the Muslim power in
Khorāsān. His name Hāshim had become a battle-cry for his large following. There upon
al-Mahdi despatched a sizable army to crush the rebellious heretics. After a concentrated
effort, the ‘Abbasid forces succeeded in destroying al Muqanna and his heretic creed in
772 A. D. He was the most dangerous imposter after the false prophets of Abu Bakr's
time.

Clash with Byzantines

A Roman invasion forced al-Mahdi himself to the battle-field. He marched towards the
theatre of war sending Hārūn forward with Yahya bin Khalid al-Barmaki. The Byzantine
resistance gave way and their citadels were stormed. After appointing Hārūn as his
viceroy in the western provinces, al-Mahdi proceeded to Jerusalem. The Byzantines
returned again and Härün rushed to drive them out. He inflicted on them a severe defeat
and marched towards their imperial capital, Constantinople. Queen Irene who was ruling
as a regent for her son Constantine VI had to surrender before Hārūn's forces. She sued
for peace and obtained a truce for three years on the humiliating crms of paying an annual
tribute of 90,000 dinar and supplying Hārūn's victorious army with guides and markets
in its triumphant march back home. This outstanding victory enhanced Hārün's prestige
in the eyes of al-Mahdi and he appointed him as his successor after Mūsa, the eldest son,
bestowing on him the title al-Rashid, the righteous (He is the same world-renowned
Hārūn al-Rashid of the 'Arabian Nights).

Al-Mahdi died in a hunting excursion at Masan dan, dashing himself against a ruined
wall in the pursuit of a deer. He was forty-three at the time of his death. His magnificent
rule lasted for a full decade. He was an excellent administrator and a benevolent ruler.
His period witnessed economic prosperity and agricultural and industrial development.
He passion ately loved his wife Khaizuran who exercised enormous influence over him.
 CHAPTER 25
AL-HADI
(785 A.D. to 786. A.D.)
In accordance with the covenant of Mahdi, his eldest son Mūsa al-Hādi was proclaimed
as the Caliph. Hādi was away from the capital when Mahdi died but Hārün in all sincerity
acknowledged his caliphate and sent him the imperial seal. Hādi immediately returned
to the capital and assumed the reins of government.

The 24 year old monarch was head-strong and of a suspicious nature. He never trusted
the sincerity and loyalty of Harun and throughout his short roign of less than two years,
he untiringly tried to change the line of succession in favour of his own son Ja'far.
although in vain. He also suspected Härün's chief advisor, Yahya al-Barmaki and several
other loyal subordinates and he put them into prison. There was also a psychological
conflict between the Caliph and his mother Khaizuran who wanted to retain her
dominating influence in the matters of administration and who was fondly devoted to
Härün; her obedient son.

The court was now split into two parties, one in tavour of the monarch and the other in
support of run and the queen-mother. Härún fried his utmost to patch up the differences
and remove mis understandings but Hādi did not yield to his magnanimous gestures. At
last the disgusted Hārūn left the court with great reluctance.

Hādi died at the early age of 26 after a very short reign. “Realizing his approaching end,
he called his mother for a touching and sorrowful parting. He told her that on occasions
duty had forced him to take some steps which had displeased her, but he had never been
ungrateful to her. He loved her as much as Hārūn did, and respected her as a dutiful son.
He then took her hand and placed it on his heart. 11 According to the historian Ibn
Tiqtaqa, Khaizuran, the queen-mother had him killed by ordering some slave-girls to
place a cushion on the face of the ailing caliph and suffocate him to death.”

CHAPTER 27
HARUN AL-RASHID
786 A.D. 10 809 A.D.)
Younger than Hādi by one year, Hārūn al-Rashid ascended the glorious ‘Abbasid throne
in 786, at the age of 25; and with him began the most splendid period of Islamic grand
monarchy in Asia. The tales of the 'Arabian Nights or the Thousand and One Nights'l
present Hārün as the fabulous prince charming of a fantastic utopia but apart from this
halo of fantasy woven around him, the real Hārūn of the Caliphate of Baghdad stands in
the full blaze of history as the most glorious emperor ever born.

Al-Baramika

Al-Manşür introduced the vizirate following the Persian pattern, for the first time in the
Islamic governmental system and Khalid ibn Barmak was the first grand vizier of the
‘Abbasid.2 His father was a Barmak, the chief priest in a Buddhist monastery. Khalid
accepted Islam and held the department of finance under Saffah and Manşür. To Khalid's
son Yahya, Mahdi entrusted the education of his son Hārūn. When Hārūn ascended the
throne, he appointed Yahya as vizier with unrestricted powers. Yahya was a sagacious
counsel and always worked for the good of Hārūn and his subjects. He had so much
endeared the young monarch that Hārūn used to call him father” as a mark of respect
and affection. Yahya's two sons Fadl and Ja'far were “chips of the old block,” equally
talented and out standing in the field of administration. Both of them held the
viceroyalties of the most important provinces like Khorāsän and Egypt. Yahya Barmaki
and his two brilliant sons were thus the virtual masters of Harūn's empire. Subsequently
when Yahya retired owing to his old age, Häğün entrusted the vizirate to Ja'far who
discharged his responsibilities with remark able success. Almost for 17 years these
illustrious Barmakids governed the affairs of Härūn's vast empire with utmost efficiency
and faithfulness.

The Barmakids lived in grand style in eastern Baghdad. Ja'far's palace, al-Ja'fari had
become the nucleus of Baghdad's architectural glory. The Barmakids were fabulously rich
and showered their munificence on all and sundry; so much so, that the word Barmaki
was used proverbially as a synonym of generosity according to Ibn Khallikan. The
Barmakids built a large number of canals, mosques, schools and asylums. Ja'far was in
great man of letters and the most eloquent orator in this family of intellectuals.
Khaizuran, the queen-mother who had regained her dominating position on Hārün's
accession to the throne, died in 789 A. D. She was a strong supporter of Yahya Barmaki
and in her he lost a grand ally. Upon Khaizuran's death Hārūn took the Imperial seal
from Yahya and entrusted it to his chamberlain (hajib) Fadl bin Rabi.

Nomination of Amin and Mamun

In 791 A.D., on the insistence of his wife, Zubaida and other members of the family,
Hārūn nominated his five year old son, Muhammad to succeed him on the throne, under
the title of al-Aniin, the Trustworthy. A few years later he nominated his another son,
'Abdullah to succeed al-Amin, under the title of al-Māmun, the Trusted. According to Ibn
al-Athir, Hārūn went for a pilgrimage to Mecca, accompanied by his two sons Amin and
Māmün, in 802 A.D., and "deposited in the Ka'ba two documents executed by the brothers
respectively binding them selves in solemn terms to abide by the arrangements made by
their father.” In the same year Queen Zubaida made lier famous visit to Mecca, a living
memorial of which still exists i.e., the canal which she dug for the people of Mecca and
which still bears her name (Nahr Zubaida).

The Fall of Al-Baramika

From 786 to 803, the Barmika (Yahya, Jaʼfar and Faol) had served Hārūn with great ability
and unflinching loyalty, and they practically ruled the “Abbasid Empire. But their
colossal grandeur and unparalleled generosity made them more popular than Hãtün
himself and this finally led to their fall. Historians put forward different causes for the
sudden eclipse of the brilliant Barmakids. The usual reason given is that Hārün as a token
of his great friendship, had allowed Ja'far Barmaki to marry his beloved sister Princess
‘Abbasa, but only in name. Later on he was informed while returning from a pilgrimage,
that she had secretly given birth to a son whom he had concealed in Mecca.! This
infuriated Härûn and he feil upon the Baramika like a vulture. Ibn Khaldun, however,
discounts it as mere fiction. According to him the reason was psychological. Their
influence was boundless and their fame was wide-spread. Practically all the important
administrative posts, civil as well as military, were occupied by members of their family,
or by their proteges. All faces turned towards them; all heads bowed in their presence.
All hopes and aspirations of the candidates rested on them alone. They showered their
bounties in all directions; their praises were sung by all, and they were far more popular
than their master.” The iinmense popularity of the Baramika had raised many enemies
who were bent upon bringing their dowrifall. Among them was their most formidable
enemy, Fadi bin Rabi, the chamberlain of Härūn to whom had been entrusted the privy
seal. He constantly poisoned Hārūn's mind against Ja'far and Fadl. He aroused the
Caliph's suspicion by fabricating the stories of a Barmakid conspiracy to overthrow the
'Abbasid power. The time at last came for the Caliph to rid himself of these “conspirators”
and rivals of his Crown “for in the caliphal firmament there could not be two suns." The
first victim of Hārūn's blind fury and suspicion was the 37 year old Ja'far, his boon
companion and vizier. Ja'far was slain, in 803 A.D., by their common attendant Masrür,
his head was cut off and hung on a bridge in Baghdad and the two halves of his body on
the other two bridges, according to the historian Tabari. The old Yanya along with the
brilliant Fadl and two other sons Muhammad and Mūsa were put into confine ment and
all their property was confiscated. Yahya and Fadi died in the prison. Thus fell the
celebrated house of al-Baramika never to rise again.

War with the Romans

The martial expeditions of Hārūn against the Romans form the most brilliant saga of
conquests during the entire ‘Abbasid history. In 792 A. D., the dowager Irene seized the
throne but soon she was deposed by the Byzantine insurgents, and her deputy Nigfoor
(Nicephorus) was seated in her place. The insolent and short-sighted Nicephorus soon
violated the peace which the Romans had only presently entered into with the Muslims.
He wrote an insulting letter to Hārūn: "From Nicephorus, the Roman Emperor to Härün,
the King of the 'Arabs. Indeed the Queen before me made you a rook and herself a pawn
and, with the traditional frailty and foolishness of women headed over to you a colossal
amount of wealth as tribute. _Now retum the amount to me or leave it to the sword to
decide between you and me." Infuriated Härūn wrote back on the same letter : "From
Hārün, the Commander of the Faithful, to Nicephorus, the dog of a Roman. Indeed I have
read your letter, O son of an infidel mother. As for the answer, it shall befor_your eyes to
see and not for your ears to hear." Härün kept his word. Immediately he started with a
large army against the boastful Roman and defeated him at Heraclea. Nicephorus
entreated for peace against an annual tribute. But Hārūn's triumphant march back home
was interrupted by the immediate breach of peace by the Romans. Against the
expectations of Nicephorus, Hārūn turned back with lightning speed and fell upon the
treacherous Romans. Nicephorus made a disastrous retreat and once again sued for peace
which Hārūn magnanimously granted. After some time a revolt. in Transoxiana gave the
Romans another opportunity to break the covenant and they stormed the frontier lands
creating havoc. This was too much for Hārün. Leaving Māmūn as his regent he started
north with a very large army, 135,000 soldiers besides the irregulars. He swept over the
whole of Asia Minor conquering many cities. Nice phorus suffered a disastrous defeat
and lost Heraclea. Once again he pleaded for peace and Hārün rather unwisely granted
it. According to William Muir: “Over and over again when Hārün was engaged
elsewhere, Nicephorus broke his treaty and as often was beaten.”

Death

In the meanwhile when Härün was making preparation to strike a final blow upon the
Romans, his attention was diverted by internal disorder in the province of Khorāsän.
Leaving his eldest son, Amin it Baghdad he started for Khorāsān with his illustrious son,
Māmūn. While proceeding towards Merv he took ill at a village named Sanabad and, two
days later died there (in March, 809 A. D.), while, on the pinnacle of bis glory.

Harun's Greatness

Hārūn's glorious reign lasted for about 24 years. His orthodoxy, piety and righteousness,
his liberality and benevolence, his magnificent victories over the Byzantines and last, but
not the least, the literary brilliance and the cultural glory of his reign have raised him in
the popular estimation far above all other monarchs in the history of Islam. In the words
of Ameer 'Ali, "Weigh him as carefully as you like in the scale of historical criticism,
Hārūn al-Rashid will always rank with the greatest sovereigns and rulers of the world."

Commander of the Faithfuls

As a military leader and commander, Hârün was next to none among the greatest military
commanders ever born. Throughout his long rule of a quarter of a century he remained
constantly preoccupied with the enormous task of safe-guarding the Islamic frontiers
against external aggression and fighting the forces of internal disorder, and yet there was
not a single occasion when he did not march triumphantly back to Baghdad. His
garrisons remained impregnable and his forces ruigned supreme everywhere. His grand
victories, over the Romanis and the Berbers of North Africa can be reckoned among the
most glorious chapters of Islamic conquests. His authority: was unchallengeable not only
in the domains of Islam but even the great European potentate, Charlemagne, respected
his supremacy and did not dare challenge him in the battle-field. On the contrary he tried
to establish diplomatic relations with Härun through an. exchange of emissaries and
cultural delegates who brought with them lavish European presents and works of art,
craft and industry to which Hārün reciprocated by showering on them all the oriental
luxuries at his disposal. They returned to Charle magne's court with the anecdotes of
fascinating Baghdad and its charming Emperor. Yet with all his pomp and glory, Hārūn
did not rule in the traditional fashion of a despot. “That he should with the unbounded
power he possessed, be so self-strained, so devoted to the advancement of public
prosperity; so careful of the interests of his subjects is a credit to his genius:"

Administrator

In his dedication to the welfare of the people, Härün was an emperor par excellence. An
administrator of the highest order, he left no stone unturned in acquiring the highest level
of efficiency in his entire administrative set up. In the discharge of his duties as the head
of the Islamic Commonwealth, be worked day and night with utmost vigil and took pains
to see that no injustice was done to anyone in his greatest empire of its day. He extensively
travelled all over the Commonwealth to redress the grievances of the people and to
eradicate evils, corruption and mal practices. He kept himself well-informed about the
condition of his subjects. The tales of the Arabian Nights describing the nocturnal rounds
in the streets of Baghdad to relieve the oppressed and destitute and to remedy injustice
are not altogether discountable as fictitious. He personally inspected the frontiers and
never allowed lethargy and slackness in matters of both civil and military administration.
Pilgrims, merchants, traders and scholars journeyed through his vast empire in perfect
safety and without the slightest apprehension of dacoits and highwaymen. His civil and
military officers observed constant vigil and the peace and tranquillity that prevailed
through out his vast ernpire proves the efficiency and excellence of his administration.
Hārūn's interest in the welfare of the subjects was unexcelled. The innumerable mosques,
colleges and schools, the hospitals and dispensaries, the Foads and caravan-sarais, the
bridges and the canals which tie constructed through the farthest confines of his
dominion speak of his monumental services in the realm of public interests and general
well-being.

Like his predecessor al-Manşūr, Hârün was pious and faithful in the observance of
religious duties. According to the historian Tabari, every alternate year he paid the holy
visit to Mecca and every day offered a hundred rik'ai in prayer and spent a thousand
dirhams in charity. “Nine times he himself led the caravan of pilgrijas to the holy cities
of Mecca and Medina and thus brought the nations under his sway to recognize and
appreciate his personality, and to value the advantages of Islamic solidarity. Surrounding
himself with the pomp and insignia of grandeur, he impressed his personality on popular
imagination and exercised a great influence by his character on society.” He was very
kind hearted and feared Allah. He frequently wept while réciting the Holy Qur'an or
harkening to a piece of admonition regarding the scourge of Allah on the wrong-doers.

Patron of Arts and Literature

As a patron of arts and literature, Härūn is counted among the greatest monarchs of all
time. Personally he was matchless in the strength of character and brilliance of intellect.
He himself was a poet and took poetry to his heart. He loved to be in the company of
intelectuals and discussed with them the subtle ties of literature with the confidence of a
profound scholar. Härün's court was a galaxy of scholars, poets and men of letters,
perhaps the most brilliant of the time. They came from every part of the world and Hārūn
showered on them his munificence. He most liberally and wholeheartedly patronized the
intellectual geniuses and enlarged the department (which was established by his grand
father, al-Manşür) for the translation of scientific works into 'Arabic. According to Ibn
Khaldun he followed in the footsteps of al-Manşür except in generosity, for no Caliph
exceeded him in generosity and munificence.

Bait Al-Hikma

Among the most prominent intellectuals, who flourished in Hārūn's court and his grand
academy, Bait al-Hikma were Christian monks and Jewish scholars, Hindu pandits and
Zoroastrian Marzabans. In the Department of Translation, Dar al-Tarjima, books were
translated from Greek, Sanskrit, Pahlavi, Zand, Syriac and Persian, Hebrew and
Ethiopian. Among the prominent figures who formed the intellectual aristocracy were
Malik bin Anas, Imām Shafi'i, Imām Abū Yusuf, the great jurists and theologians, Asmai,
the grammarian, 'Isa bin Yunus, Sufyan bin Suri, Gabriel bin Bakhtiash, the physical
rahim Mosuli, the musician. Härün was the first Muslim monarch to elevate music into 2
10 profession, according to the author of al-Aghanil.

In Hārūn's Bait al-Hikma, music, art, architec ture, philosophy, literature, grammar,
science, mathematics, medicine, and other branches of knowledge were cultivated under
the best brains of the day. The philosophical works of Aristotle, Neo Platonic
commentaries, medical writings from the Greeks, treatises' on mathematics, astronomical
works like Siddhanta and the fables of Panchtantra were translated into “Arabic. Among
the most prominent poets of the Caliph's court were Abü Nuwas, his boon-companion
and court-jester and Abū al-Atahiya the great rival of Abū Nuwas. It was no wonder that
the later writers of fiction looked back to the time of Hārün al-Rashid as the golden age
of the Caliphate.

CHAPTER 28
AL-AMIN
(809 A.D. 10 313 A.D.)

On the death of Hārūn al-Rashid, his eldest son Muhammad al-Amin ascended the
'Abbasid throne in 809 A. D. He was the only ‘Abbasid ruler who was a Hashimite from
both his father's and mother's side ; and of which lineage he was immensely proud. By
nature he was pleasure-loving and flamboyant. Most of the time he kept himself occupied
in sports and frolic. According to Ibn al-Athir, there was nothing praise-worthy in his
character.

At the time of Härün's death, Amin was in Baghdad and Māmün at Merv with the dying
caliph. Zubaida, the Queen Mother was at Rakka. She immediately left for Baghdad and
there she was received with great pomp and ceremony.

Ameer 'Ali makes an interesting comparison of the characters of the two brothers Amin
and Mamūn: "Both had been carefully brought up under the tuition of the most talented
scholar of the day, Amin in the chrarge on his mother and maternal uncle 'Isa, . Mamūn,
whose mother, a Persian lady had died when he was an infant, under the guardianship
of the unfortunate Vizier, Ja'far. Both had received the same education, but whilst
Māmūn's receptive mind imbibed and assimilated knowledge that was imparted him, it
had no effect on the volatile and pleasure loving character of Amin beyond giving him a
super ficial polish. In oratory, a necessáry accomplishment for an 'Arab prince, both stood
on an equal footing, but Māmūn was a jurist and a philosopher as well.”

Fadl Bin Rabi

Fadl bin Rabi, Hārūn's chamberlain was with him at the time of his death. After the tragic
end of Ja'far al-Barmaki, he had virtually become the grand vizier. Fadl was a shrewd
diplomat and be knew Amin's weaknesses. He'at once extended to Amin his
wholehearted support because he knew that such a pleasure-loving prince and his
addiction to luxury and pomp would be in the best interests of a power hungry grand
vizier. Amin invested him with the vizierate and with enormous powers and
prerogatives. Fadl thus became the virtual master of all 'Abbasid affairs.

The unexpected and wholehearted support of Fadl bin Rabi to Amin put Māmün into an
extremely difficult position as his own supporters were getting restive. Mäman
immediately summoned his father's trusted notables for consultation, Among them were
Ala, the Lord Chamberlain, "Abbas bin Musib, the Police Commissioner, and Fadi bin
Sall, the Chief Secretary.' The notables advised Mämún to take Fadi bin Rabi to task but
Fadi bin Sahl was in favour of exercising restraint and winning over public opinion
against the betrayal of Fadi bin Rabi and the anticipated violation of Harun's covenant.
He also assured Māmũn that as long as the principality of Khorāsān was under his full
control, there was no possibility of his royal interests being jeopardised. Māmün heeded
Ibn Sahl's advice and made him over all incharge of his affairs, especially for promoting
his legitimate clairn to succession, and for winning over the popular support for him.
After that Māmün took several measures to win the affection and good will of the people
of Khorāsān. He also gave the farmers a major concession by foregoing one-fourth of the
levy on agriculture. The people of Khorasan were overjoyed with these benevolent
measures and they were heard praising him: "Why should he not be - like that? After all
he is the son of our sister, and a descendant of our Prophet's uncle." (Mämūn's mother
was a Persian slave-girl from Khorāsän).

The Spoiled Prince

While Māmūn was busy popularising bimself in Khorāsān through his benevolent
measures and liberal reforms, Amin was bringing the Eastern Provinces closer to the
brink of disaster. He was least interested in the affairs of the State and all the time
indulged in luxury and extravagance. There was a colossal waste of public funds on
superfiuous projects. "Jugglers and buffoons, astrologers and sooth-sayers were sent for
from all parts of the country; and enormous sums were lavished on securing the services
of the most beautiful dancers and the most accomplished songstresses. For his fetes on
the Tigris, he caused to be constructed five barges lavishly gilt and decorated in the shape
of a lion, elephant, eagle, serpent, and horse."

Fadl's Conspiracy

Himself immersed in wine and luxury, Amin had left the entire administration in the
dangerous hands of Fadl bin Rabi. The administrative machinery was breaking down
and the enemies of Islam were rejoicing. The relations with the Byzantines were
deteriorating rapidly. General Leo who had forced himself in power and had become the
master of the Byzantine affairs had broken the terms of the treaty which his predecessors
had signed with the Muslims. He even started making inroads in the domain of Islam
butiinin had no time to divert his attention to any serious problems. On the contrary, he
was constantly planning to remove Māmün from his way as he never intended to abide
by the covenant he had made with his father. Fadl bin Rabi was very much affraid of
Menün's immense popularity and growing influence in Khorāsān. He now openly
instigated Amin to violate Härün's covenant and to set Mamūn aside from succession. At
first Amin did relent, being affraid of his nobles who were against violating the covenant
of Härün. But Fadl's continuous persistence induced Amin to take the perilous measure
of depos ing Māmün from the caliphate. He summond Māmün to Baghdad but Mamün
politely refused to leave Khorasan. "Thiereupe.. Amin issued a directive deposing him
from the vicero alty with the instruction “that his name should enceforth cease to be
mentioned in the prayers isuri the pulpits."

The Fratricidal War

The breach between die two brothers was now almost complete. Further Amin took the
exasperat ing step of nominating his infant son Musa as his successor to the ‘Abbasid
throne. Māmūn was forced to take retaliatory measures and he sealed the borders of
Khorasan by drawing a cordon round them. He established check-posts throughout the
western frontiers so that no unwanted person might trespass his jurisdiction. Amin went
to the extreme of getting back the solemn covenants of Hārūn from the walls of the Kaʻba
and tearing them publicly into pieces. After that he despatched a large army of 50,000
soldiers towards the capital of Khorasan under the command of 'Ali bin 'Isa. Māmun sent
his gallant commander Tahir bin Husain to meet the challenge. The battle was hotly
contested on both sides but ultimately Mämūn's forces emerged victorious. Amin's
commander 'Ali bin "Isa was killed in the battle and his troops were forced to retreat. It
was the first grand victory for Māmän.

Disgusted with the humiliating defeat, Amin's vizier, Fadl bin Rabi confiscated Māmün's
estates in Baghdad along with the sum of 100,000 dirhams presented to Māmün by Hārūn
as a personal gift. Subsequently Fadl despatched several other armies to dismantle
Mämūn's authority but in vain. On all occasions they were beaten back. Māmün's general,
Tahir bin Husain marched triumphantly on. He captured Qazwin and subjugated
Hulwan.

It was only after the conquest of Ahwaz that Māmün decided to style himself as
“Commander of the Faithfuls” (Amir al-Muminin). The whole of Persia had practically
come under his sway. He made Fadl bin Sahl both the chancellor of the exchequer (Amir
al-Kharāj) and the war minister (Amir al-Harb).

Siege of Baghdad
Māmūn's armies were marching triumphantly everywhere. Ahwaz, Yamama, Oman and
Bahrain wete conquered one after another. The town of Wasit also capitulated. Then the
viceroys of Kūfa, Başra, Mecca and Medina broke away from Amin and acknowledged
Mämūn's authority. Ultimately Māmūn's forces headed towards the capital, Baghdad.
Tabir bin Husain, Hartbama and Zuhair, the three military giants of Mamün besieged
Baghdad from all sides. The siege lasted for several months and great damage was done
to the beautiful city of al-Manşür. As a result of a total and prolonged siege Amin's -
treasury went bankrupt arid he had to melt down gold and silver plates to distribute
among the soldiery. Ultimately he was forced to take shelter with his mother Zubaida in
al-Manşür's citadel (Medinat al Mansur) on the western bank of the Tigris. However his
position went on weakening and he was com pelled to start negotiations with Mamüd on
the terms of surrender. The one-eyed Tahir bin Husain insisted that he should surrender
at his hand but Amin despised him with distrust. Finally he agreed to surrender before
Harthama who had been Hărün's trusted general and faithful friend. After a touching
parting members, Amin left the palac" and arrived to board Harthama's boat. Harthama
received with great honour and respect and the boat started moving towards the camp.
But some cruel anu mischievous Persian soldiers who nurtured utmost hatred in their
hearts for Amin started throwing stones at the boat and the boat capsized. Harthama s
life was saved by the boatman and Amio swam across only to be captured by the Persian
soldiers. He was taken to a deserted house and confined there.

Death

At midnight suddenly some soldiers stormed the house and pounced upon the deposed
caliph. Amin desperately tried to defend himself but in vain. The Persian assassins
chopped his head off and exhibited it on the walls of Baghdad.
"When Mämūn received the news of his brother's unhappy end, he was overwhelmed
with grief. He had never dreamt that the consequences of their differences would have
this disastrous result. He took immediate steps to punish the murderers, and in order to
make up in some degree for the loss of their father, adopted the sons of Amin as his own;
they were confided to Zubaida's care and when they grew up were married to his
daughters."

Ámin died in the prime of his youth at the age of twenty-eight. His rule lasted for about
five years during which many disasters were wrought ir the 'Abbasid Empire on account
of the fratricidal war between Mamün and him. The inhabitants of Baghdad had to
undergo terrible sufferings at the time of the siege and many of them lost their lives as a
result of the civil war. Amin's reign was a tragic break between the two most remarkable
phases of the 'Abbasid glory; viz., the reign of Hārūn and that of Māmün.

GENEALOGY OF THE EARLY 'ABBASIDS

Hashim
 100
'Abd al-Muttalib
Abdullah
Abu Talib
Abbas
-
Mubammad (Prophet)
Fatima x‘Ali
Abdullah
Hasan
Hussain
Muhammad
Ibrahim
1. Abu al-'Abbās
(al-Saffah) 750 ADI 17514 AD
2. Abu Ja'far (al-Mansur),
754 0 775 A.D. 3. Al-Mahdi
72 785
4. al-Hädi 785-7.86
3. Härüo (al-Rashid) 786F 80GAD
6, al-Amin
809- 813 A.D.
8. al-Mu'tasim
7. al-Māmūg
1863-833
.
Muhammad
9. al-Wathiq
10. al-Mutawakkil 1847-1867
12. al-Mustacen
14. al-Muhtadi
11. al-Muntaşir
867
13. al-M'utáz
15. al-Mu'tamid

CHAPTER 29
AL-MAMUN
(813. A.D. to 833 A.D.)

Mamūn was born on a night of Rabi II. According to Ibn al-Tiqtaga : "It was a strange
night in which one caliph passed away (al-Hadi), another ascended the throne (Hårün)
and a third was born (Nämūn)."? Māmūn's formal education started when he was five
years old under the ablest scholars of the time and, in his early youth he acquired
proficiency in scholastic theology and various social sciences. He had a philosophical
bent of mind right from the days of his schooling.

After the death of Amin, under tragic circum stances Māmün became the Commander of
the Faithful. But he did not immediately rush to Baghdad and take over the charge of the
‘Abbasid administration. On the contrary he kept himself involved in the philosophical
discussion at Merv, and left the entire administrative machinery in the hands, of his grand
vizier; Fadl bin Sahl. It was in the interests of Fadi that the Caliph should remain at Merv,
far away from the capital. "No information regarding the real state of affairs in the west
was allowed to reach the Caliph and he was ihus kept in complete ignorance of the events
that were taking place in Iraq and Syria."

As a result of Mamūn's prolonged absence from the capital, there were some political
developments which created chaos and disorder in the eastern provinces. These chaotic
conditions prevailed for about five years and they could have been easily avoided had
Māmūn (on Arin's death) promptly shifted to Baghdad. Soon there was an organized
revolt in Mesopotamia. Nasr bin Shabat who was a. protagonist of Amin refused to
acknowledge the legitimacy of Māmūn's rule and rose in armed rebellion against him.
With lightning speed he gathered a substantial force around him and success fully carried
on his campaigns against the ‘Abbasid forces. On one occasion he declared in
congregation: "I am not against Banū.Abbās. But I oppose them because they have given
the Persians upper hand over the 'Arabs."

Revolt of Abu . Al-Saraya

Abu al-Saraya of Banu Shaibão created havoc by his raid and looting expeditions in
southern 'Iraq. The ‘Ab isid general Harthama tried to arrive at a compromise with him
but in vain. Abū al-Saraya's initial success emboldened him to embark upon bigger and
more hazardous campaigns. He raided Anbaar and plundered it. In the meanwhile an
'Alawite, Ibrahim commonly known as Ibn Taba Taba appeared in Kūfa and invited the
people to overthrow the ‘Abbasids and take the pledge of fealty to the family of the
Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). Abū al-Saraya joined hands with Ibn
Taba-Taba and defeated Hasan bin Sahl in a decisive battle. But his ambition did not
allow him to play a subordinate role and he poisoned his chief Ibn Taba-Taba and
nominally placed a tame 'Alawite in his place. Immediately after that he established his
hold over Küfa, Başra and Wasit, and started planning his march on Baghdad. Hasan bin
Sahl being himself unable to contain Abu al-Saraya's growing power requested the
gallant Harthama to meet the challenge.

Harthama meets the Challenge

In the beginning Harthama was reluctant to embark upon the adventure as his relation
with Hasan bin Sahl were rather strained but after a lot of persuasion from the latter, he
marched towards Kufa with a large army. By this time Madain had also fallen in the
hands of Abu al-Saraya. Harthama immediately fell upon the Ibn Hubaira Palace, the
citadel of Abū al-Saraya and besieged it. In a series of combats Harthama succeeded in
eliminating a large number of Abū’s followers, and marched towards Kūfa. Abū al-
Saraya fied from Kūfa with - 800 followers and from there to Qadisiya. Ultimately he was
trapped and killed. His head was sent to Mêmūn as a trophy and later on displayed on
the main bridge of Baghdad.

Imam Ja'far Al-Sadiq

While these events were taking place in the central provinces, the 'Alid's were busy in
consolidai ing their influence in Hijāz. They now felt that the time was ripe for winning
back their legitimate rights. They consequently elected a son of Imām Ja'far al-Sadiq as
the Caliph. (Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq was the sixth Imām of the Shiʻa. Muslims). The whole
Commonwealth was thus in a state of great turmoil and Māmūn was completely in the
dark about these developments as Fadl bin Sahl, his grand vizier did not want Māmün
to personally intervene in the political trouble. But ultimately when Harthama's services
were called for to meet the threat of Abū al Saraya, the matter took a very serious turn.
Harthama's magnificent victory over the powerful Abu al-Saraya and the subsequent
display of the - latter's head in the streets of Baghdad aroused Māmün from his profound
slumber.

Harthama's Death

After Harthama had suppressed the rebels in Mesopotamia, Fadl bin Sahl, the grand
vizier wanted to transfer him to Egypt. But Harthama who wanted to open the eyes of
Māmún refused to obey his orders and dashed to Māmūn's palace at Merv. "Hot words
passed on both sides, and Harthama with soldierly bluntness, told Māmūn how the
empire was drifting to ruin. Hardly had he left the sovereign on his way to his residence,
than he was set upon by the vizier's myrmidons and so severely assaulted that he died of
his injuries a few days later." The assassina tion of this great servant of the ‘Abbasid
dynasty caused a violent riot among the troops at Baghdad. Harthama was an immensely
popular figure in the society of Baghdad. The people of Baghdad refused to obey the
grand vizier Fadl calling him “a Magian son of a Magian," and elected Manşür bin Mahdi
as their governor who agreed to conduct the government in the name of Māmün.

Imam 'Ah Al-Rida

In 815 A.D., Māmün sent for Imām 'Ali al Rida, son of Mūsa al-Käzim from Medina as he
wanted to make over the caliphate to the “Family of the Prophet.” Accordingly in 816 in
the holy of Ramdan, he appointed him as his heir apparent to the Caliphate under the
title of al-Ridā, the Accept able. Māmün also issued the directive to abandon the
traditional black colour of the "Abbasids and the adoption of the green colour of the
'Alawites.

Anarchy

The nomination of 'Ali al-Rida to the Caliphate had a mixed reaction. It was universally
acclaimed by the protagonists of the House of 'Ali but the ‘Abbasid clan which had also
grown considerably took it as a challenge. They immediately proclaimed Ibrahim bin
Mahdi as their Caliph and ousted the officials of Māmün from Baghdad. The situation
led to chaos in the capital and in various other towns. Lawlessness spread like wild-fire.
There was a free for-all and robbers and highwaymen killed and robbed people in broad
day-light. Matters at last became so serious that the respectable classes were compelled
to take measures for their own safety. They formed vigilance committees for the
enforcement of law and maintenance of order."

Then the anarchy spread to Hijāz and southern 'Arabia. Under the short-sighted and
selfish adminis tration of Fadl bin Sahl and his brother Hasan, Māmün's mighty empire
was likely to tumble down. But 'Ali al-Ridā, the heir apparent of Māmun, finding the
Caliph's interests at stake at once rushed to the capital of Khorāsān to see Māmun
personally and acquaint him of the great crisis that was eating into the vitals of the
'Abbasid Empire. Māmūn was shocked at these revelations. He told him "how the
Caliphate had lost in Harthama a faithful and tried servant and that Ibrāhim bin Mahdi
was recognized by Banü “Abbās as the Sunni Caliph against Mamūn whom they
considered a heretic.” The verification of Rida's reports by some military officers alerted
Māmün and he immediately ordered a march on Baghdad.

The Homecoming

Faţi bin Sahl's treachery was exposed but Mamün could not promptly do away with him
because of the latter's enormous powers. He promised 'Ali al-Ridā that Fadl will be
gradually liquidated. The Persian antagonists of Fadl however anticipated Māmün's
wrath on the cruel conspirator and assassinated Fadl near Merv. While journeying
towards Baghdad, Mâmün halted at Tus, to visit Hārün's tomb while there, ‘Ali al-Ridā,
his trusted companion and the saviour of his empire, died. 'Ali al-Ridã was buried at
Mashhad.

Māmūn's arrival in Baghdad was greeted with boundless joy by its citizens and there was
rejoicing everywhere. Māmūn's return to the capital put an end to the 'anarchy that
prevailed everywhere. The vigilance committees were promptly dissolved and peace and
order were fully restored. Māmün seriously devoted himself to the enormous task of
administra tive reorganization and economic reconstruction. Rebellions in Khorāsān and
southern 'Arabia were quelled and Crete and Sicily were conquered.
In 825 A.D., Māmün married Buran, the beautiful daughter of Hasan bin Sahl, who had
become his vizier upon Fadl's death. Buran was an extraordinary woman. Endowed with
great beauty, wit and accomplishment she exercised enormous influence on Māmūn and
worked for the welfare of the people.

War with the Byzantines

Babek, a Magian heretic ir stigated the Byzantine troops to make inroads into the domain
of Islam. Theophilus the son of Michael, the Stammerer was ruling Byzantium at this
time. To teach the Byzantines a lesson Mämun personally led a large army to the frontiers
and in three consecutive campaigns inflicted severe defeat on the Byzantines.

Mamun's Death

After defeating the Byzantines, Måmün proceeded Cris Egypt to guard his empire against
the towards Egypt frequent Greek invasions and ordered the construction of a well-
fortified military cantonment near Tarsus. "It was hardly finished when death overtook
him. Encamped in the vicinity of a place called Bidandun, Māmūn and his brother
Mu'tasim were sitting on a hot autumn day by the banks of a river, soaking their feet in
its icy cold water. The same night they were attacked with violent fever. Mâmūn was
brought in that condition to Tarsus, where he died......Mu'tasim recovered, and was able
to receive his brother's injunction." Māmún died in August 833 A.D., after a glorious reign
of twenty years and six months.

Mamun's Greatness

Mamun was well-built, handsome and possessed an imposing personality. According to

Ibn al-Tiqtaqa, "He was the most outstanding and distinguished among all the ‘Abbasids
for his prudence, sagacity, clemency, determination, majesty and liberality."

The only Caliph that could surpass the great Hārūn al-Rashid in bis glory and splendour
was his equally illustrious son Māmün. Mamūn's reign formed the most glorious era of
Islamic history. Apart from the economic prosperity and material development, the two
splendid decades of Måman's rule witnessed a tremendous advance in the intellec tual
realm. There was all-round development in various branches of science and literature;
poetry and belles lettres philosophy and scholastic theology, mathematics and
astronomy, chemistry and medicine, Baghdad became the torch-bearer of learnins and
civilization. From Baghdad the enlightenment reached the confines of Muslim Spain and
the Byzantine Commonwealth, and from there to the entire continent of Europe.

The Educationist
Māmûn was a great admirer and person of learning and education. “The true happiness
of my people consists in education and culture," he is once attributed to have said. He
was the first monarch in the history of the world who secularized education and
separated it from politics. He did not want to leave the growth of education at the mercy
of reigning sovereigns and nobles in power. Therefore, for the continuous and
uninterrupted growth and expansion of educational institutions he established trusts and
endowments. «Schools and colleges were opened in all directions and richly endowed.”

The Secularist and Rationalist

Māmūn's advisory council consisted of representatives from all the communities living
in the domains of Islam; it:ncluded Muslims, Christians, Jews, Zoras trians and Sabeans.
Practically under all the Muslim caliphs and monarchs, the non-Muslims had enjoyed
complete religious freedom and it has always remained a glowing example of the great
tolerance shown by Islam to its contemporary faiths. Māmūn carried on his healthy
tradition with utmost zeal and liberality.

Māmün himself was a great scholar of Islamic theology and was counted among the
eminent jurists and traditionists of his time. He was a competent student of the Holy
Qur'an and had studied it profoundly. The association with eminent theologians and
scholastics and especially that with 'Ali al-Ridā had deeply influenced his mind and
thought.
The Mu'tazila

Wasil bin 'Ața, a disciple of Hasan al-Başri the great saint and scholar had established the
Mu'tazili school in the first half of the second century of the Islamic era, after having
seceded from the saint on a question of religious dogma. Consequently his followers were
called Mu'tazila or the seceders and their dissenting doctrine, Madhab al-lótizal. The
Mu'tazila opposed the established dogma that “every human act was preordained" (Jabr
and Qadr). They rejected the doctrine that "man was not a free agent; that on the Day of
Judgement there will be a corporeal resurrection, and that Allah will be seen with the
corporeal eye; that the attributes of Allah were distinct from His Essence and that the
Holy Qur'an was uncreated and was co-eternal with Allah.” They maintained that man
was a free agent in the choice of good and evil (Mukhtar). They also believed that
there would be no corporeal eyes for that would imply that He Himself was a body, that
the attributes (Sifat) of Allah are not separate from His Essence (Dhat) and that the Holy
Qur'an was created (Makhluq)."

Māmün adopted Mu'tazilite doctrines and became a staunch supporter of the Mu'tazilite
school. It would have been more worthy of him had he himself believed in it and
practised it. But in his zeal to propagate Mu'tazilism he cast aside all his liberalism and
tried to indoctrinate other scholars of eminence. Among those orthodox theologians who
could not toe the line of Māmün and his co-ideologists was the veteran Ahmad ibn
Hanbal who fought gallantly against the Mu'tazili indoctrination and had to suffer
terribly at the hands of Mämün. Most of the judges and doctors of Baghdad, as a matter
of policy, expressed their agreement with the views of the Caliph. Science and Literature
In the words of Ameer 'Ali, “Māmün's reign was unquestionably the most brilliant and
glorious of all in the history of Islam.” In Māmūn's court there was a galaxy of poets,
philosophers, men of letters and scientists. In his Department of Translation, the best
philosophical works of ancient Greece were brought from Athens and translated by
competent scholars. Original research was also conducted under special departments;
more significantly in the field of astronomy. The observations of eclipses, comets and
other celestial phenomena formed the most important part of this research. "The size of
the earth was calculated from the ineasurement of a degree on the shores of the Red Sea-
-this at a time when Christian Europe was asserting the flatness of the earth.” The
telescope was invented by a scientist named Abū al-Hasan during this period. Several
valuable treatises were written on medicine, astronomy, arithmetic, geometry,
meteorology, optics and mechanics. Several great physicians flourished in the ‘Abbasid
court and became the envy of the contemporary world. Māmün was the first Muslim
monarch to establish an observatory at Shamsiya. Later on he established several other
observatories from where the eminent astronomers observed the celestial bodies. In the
words of William Muir, “that the nations of Europe, then shrouded in the darkness of the
Middle Ages, became again acquainted with their own proper but forgotten patrimony
of Grecian science and philosophy."

The epoch of translation was followed by one of creative activity. In the realm si literature
Arabic made tremendous progress. Great poets like Abu al-Atahiya, Abü Tammam and
al-Buhiuri flourished under Mämūn's patronage. Persian literature also made strides. The
celebrated poet 'Abbās of Merv became a pioneer and trend-setter in Persian poetry.

In Māműn's reign, the work of collection and compilation of the “Traditions (Ahadith) of
the Prophet was carried on vigorously. The collections of al-Bukhari and Abü Dāwūd,
the Prophet's life by Ibn Sa'd (Tabagat) and “The Battles" (al-Maghazi) are among the
important contributions of Māmūn's period.

In the field of astronomy and mathematics great stalwarts like al-Khwarizmi, Sind bin
'Ali and Yahya bin Manşür were the most important figures that ilourished under the
great Caliph. The works of al-Khwarizmi were used until the 16th century as the principal
mathematical texts in the European univer sities. Thus Mämūn's age is rightly regarded
as the most splendid era in the cultural history of Islam.

CHAPTER 30
AL-MUʻTASIM
(833 4.D. 10 842 A. D.)
Abu Ishāq Muhainmad al-Mu'tasim ascended the 'Abbasid throne, on Mâmün's death in
833 A. D. It was only when both the brothers Māmün and Mu'tasim fell critically ill after
their adventure in the chilled waters of Bidandun that Mämūn decided to nominate
Mu'tasim as his successor. At this distant age it is very difficult to explain Mā mūn's
motive in depriving his son ‘Abbas of the grand caliphate and bestowing it on his brother.
'Abbas was extremely popular with the armed forces especially with the Arab regiments,
and they did not want Mu'asim to be at the helm of affairs. And yet Māmūn took this
decision probably because he considered Maʻtasim to be more capable and worthy of the
great ofice.

In the beginning the troops were considerably agitated and they wanted to rise in revolt
against al Mu'tasim but ‘Abbas, the dignified son of Māmun desired that the words of his
late father should be honoured. He pacified the soldiery by imnicciately taking the pledge
(Bai'at) to his uncle Mu'taşim and ordering his protagonists to withdraw their agitation.

According to al-Mas'udi, Mu'taşim was proclaimed Caliph on 17th Rajab 218 A.H. On
assuming the reins of government, Mu'taşim endeavoured to follow in the footsteps of
his illustrious brother. Mu'taşim was an able adminis trator and a benevolent ruler, and
he would have proved himself worthy of that great office, had he not lacked the vigilance
and farsightedness of Māmūn. His first lause was that he stopped the construction of the
military settlement near Tarsus (so scrupulously started by Māmün) which was designed
to contain the Greek adventurist designs on the domains of Islam.

The Turkish Corps

His greatest lapse was however the formation of a standing army composed of Turks and
other non ‘Arabs. Heretofore all the 'Arab sovereigns used to rely on the Arab body-
guards for their personal protection and safety. Mu'taşim cast aside this tradition fearing
the 'Arab regiments, who had initially supported. “Abbās, against his own nomina tion.
This great blunder of relying on foreign troops later on proved one of the vital causes of
the decline of the Abbasids. "This corps wa's recruited by Turkish mamlukes (slaves) and
mercenaries from Central Asia and the highlands of Yemen and Egypt : ......... They were
commanded by their own officers who were directly under the sovereign. They were thus
completely separate from the Arab and Persian troops. Dressed in splendid uniforms,
they galloped recklessly through the streets of Baghdad, knocking down anybody in their
way.”

Samarra

The high handedness of these Turkish guards soon resulted into widespread discontent
and unrest, and there was the likelihood of a communal flare-up in Baghdad. Mu'taşim
did not want to part with his favourite guards and at the same time he could not remain
in Baghdad peacefully without doing away with them, on account of the growing
popular resentment against these 'foreign intruders." Ulti mately Mu'taşim resolved this
dilemma by transferring the seat of power from Baghdad to, Samarra. Samarra was a
picturesque settlement in the north-west of Baghdad which was originally named Surra-
man-Raa (Delighted was he who saw it). Mu'taşim "built for himself a palace there, with
barracks for 250,000 soldiers and stables for 160,000 horses. Portions of the city were
allotted to the Turkish chiefs, whose mansions vied in grandeur with residence."

The Jat Uprising

In the meanwhile there was an uprising on the banks of the Tigris. Strangely enough this
revolt was spearheaded neither by the native ‘Arabs nor the foreign Persians or Turks;
they were the Jats (Ar. Zatt), from the northern provinces of India. The *Arab annalists
and chroniclers are unable to give the reason for the exodus of these Jats from India.
(According to some modern researches these Jats were the ancestors of the modern
gypsies). The historians Ibn al-Tiqtaga maintains that they were about 17,000 in number.
Mu'taşim despatched a. small contingent to contain the menace of these rebellious Jats.
They were easily overpowered and "were brought in boats as prisoners to Baghdad for
the Caliph to see the costume of their women."

In 839 A.D., Mu'taşim fought a series of battles against the Byzantines and inflicted a
severe defeat on Theophilus, their emperor. During the same campaign he also unearthed
a plot on his life. Among the conspirators was 'Abbās, the son of Māmün, who was caught
and executed. In the same year Mu'tasim suppressed the rebellion of Maziar, the Magian
price of Tabaristan.
In the beginning of the year 842 A.D., Mu'taşim was attacked by a severe disease and died
after a short illness. Mu'tașim ruled over the ‘Abbasid kingdom for nine successful years.
He was a good administrator. He, patronized the farmer and worked for the promotion
of agriculture. Mu'taşim was the last of the great Abbasids and with him ended the grand-
monarchy of the ‘Arabs.

CHAPTER 31
AL-MUTAWAKKIL
(847 A.D. to 861 A.D.)
Wathiq

Mu'tasim was succeeded on the ‘Abbasid throne by his son al-Wathiq. Wathiq was a
benevolent ruler and a patron of science and literature. With his great munificence and
liberal administration, he won the hearts of his subjects. His rule lasted for less than five
years and with his premature death started the downfall of the 'Abbasids.
On the death of Wathiq, the ‘Arab aristocrats wanted to seat his son Wasif on the throne.
But the Turkish oligarchs and military overlords, who were now at the helm of the
‘Abbasid affairs, put up stiff resistance and appointed Wathiq's brother Ja'far with the
title of al-Mutawakkil as the next ‘Abbasid ruler. Mutawakkil was a despot by nature.
Unlike his illustrious predecessors, he was narrow-minded and hot-tempered sovereign.
As he had scended the ‘Abbasid throne with the support of the Turkish overlords, he
came fully under their influence and almost became a puppet in their hands.

Revolt in Armenia

In 851 A.D., a rebellion broke out in Armenia.

Bogha, the Turkish general suppressed this revolt with an iron-hand. In the same year
the Byzantines created havoc on the borders of Egypt and destroyed the Muslim
garrisons. In the beginning, the Greeks met with tremendous success and they inflicted a
heavy loss on the Muslims but ultimately they were beaten back and punished.
In 858, after twelve years of his rule, al Mutawakkil transferred his capital from Samarra
to Damascus but the very next year le left Damascus and came back to Samarra. On his
return, he built a magnificent township at a short distance from Samarra and named it
Ja'fariya after his own name.

Mutawakkil's fickle-mindedness and cruelty earned him a bad name among his subjects
and consequently even his Turkish guards went against him. One night, in collaboration
with his son al Muntaşir, the guards entered his room and assassi Dated him in his bed
while he was sleeping.

Al-Mutawakkil's reign of fifteen years witnessed the beginning of the end of the ‘Abbasid
power and sovereignty. After his death, the decline of the Empire set in rapidly. The later
caliphs of this dynasty were incapable and weak. They could not take any positive steps
to stop the decline of their power or to stem the tide of its rapid dissolution. The Turkish
mercenaries had the upper hand in all the important affairs of the State as a result of
which the bulk of the 'Arab population was disenchanted. The discontent and popular
resentment finally culminated into the disintegration of the mighty *Abbasid Empire into
a number of autonomous states and principalities during the subsequent period.

CHAPTER 32
A SYNOPSIS OF THE LATER 'ABBASIDS
Al-Muntasir

On the very night of Mutawakkil's assassination, his son al-Muntașir was proclaimed
caliph. He is described as a pious and just sovereign, forbearing and generous in
character." A man of mild temperament, he proved to be a wise and honest administrator.
But unfortunately he died just six months after his coming to power.

Al-Musta'in
On Muntaşir's death, the Turkish overlords who had become the virtual masters of the
caliphate of Baghdad, enthroned al-Musta'in, another grand-son of Mu'tasim. The
provincial governors were becom ing independent and the supremacy of the Caliph was
reduced to nominal sovereignty. It was during the caliphate of al-Musta'in that the
Tahirides rose to power in Khorāsān under the stewardship of Tahir bin 'Abdullah. Being
fed up with the Turkish hegemony, Musta’in fled from Baghdad but was killed on his
way to Hijāz.

Al-Mu'tazz

Musta’in was succeeded by his brother al Mu'tazz. Mu'tazz occupied the throne for
nearly three years. His rebellious troops then forced him to abdicate the throne,
imprisoned him and then assassinated him.

Al-Muhtadi

Mu'tazz was succeeded by al-Muhtadi. He was just and wise and proved himself a
capable adminis trator. But soon he came into conflict with the Turks as a result of which
he had to abdicate the throne.

Al-Mu'tamid

Mu'tamid, the eldest son of Mutawakkil succeeded al-Muhtadi upon the latter's
abdication. He was a pleasure-loving prince of feeble character. His brother Muwaffiq
who was a great administrator virtually ruled in his name. In 870 Ya'qub bin Laith, the
Coppersmith (Saffar) laid the foundation of the Sufaride dynasty in Persia. During the
same time Isma'il the Samanide, a caravan-leader, founded the Samanide dynasty in
Transoxiana, and established a just and liberal administration in his province.

Al-Mu'tadia

Mu'tamid was succeeded by his nephew Mu'tadid who with his powerful personality
succeeded in reuniting some of the disintegrated provinces, "Mu'tadid is called Saffah the
Second, as he is supposed to have restored the power of Banü ‘Abbās.” In a series of wars
he regained the territories lost to the Byzantines. He was an excellent administrator and
a great reformer. During his reign occurred the rise of the Fatimids in Egypt and the
appearance of al-Qaramita in the neighbourhood of Küfa.

Al-Muktafi

Mu'tadid died in 902 A. D., and was succeeded by his son al-Muktafi. Muktafi was a chip
of the old block, equally wise, liberal and just, and worked for the welfare of his subjects.
He unfortunately died after a short reign of five years.
Al-Muqtadir

Muqtadir ascended the throne at the age of thirteen. He ruled for a long period of twenty-
five years. “The virtues and ability of the viziers who held the real power maintained the
dignity of the empire in the beginning of his reign but towards the end it declined rapidly
owing to the sovereign's recklessness.” Muqtadir was killed in a battle against a rebel.
Al-Muqtadir was followed by a long series of insignificant and inconsequential ‘Abbasid
monarchs like al-Qahir, al-Radi, al-Muttaqi, al-Mustaki, al Muti', al-Taye, al-Qadir, al-
Qaini, al-Muqtadi, al Mustazhir, al-Mustarshid, al-Rashid, al-Muqtasi, al Mustanjid, al-
Mustadi, al-Nasir, al-Zahir, al Mustanşir and al-Musta șim with whom the ‘Abbasid
dynasty lingered on for another three hundred years. The last 'Abbasid ruler was al-
Musta'sim."

Al-Musta'sim

In the year 1242 A. D., “Abdullah al-Musta şim ascended the 'Abbasid throne at the most
critical juncture of the history of Banū ‘Abbās. "Weak, vacillating, and fond of pleasure,
his reign was one continuous record of disturbance and disorder at home and disaster
abroad, culminating in his destruc tion and that of his family." He accelerated the : pace
of the ‘Abbasid downfall by disbanding his father's army, and directing them to take to
trade and animal husbandry. The Shiʻa-Sunni riots further weakened his position. Ibn
Khaldun maintains that it was Musta'sim's vizier, al-Kami by the pro-Sunni policies of
the Calipb) who invited the Tartars to invade Baghdad.

Hulaga's March on Baghdad

Hulagu (Halaku), who was acting in Persia as the viceroy of his brother Mangu Khan,
advanced on the capital of the 'Abbasids with a mighty force in 1258 A.D. Musta'sim's
army attempted to put on some resistance against the Tartar invaders before their entry
into Baghdad, but the Mongols decided to besiege Baghdad from all sides. After the siege
had lasted forty days, the exhausted Caliph desired to start negotiations with Hulagu
Khan but Hulagu did not pay any heed. At last the Caliph was persuaded to save his life
by an unconditional surrender.

The Sacking of Baghdad

Musta şim approached the Mongol's camp accom panied by his three princes together
with three other associates. Hulagu concealed his barbaric designs by giving him a warm
reception and speaking in polite terms. He asked Musta'sim to order the people of
Baghdad to surrender their arms and gather before the city-gates. The people responded
to the helpless Caliph's call - and the very next morning Hulagu ordered the massacre of
the inhabitants of Baghdad and the sacking of the most magnisicent capital of the grand
‘Abbasids.

Women and children were trampled to death. after being dragged into open streets and
subjected to inhuman brutalities. “For three days the streets ran with blood, and the water
of the Tigris was dyed red for miles along its course. The horror lasted for e six weeks.
The palaces, mosques and tombs were put to flames or, razed to the ground. The patients
in the hospitals, and the students and the professors in the colleges were put to the sword.
In the academies, the immortal works of learned scholars were burnt and innumerable
books were thrown in the Tigris.I After the carnage had lasted four days, Musta“şim was
beaten to death together with the members of his family. Baghdad, the seat of learning
and the cradle of Islamic civilization, was ruined for ever. According to Ibn Khaldun, one
million and six hundred thousand people perished in the massacre of six weeks.
Ibn al-Tigtaga, Kitab al-Fakhri, pp. "33-336.

CHAPTER 33
FALL OF THE 'ABBASID EMPIRE

From al-Saffah's accession to the 'Abbasid throne in 750 A.D., to the sack of Baghdad at
the hands of Hulagu Khan and the death of the last Abbasid, al-Mustaéşim in 1250 A.D.,
there is a big span of five centuries during the Islamic Common wealth witnessed many
ups and downs. After the glorious rule of Manşür, Hārün and Māmün, the mighty
‘Abbasids started losing their splendour and absolute power. The decline was slow,
gradual and tedious and lingered on for centuries altogether. The causes of this colossal
disaster were manifold.

Moral Degeneration

Moral degeneration crept into the ‘Abbasid, hierarchy soon after the death of al-
Mu'tasim. A majority of the 'Abbasid caliphs dwelt in pomp and glory exclusively. They
paid little heed to the important problems of the State. Instead of devoting their energies
to the welfare and prosperity of their subjects, they whiled away most of their time with
wine, women and musical concerts. Discarding the healthy traditions of their illustrious
predecessors like Hārūn and Māmün in the realm of public service, they concentrated on
personal rains and their court intrigues, thereby alienating themselves from the masses
and losing the loyalty, goodwill and sympathy
of the subjects.

Ascendency of the Turkish Guards

Al-Mu'taşim was the first Abbasid monarch to appoint Turkish soldiers in charge of the
royal security. This did not only displease the 'Arab mercenaries, but also alienated the
Persian regiments from the house of Banū “Abbās. Moreover the influence of the Turkish
overlords went on increasing with incredible speed. Towards the end of al Mutawakkil's
reign, their power and domination had become so pronounced that neither the caliph nor
the 'Arab troops could do away with the increasing menace. Most of the subsequent
Abbasid rulers were rendered helpless in front of the mighty Turkish generals and
become like puppets in their hands. The ascendency of the Turkish guards crested
discontent among the rest of the troops and both the 'Arab and the Persian regiments lost
their loyalty and sympathy for the feeble monarchs. As a result of this dis content and
aliena on, a number of provincial governors revolted against the authority of the Caliph
and several independent states came into existence. Thus the ascendency of the Turkish
guards paved the way for the disintegration of the mighty ‘Abbasid Empire.

Racial Discord

One of the major causes of the downfall of the ‘Abbasids was chauvinism and racial
discord in the Empire. The struggle between the 'Arabs and the non-'Arabs and, between
the Muslims and tue non Muslims continued unabated throughout. The Persians who
were favoured by the early ‘Abbasids despised the 'Arabs and, the 'Arabs too on their
part' hated the Persian preponderance. The Persians began to rally round to the other
non-'Arab subjects and formed a joint front to the supremacy of the native population.
The Caliphs could not take any steps to stop this discord and remained silent spectators
of the tragic scene of social disintegration.

Decline of the Military Power

The negligence of the military department by the later 'Abbasid caliphs also enormously
contributed to the downfall of the ‘Abbasid dynasty. The military administration which
is always the nucleus of all monarchies was criminally neglected and given secondary
treatment and primary importance was given to cultural affairs and idcological combats.
The effect was that the soldiers lost their martial spirit. They lived like civilians in leisure
and comfort, with music and philosophy. Consequently, in emergencies, they could not
rise to the occasion to meet the threat of external aggression. (The sack of Baghdad at the
hands of Hulagu Khan is the best example of the impotency of the ‘Abbasid troops).

Economic Unrest

Among the several factors that led to the downfall of the 'Abbasid power, the economic
factor was no less important. The imposition of heavy taxes and exorbitant levies
overburdened the popula tion. It snatched away the incentive from the farmers and the
craftsmen and hampered agriculture and industry. The internal discord and constant
hostility among various sections of the society left many a piece of cultivable land
desolate and forlorn. (Ibn Khaldun, in his masterly fashion dwells upon this economic
disaster in one of the chapters titled “Tyranny Destroys Economy of his magnum opus,
Tarikh al-Ibar).

Decentralization
The enormous powers given to the provincial arnors by the later 'Abbasids worked
towards the decentralization of the 'Abbasid administration. Several ambitious provincial
govern by provincial governors picked quarrels with the central authority by trying to
assert their own autonomy. Consequently the relacion between the Central Government
and several provinces could not remain cordial. In many cases the provincial governors
endeavoured to defy the authority of the Centre and declared their independence.

The Tartar Invasion

And last but not the least, the Tartar invasion of Baghdad by Hulagu, the grandson of
Chengiz Khan, contributed to the fall of the 'Abbasids; it proved to be the last pail in their
cofin. The Tartar invaders created a tremor in the golden city of the “Abbasids. Baghdad
witnessed a dance of destruction for four consecutive weeks. Several hundred thousand
inhabi tants were brutally killed and the waters of the Tigris turned red with blood.
Hulagu Khan also killed the last Caliph of the Abbasid dynasty along with his entire
family. To conclude in the words of Ameer 'Ali, “For the first time in its history, the
Muslim world was left without a Caliph, whose name could be cited in the Friday
prayers.'

CHAPTER 34
THE 'ABBASID ADMINISTRATION
The Caliph

The‘Abbasid caliphate was an absolute monarchy. The Caliph was the supreme head of
the State and enjoyed unchecked sovereignty. He was also the pontifical head of the
Muslim nation and the supreme commander of the armed forces, (Amir al-Mu'minin).
He was also fully independent to designate his successor either following the hereditary
principle or otherwise. (The later Abbasids could not exercise absolute powers after the
emergence of the Turkish guards.)

The Vizier

Next to the caliph was the vizier. The institution of vizirate was Persian by origin, and
was adopted in the Islamic system by the founder of the ‘Abbasid dynasty. The grand
vizier practically exercised all the powers and prerogatives of the Caliph and was
responsible to him alone. He also enjoyed several discretionary powers-but he could not
dismiss the officials appointed by the Caliph. On the other hand, he had the power of
appointing officers in the name of the sovereign and of sitting as the final court of appeal
in law suits.” After the reign of al Mansur, the grand vizier assumed more and more
powers. Yahya al-Barmaki and his son Ja'far al -Barmaki were the most powerful and
prominent grand-viziers of the ‘Abbasid period.

Diwan al-'Aziz

The grand vizier presided over a council of ministers called Diwan al Aziz The grand
vizier and the council formed the Central Government which consisted of Department of
Finance (Diwan al-Kharaj), Ministry of War (Diwān al-Jund), Ministry of Royal Estates
(Diwān al-Diaa), Office of the Auditor General (Diwar al-Zuman), Office of the Protection
of Clients and Slaves (Diwār al-Mavali wa al-Ghilman), the Chancery or Board of Corres
pondence (Diwär al-Rasail) and the Militia and Police Commissionorate (Diwan al-
Andaz wa al Shurta). - Besides these there were several other minor departments.
The Police department was very well organized and law and order was vigilantly
maintained all over the State. The Prlice Commissioner (Sahib al-Shuria) enjoyed:
enormous powers' and during the period of the låter 'Abbasids, he rose to utmost
prominence and assumed the position of the vizier.

The Chief Justice

For the administration of Justice, the Caliph appointed judges all over the Empire, The
Chief Justice was called Padi aloudāt and he was the supreme judicial authority in the
State. His integrity and independence was unquestionable and the Caliph was also bound
to honour his decrees. The Islamic Law was applicable cnly to the Muslims. The non
Muslim subjects were tried by their own ecclesiastical authorities. To assist the Chief
Justice, judicial officers were appointed; they were called Adils.

The Provincial Governors

The vast ‘Abbasid empire was divided into numerous provinces and principalities for the
sake of convenience of adıninistration. The provincial governor was called Amir. He was
appointed by the Caliph and was directly responsible to him. In his own province the
Governor enjoyed considerable autonomy as long as he enjoyed the goodwill of the
Caliph. The Caliph however could any time sack or fecall him. The governor was
authorized to appoint other important officials of the province with the prior approval of
the Caliph. Some small provinces had deputy governors or Amils.'

The Muhtasib

The Police department was under the control of the Police Commissioner (Sahih al-
Shurta) who also appointed the city police. The police in towns were under the charge of
a special police officer called al-Muhtasib. The Muhtasib had a close link with the
provincial Dadi who was appointed by the Chief Justice.

The Postal Service

The Postal department was one of the most important assets of the 'Abbasid
administration. Each province had a Post-master General Sahib al Barid who was
incharge of the postal service in the province. He not only looked after the- Postal
department but also supplied to the Caliph information regarding important provincial
matters. He was in fact a direct confidential agent of the Central Govern ment and
periodically submitted confidential reports on the condition of the province.”

Military Organization

During the period of the first eight 'Abbasid caliphs, the military administration was
excellent. The early 'Abbasid monarchs had the largest number of troops in Islamic
history. "Hārūn al-Rashid had under his command 135,000 paid soldiers and a very large
number of volunteers when he marched against Emperor Nicephorous.” In a military
parade at Baghdad, during al-Muqtadir's reign, 169,000 infantry and cavalry is reported
to have participated.

In military service of the 'Abbasids, there was no discrimination against the non-'Arabs.
High military posts were held by soldiers of all nationalities on an equal footing with the
'Arabs. This policy attracted a large number of converts to the military service. During al-
Manşür's time, there were three distinct regiments, the Mudharite, the Himavarite and
theekhotāsāni. Al-Mu'taşim added to it the Turkish and the African divisions. This
regimentation of the armed forces into water-tight compartments worked against the
interests of national solidarity and ultimately brought about the disintegration of the
'Abbasid Empire.

“The army consisted of the infantry, the cavalry, the archers, the naphtha firemen (al
Naffatun) and The labour corps. There were two categories of soldiers, the regulars and
the volunteers. The latter were paid only while on duty. The 'Abbasid weaponry
consisted of syords, Tances, bows, arrows, javelins, battle-axes and daggers. The army
was generally accompanied by engineers, physicians and surgeons. The Dādi also moved
Wit the army to distribute the spoils of war accordance with the Islamic Law.” A well-
knit [log of spies and informers also directed the movemen the armed forces so directed
the movement.

The Naval Force

During the 'Abbasid period, the 'Arab navigators reigned supreme in the high seas and
especially in the Mediterranean. The 'Arab merchants had a flourish ing overseas
business and their ships sailed throuşu the Indian Ocean and the Pacific. The Tigris, we
Euphrates and the Persian Gulf facilitated their trade activity with the East and other
parts of the then known world. "Aden was the great centre of trade between Africa and
'Arabia and, the meeting point of trade between India and China on the one hand and
Egypt on the other.” The Daval fleet of the 'Abbasids consisted of several hundred war-
ships and they attacked the enemy territory on several occasions. Rhodes was conquered
for the second time during Hārūn's reign. Crete and Cyprus were also captured during
this time. Mamūn's fleet was the mightiest fleet in the Mediterranean and it conquered
Sicily and ravaged lower Italy.

CHAPTER 35
THE “ABBASID SOCIETY
The Caliph was the nucleus of the “Abbasid society around whom the entire fabric of the
society was woven. The glamour and charisma of a personality like Hārūn al-Rashid was
a source of inspiration for the whole populace. The receptions hosted by the Caliph
served as models to the nobles and aristocrats. “The Caliph was seated on a throne; a
hundred men in splendid uniforms and with drawn swords stood round him." The
private receptions were rather informal and did not have a protocol. According to Ibn
Khallikan, the Caliph followed the convention of throwing a party to the officials and
grandees in the inonth of Ramadan, which was usually held at the residence of the grand
vizier, and at which seats were allotted according to the office held by the guests. In their
dress the nobles followed the fashion of the Caliph, “but professors of theology or law
wore a turban over which was thrown a scarf called the failasan, in imitation of the one
worn by the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). There were marked
differences, however, in the costumes of the different professions.

The ‘Abbasid Women

The 'Abbasid women were not very muy dinerent from their Umayyad counterparts.
women were not in complete seclusion in enjoyed a certain amount of liberty in the time,
two princesses went to fight against su ovzantines with full armour. In Harun me women
fought in the battlefield. Muqtadir's mother headed the court of appeal and receive
toreign dignitaries and ambassadors. Kaa Zubaida and Buran were the most powerful
queens of the 'Abbasid period. They actively participated in politics and exerted a
tremendous amount of influence over the governments of their respective husbands. Fadl
was an eminent poetess in the court of al-Mutawakkil. Shuhda lectured on history and
belles lettres toward the fall of Baghdad.

Music
The ‘Abbasids were patrons of music. Härûn was the first Muslim monarch to elevate
music to an esteemed position in society. Musicians from various parts of the
Commonwealth flocked to Baghdad to play in the royal concerts and in the private
assemblies of nobles and aristocrats. Mänūn was also a great lover of music and so were
many of his successors.

Commerce and Navigation

It was during the ‘Abbasid period that the ‘Arabs invented the mariner's compass and
went around the world in pursuit of their global commercial activities, The 'Aran
merchants formed their colonies in Africa, western India and Malaya. Even the Chinese
opened their doors to the "Arab travellers and merchants. Trade was also carried into the
Western countries of Spain, Portugal, Sicily, and Italy from the ports in the Mediterranean
sea.

Social Activities

Hunting was the most common pastime of the ‘Abbasid caliphs and nobles. Deer,
panthers, leopards and lions were the usual objects of pursuit. Social bodies and literary
clubs had sprung up early in the reign of Māmūn. Literary symposia were frequently
held in Baghdad and other places where scholars and men of letters wholeheartedly
participated in literary seminars and philosophical discussions. Horse-racing, wrestling,
archery, swordsmanship, throwing of spears and polo were the main outdoor games.
Among indoor games, chess was universally popular and even the common man showed
a keen interest in it.

Libraries and shops of the book-sellers were the most frequently visited public places.
"The book-sellers occupied an important position in society in those days; and their shops
were the resort of the students and the learned generally. “

The Glory of Baghdad

Abu 'Abdullah Yaqut in his celebrated encyclopedia gives a picturesque description of

the glory of Baghdad. “It was the capital of Islam, eye of Iraq, the seat of the empire and
the nucleus of glamour, refinement and culture.” The original Baghdad of al-Manşūr was
shape. The entire city was surrounded by a band wall with four main gates. Within the
inner war arose the majestic palace al-Khuld with its golden gate Bab al-Dhahab. The
Grand Mosque of Baghdad was situated right in the centre of the city. According to the
scholar Nasir Khusro, besides the Grand Mosque, each quarter of the city had its own
mosque. The structure of these mosques was magnificent.

Next to the palace of the Caliph were the mansions of the princes and grandees, the
depart ment of finance and other government offices. This area was called Medinat-al-
Manşür. After the com pletion of this township, the entire city was divided Muslim into
two semi-circle on both the banks of the Tigris. Wide streets traversed the city on both
the sides, dividing it into numerous quarters, each under the control of an overseer or
supervisor who looked after the sanitation and the requirements of the people.

The water-supply was abundant and continuous in all the seasons, and innumerable
ducts ran through the city on both the sides. “The streets, parks, and gardens were
regularly swept and watered.”

A big square in front of the royal palace was used for military parades, races and
tournaments. “Manşür reviewed his troops in full military attire, either standing on a
dais or seated on a throne, while Hārün, Māmün and Mu'taşim always rode, and
frequently took part in military tournaments.".

In fact Baghdad was a city of paląces made of marble. The buildings were multi-storied
and designed and decorated after the Persian pattern. "The palaces and mansions were
lavishly gilt and decorated and hung with beautiful tapestry and hangings of brocade
silk. The rooms were lightly and tastefully furnished with luxurious diwäns, costly tables,
unique Chinese vases and gold and silver ornaments."

Baghdad had numerous colleges and hospitals. Each college had its own principal and
the hospitals were managed by prominent physicians. The Nizamiya College built by
Nizam al-Mulk Tusi and the Mustansiriya built by al-Mustanşir were perhaps, among
the most celebrated centres of education in Islam.

The bazaars or market-places were placed outside the city-walls but each quartehad a
special com provision dealers which was under the supervision the Police department.
The inilitary barracks were situated on the eastern side of the Tigris and were divided
into three distinct blocks "one for me Mudharite soldiers, another for the Himyarite and
the third for the Persian army, each forming a check on the other."

To conclude in the words of Ameer 'Ali:

"In the days of its glory, before the destroying hordes of Chengiz, sweeping over
Western Asia, had engulfed in Tuin every vestige of Saracenic civilization,
Baghdad presented a beautiful and imposing appear ance--a fit capital for the
Pontiffs of Islam."