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Specific pollutants

Motor vehicles produce many different pollutants. The principal pollutants of concern—those
that have been demonstrated to have significant effects on human, animal, plant, and
environmental health and welfare—include:

 Hydrocarbons:
This class is made up of unburned or partially burned fuel, and is a major contributor to
urban smog, as well as being toxic. They can cause liver damage and even cancer. The
regulations regarding hydrocarbons vary according to the engine regulated, as well as the
jurisdiction. In some cases, "non-methane hydrocarbons" are regulated, while in other cases,
"total hydrocarbons" are regulated. Technology for one application (to meet a non-methane
hydrocarbon standard) may not be suitable for use in an application that has to meet a total
hydrocarbon standard. Methane is not toxic, but is more difficult to break down in a catalytic
converter, so in effect a "non-methane hydrocarbon" standard can be considered to be looser.
Since methane is a greenhouse gas, interest is rising in how to eliminate emissions of it.

 Carbon monoxide (CO):

a product of incomplete combustion, carbon monoxide reduces the blood's ability to carry
oxygen; overexposure may be fatal.

 Nitrogen oxides (NOx):

These are generated when nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen at the high temperature and
pressure inside the engine. NOx is a precursor to smog and acid rain. NOx is a mixture of NO
and NO2. NO2 destroys resistance to respiratory infection. For dogs most of the nitrogen
dioxide is removed in the nasal cavity. Jumbo vehicles and delivery trucks blow hot exhaust,
containing life dangerous quantities of NO2 into the atmosphere.

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 Particulates –
soot or smoke made up of particles in the micrometre size range: Particulate matter causes
respiratory health effects in humans and animals.

 Sulphur oxides (SOx):

A general term for oxides of sulphur, which are emitted from motor vehicles burning fuel
containing a high concentration of sulphur.

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 2. History
Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, various federal, state and local governments in the United
States conducted studies into the numerous sources of air pollution. These studies ultimately
attributed a significant portion of air pollution to the automobile, and concluded air pollution is
not bounded by local political boundaries. At that time, such minimal emission control
regulations as existed in the U.S. were promulgated at the municipal or, occasionally, the state
level. The ineffective local regulations were gradually supplanted by more comprehensive state
and federal regulations. By 1967 the state of California created the California Air Resources
Board, and in 1970, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency was formed. Both agencies now
create and enforce emission regulations for automobiles, as well as for many other sources.
Similar agencies and regulations were contemporaneously developed and implemented in
Western Europe, Australia, and Japan.

The first effort at controlling pollution from automobiles was the PCV (positive crankcase
ventilation) system. This draws crankcase fumes heavy in unburned hydrocarbons — a precursor
to photochemical smog — into the engine's intake tract so they are burned rather than released
unburned from the crankcase into the atmosphere. Positive crankcase ventilation was first
installed on a widespread basis by law on all new 1961-model cars first sold in California. The
following year, New York required it. By 1964, most new cars sold in the U.S. were so
equipped, and PCV quickly became standard equipment on all vehicles worldwide.[1]

The first legislated exhaust (tailpipe) emission standards were promulgated by the State of
California for 1966 model year for cars sold in that state, followed by the United States as a
whole in model year 1968. The standards were progressively tightened year by year, as mandated
by the U.S. EPA.

By the 1974 model year, the emission standards had tightened such that the de-tuning techniques
used to meet them were seriously reducing engine efficiency and thus increasing fuel usage. The
new emission standards for 1975 model year, as well as the increase in fuel usage, forced the
invention of the catalytic converter for after-treatment of the exhaust gas. This was not possible
with existing leaded gasoline, because the lead residue contaminated the platinum catalyst. In

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1972, General Motors proposed to the American Petroleum Institute the elimination of leaded
fuels for 1975 and later model year cars. The production and distribution of unleaded fuel was a
major challenge, but it was completed successfully in time for the 1975 model year cars. All
modern cars are now equipped with catalytic converters and unleaded fuel can now be found
almost everywhere.

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 3. Regulatory agencies
The agencies charged with regulating exhaust emissions vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction,
even in the same country. For example, in the United States, overall responsibility belongs to the
EPA, but due to special requirements of the State of California, emissions in California are
regulated by the Air Resources Board. In Texas, the Texas Railroad Commission is responsible
for regulating emissions from LPG-fueled rich burn engines (but not gasoline-fueled rich burn
engines).

 California Air Resources Board - California, United States (most sources)

 Environment Canada - Canada (most sources)
 Environmental Protection Agency - United States (most sources)
 Texas Railroad Commission - Texas, United States (LPG-fueled engines only)
 Transport Canada - Canada (trains and ships)

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 4. Tailpipe emissions control
Engine efficiency has been steadily improved with improved engine design, more precise
ignition timing and electronic ignition, more precise fuel metering, and computerised engine
management.

Advances in engine and vehicle technology continually reduce the toxicity of exhaust leaving the
engine, but these alone have generally been proved insufficient to meet emissions goals.
Therefore, technologies to detoxify the exhaust are an essential part of emissions control.

Air injection

One of the first exhaust emission control systems is secondary air injection. Originally, this
system was used to inject air into the engine's exhaust ports, providing oxygen to burn unburned
hydrocarbons in the engine exhaust. The air injection is now used to reduce startup emissions.
An engine has to run richer at start, and the catalytic converter has not sufficiently warmed up at
that time, thus the SAI burns off the rich hydrocarbons.

Exhaust gas recirculation

Many engines produced after the 1973 model year have an exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) valve
between the exhaust and intake manifolds. The valve opens under certain conditions to admit
exhaust into the intake tract. Exhaust is largely inert — it neither burns nor supports combustion
— so it dilutes the air/fuel charge to reduce peak combustion chamber temperatures. This, in
turn, reduces the formation of NOx.

Catalytic converters

The catalytic converter is a device placed in the exhaust pipe, which converts hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide, and NOx into less harmful gases by using a combination of platinum,
palladium and rhodium as catalysts.

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Evaporative emissions control
"EVAP" redirects here. EVAP may also refer to Evaporation.

Evaporative emissions are the result of gasoline vapors escaping from the vehicle's fuel system.
Since 1971 (1970 in California), all U.S. vehicles have had fully sealed fuel systems that do not
vent directly to the atmosphere; mandates for systems of this type appeared contemporaneously
in other jurisdictions. In a typical system, vapors from the fuel tank and carburetor bowl vent (on
carbureted vehicles) are ducted to canisters containing activated carbon. The vapors are adsorbed
within the canister, and during certain engine operational modes fresh air is drawn through the
canister, pulling the vapor into the engine, where it is burned.

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 5. Emission testing
In 1966, the first emission test cycle was enacted in the State of California measuring tailpipe
emissions in PPM (parts per million).

Some cities are also using a technology developed by Dr. Donald Stedman of the University of
Denver, which uses lasers to detect emissions while vehicles pass by on public roads, thus
eliminating the need for owners to go to a test center. Stedman's laser detection of exhaust gases
is commonly used in metropolitan areas.[2]

USE OF EMISSION TEST DATA

Emission test results from individual vehicles are in many cases compiled to evaluate the
emissions performance of various classes of vehicles, the efficacy of the testing program and of
various other emission-related regulations (such as changes to fuel formulations) and to model
the effects of auto emissions on public health and the environment. For example, the
Environmental Working Group used California ASM emissions data to create an "Auto Asthma
Index" that rates vehicle models according to emissions of hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides,
chemical precursors to photochemical smog.

The Manufacturers of Emission Controls Association (MECA) is a non-profit association

incorporated in Washington, DC. MECA's mission is to provide technical information on
emission control technology, thereby facilitating the establishment of strong and effective state,
federal, and international air quality programs that promote public health, environmental quality,
and industrial progress.

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 6. EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEMS
The need to control the emissions from automobiles gave rise to the computerization of the
automobile. Hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen are created during the
combustion process and are emitted into the atmosphere from the tail pipe. There are also
hydrocarbons emitted as a result of vaporization of gasoline and from the crankcase of the
automobile. The clean air act of 1977 set limits as to the amount of each of these pollutants that
could be emitted from an automobile. The manufacturers answer was the addition of certain
pollution control devices and the creation of a self adjusting engine. 1981 saw the first of these
self adjusting engines. They were called feedback fuel control systems. An oxygen sensor was
installed in the exhaust system and would measure the fuel content of the exhaust stream. It then
would send a signal to a microprocessor, which would analyze the reading and operate a fuel
mixture or air mixture device to create the proper air/fuel ratio. As computer systems progressed,
they were able to adjust ignition spark timing as well as operate the other emission controls that
were installed on the vehicle. The computer is also capable of monitoring and diagnosing itself.
If a fault is seen, the computer will alert the vehicle operator by illuminating a malfunction
indicator lamp. The computer will at the same time record the fault in it's memory, so that a
technician can at a later date retrieve that fault in the form of a code which will help them
determine the proper repair. Some of the more popular emission control devices installed on the
automobile are: EGR VALVE, CATALYTIC CONVERTER, AIR PUMP, PCV VALVE,
CHARCOAL CANISTER.

 CATALYTIC CONVERTER

Automotive emissions are controlled in three ways, one is to promote more complete combustion
so that there are less by products. The second is to reintroduce excessive hydrocarbons back into
the engine for combustion and the third is to provide an additional area for oxidation or
combustion to occur. This additional area is called a catalytic converter. The catalytic converter
looks like a muffler. It is located in the exhaust system ahead of the muffler. Inside the converter
are pellets or a honeycomb made of platinum or palladium. The platinum or palladium are used
as a catalyst ( a catalyst is a substance used to speed up a chemical process). As hydrocarbons or

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carbon monoxide in the exhaust are passed over the catalyst, it is chemically oxidized or
converted to carbon dioxide and water. As the converter works to clean the exhaust, it develops
heat. The dirtier the exhaust, the harder the converter works and the more heat that is developed.
In some cases the converter can be seen to glow from excessive heat. If the converter works this
hard to clean a dirty exhaust it will destroy itself. Also leaded fuel will put a coating on the
platinum or palladium and render the converter ineffective.  This is why, in the U.S.A., all fuels
designed for automobile engines are now unleaded.

PCV VALVE

The purpose of the positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) system, is to take the vapors produced
in the crankcase during the normal combustion process, and redirecting them into the air/fuel
intake system to be burned during combustion. These vapors dilute the air/fuel mixture so they
have to be carefully controlled and metered in order to not affect the performance of the engine.
This is the job of the positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) valve. At idle, when the air/fuel
mixture is very critical, just a little of the vapors are allowed in to the intake system. At high
speed when the mixture is less critical and the pressures in the engine are greater, more of the
vapors are allowed in to the intake system. When the valve or the system is clogged, vapors will
back up into the air filter housing or at worst, the excess pressure will push past seals and create
engine oil leaks. If the wrong valve is used or the system has air leaks, the engine will idle rough,
or at worst, engine oil will be sucked out of the engine.

EGR VALVE

The purpose of the exhaust gas recirculation valve (EGR) valve is to meter a small amount of
exhaust gas into the intake system, this dilutes the air/fuel mixture so as to lower the combustion
chamber temperature. Excessive combustion chamber temperature creates oxides of nitrogen,
which is a major pollutant. While the EGR valve is the most effective method of controlling
oxides of nitrogen, in it's very design it adversely affects engine performance. The engine was
not designed to run on exhaust gas. For this reason the amount of exhaust entering the intake
system has to be carefully monitored and controlled. This is accomplished through a series of
electrical and vacuum switches and the vehicle computer. Since EGR action reduces

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performance by diluting the air /fuel mixture, the system does not allow EGR action when the
engine is cold or when the engine needs full power.

EVAPORATIVE CONTROLS

Gasoline evaporates quite easily. In the past, these evaporative emissions were vented into the
atmosphere. 20% of all HC emissions from the automobile are from the gas tank. In 1970
legislation was passed, prohibiting venting of gas tank fumes into the atmosphere. An
evaporative control system was developed to eliminate this source of pollution. The function of
the fuel evaporative control system is to trap and store evaporative emissions from the gas tank
and carburetor. A charcoal canister is used to trap the fuel vapors. The fuel vapors adhere to the
charcoal, until the engine is started, and engine vacuum can be used to draw the vapors into the
engine, so that they can be burned along with the fuel/air mixture. This system requires the use
of a sealed gas tank filler cap. This cap is so important to the operation of the system, that a test
of the cap is now being integrated into many state emission inspection programs. Pre-1970 cars
released fuel vapors into the atmosphere through the use of a vented gas cap. Today with the use
of sealed caps, redesigned gas tanks are used. The tank has to have the space for the vapors to
collect so that they can then be vented to the charcoal canister. A purge valve is used to control
the vapor flow into the engine. The purge valve is operated by engine vacuum. One common
problem with this system is that the purge valve goes bad and engine vacuum draws fuel directly
into the intake system. This enriches the fuel mixture and will foul the spark plugs. Most
charcoal canisters have a filter that should be replaced periodically. This system should be
checked when fuel mileage drops.

AIR INJECTION

Since no internal combustion engine is 100% efficient, there will always be some unburned fuel
in the exhaust. This increases hydrocarbon emissions. To eliminate this source of emissions an
air injection system was created. Combustion requires fuel, oxygen and heat. Without any one of
the three, combustion cannot occur. Inside the exhaust manifold there is sufficient heat to support

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combustion, if we introduce some oxygen than any unburned fuel will ignite. This combustion
will not produce any power, but it will reduce excessive hydrocarbon emissions. Unlike in the
combustion chamber, this combustion is uncontrolled, so if the fuel content of the exhaust is
excessive, explosions, that sound like popping, will occur. There are times when under normal
conditions, such as deceleration, when the fuel content is excessive. Under these conditions we
would want to shut off the air injection system. This is accomplished through the use of a
diverter valve, which instead of shutting the air pump off, diverts the air away from the exhaust
manifold. Since all of this is done after the combustion process is complete, this is one emission
control that has no effect on engine performance. The only maintenance that is required is a
careful inspection of the air pump drive belt.

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 7. National Vehicle and Fuel
Emissions Laboratory
About EPA's Office of Transportation and Air Quality

 Office Description and Organization

 National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory
 Federal Register Notices
 Press Releases
 Grants & Funding
 Employment Opportunities

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions
Laboratory (NVFEL) is part of the Office of Transportation and Air Quality (OTAQ) which is
responsible for carrying out laws to control air pollution from motor vehicles, engines, and their
fuels.  OTAQ's mission is to reconcile the transportation sector with the environment by
advancing clean fuels and technology, and promoting more livable communities. OTAQ is
divided between EPA's headquarters in Washington, D.C., and NVFEL in Ann Arbor, Michigan.

 About NVFEL
 General Information
 Doing Work with NVFEL

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The Laboratory's primary responsibilities include:

 Developing national regulatory programs to reduce mobile source related air pollution
from light-duty cars and trucks, heavy-duty trucks and buses, nonroad engines and
vehicles, and their fuels.
 Evaluating emission control technology.
 Providing state and local air quality regulators and transportation planners with access to
critical information on transportation programs and incentive-based programs.
 Testing vehicles, engines and fuels.
 Determining compliance with federal emissions and fuel economy standards.

Organizationally, the lab functions as part of the EPA's Washington, DC, headquarters.

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The Laboratory was established in 1971, shortly after the creation of EPA.  It is located in Ann
Arbor, Michigan, near the headquarters of domestic automobile manufacturers to facilitate
transfer of test vehicles back and forth.

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There are about 400 employees at NVFEL.  Staff expertise spans a variety of technical and
public policy fields including auto mechanics, engineering, chemistry, economics, natural
resources management, and law.

The NVFEL lab provides the Office of Transportation and Air Quality with emission testing
services for motor vehicle, heavy-duty engine, and nonroad engine programs in support of
rulemakings, enforcement actions, and procedures development.  Testing activities include:

certifying that vehicles and engines meet federal emissions and fuel economy standards

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 testing engines for in-use compliance

analyzing fuels, fuel additives, and exhaust compounds

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In addition, the lab assists in the development of automotive technology to reduce conventional
pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions, such as the Clean Automotive Technology initiative,
low NOx diesel engine, and alternative fuel technologies.

A number of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are used in refrigeration and air-conditioning systems

that, when operated and repaired, result in the emission of HFCs. Specifically, emissions occur
in product and equipment manufacturing, component failure, leaks and purges during operation,
releases during servicing, releases from the disposal of equipment or used refrigerant containers
and (illegal) venting of refrigerant. The use of refrigerant and air-conditioning equipment also
generates “indirect” emissions of greenhouse gases (primarily carbon dioxide) from the
generation of power required to operate the equipment. It is important to note that in many
applications, these indirect emissions may outweigh the direct emissions from this sector in the
U.S., and hence, gains in energy efficiency can have a major impact on the total emissions of an
application. HFCs have global warming potentials (GWPs) that range from 140 to 11,700.

The most commonly used HFC refrigerant, HFC-134a, has a GWP of 1,300 and an atmospheric
lifetime of 14.6 years. According to the EPA’s Vintaging Model projections, under a business-
as-usual scenario the United States would emit about 38 million metric tons of carbon equivalent
(MMTCE) of HFCs by 2010 from the refrigeration and air-conditioning sector assuming
reduction efforts are not made

In the United States, the refrigeration and air-conditioning sector includes major end uses:

• Household refrigeration;

• Domestic air-conditioning and heat pumps;

• Motor vehicle air-conditioning (MVAC);

• Chillers;

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8. References

 Google search engine

 Altavistasearch

 Wikipedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle_emissions_control#Use_of_e

mission_test_data

 http://www.epa.gov/nvfel/

 http://www.meca.org/

 http://www.familycar.com/CLASSROOM/emission.htm

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