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Fundamental of Gas Dynamics (revised lecture notes)
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FUNDAMENTALS OF GAS DYNAMICS
M.E.H. van Dongen, A. Hirschberg, D.M.J. Smeulders
26 August 2016
Contents
1 Introduction 2
2 Basic Equations 7
2.1 Conservation Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Constitutive equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Conservation laws in differential form . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Thermodynamic relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.5 Simplification of the laws of conservation;
Euler equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.6 The Bernoulli equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.7 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.8 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3 Stationary Quasi-1D Gas Dynamics 31

3.1 Laval tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1.1 Quasi-one dimensional theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1.2 Pressure distributions inside a nozzle . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2 Normal shock waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2.1 Rankine-Hugoniot adiabate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2.2 Entropy production in shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2.3 Mach number dependance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.2.4 Mach number from pressure measurements . . . . . . 48
3.3 Oblique shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3.1 Mach lines in steady flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3.2 Shock relations for plane oblique shocks . . . . . . . . 51
3.3.3 Weak and strong oblique shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.4 Pipe flow with friction and heat transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4.1 Integral conservation laws for quasi-one dimensional
pipe flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4.2 Choking due to friction and heat transfer . . . . . . . 55
3.4.3 The long pipe-line problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.4.4 Choking due to heat transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.5 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
i
3.6 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4 Instationary 1D compressible flows 69

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.2 Non-linear waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.3 Simple waves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.4 Examples of simple waves, expansion waves, expansion fans,
compression waves, origin of shock waves. . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.5 Deformation of an arbitrary disturbance. Conditions of shock
wave formation in a medium with arbitrary thermodynamic
properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.6 The shock tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.7 Shock tube applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.8 Some elementary wave interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.9 Traffic waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.10 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.11 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
1
Chapter 1
Introduction
In general a change in gas flow velocity involves a change in pressure, which

is related to a change in gas density. At low velocities the pressure variations
within the flow are small compared to the average absolute pressure. Density
variations will be so small that we can assume the gas to be incompressible.
As the velocity increases this approximation becomes inaccurate. Density
and temperature changes become essential. The study of compressible fluid
flows is called Gas dynamics.
The most spectacular phenomena in gas dynamics are related to the ratio
of the flow velocity V and the speed of sound c. The speed of sound c is
the velocity of propagation of a small pressure perturbation relative to the
gas. This corresponds to the velocity of the propagation of information in
the flow. The ratio M = V /c is called the Mach number. A flow in which
M < 1 is called subsonic. A flow with M > 1 is called supersonic. A
subsonic flow approaching an obstacle will be warned by acoustic waves and
will smoothly flow around the obstacle. A supersonic flow will not receive
warnings, because the acoustic waves are washed away by the flow. The flow
will collide on the obstacle forming a shock wave. In figure 1.1 we illustrate
the difference between a subsonic and a supersonic flow. As we will see later
compressibility effects become dominant for M ≥ 1.
The phenomenon corresponds to a fundamental change in the type of the
differential equations describing the flow. Subsonic flow are described by
so called elliptical differential equations. Supersonic flows are described by
hyperbolical differential equations. The same mathematics and therefore
physics is found in many other phenomena. For example the flow of shallow
water and car traffic. In both cases when the flow travel faster than the
information one can observe discontinuities. In shallow water, this is called
a water jump (see figure 1.2). In car traffic this can be an accident due
to fog. In gas flows the existence of such discontinuities was controversial
until Ernst Mach obtained a photograph of such shock waves (see figure 1.3).
2
Figure 1.1: Spherical waves generated by point sources in a) a subsonic flow
M < 1 and in b) a supersonic flow M > 1. In the subsonic flow the waves
travel upstream and can warn the flow for the presence of an obstacle. In
the supersonic flow the waves are convected away and only reach a lim-
ited conical region of space (Mach cone with opening angle 2 arcsin (c/V ) )
downstream of the origin of the perturbation.
Supersonic flows involve large velocities. The Reynolds number Re = V L/ν

(with L a characteristic length scale and ν the kinematic viscosity of the
gas) is related to the Mach number because the viscosity of a gas is related
to the speed of sound by [Landau (1987)]
ν ∼ cλ̄ (1.1)
where λ̄ is the mean free path of molecules. This is the average distance
which molecules travel between two collisions. The speed of sound is used
here as an estimate for the average thermal random velocity of the molecules,
which takes care of the viscous transport of momentum within the gas.
Hence we see that [Landau (1987)]:
L
Re ∼ M (1.2)
λ̄
For compressible flows M = O(1) so that we conclude that if we use a con-
tinuum hypothesis L/λ̄ >> 1 the Reynolds number of the flow is very large
Re >> 1. Considering low Reynolds numbers at high Mach numbers in-
volves rarefied gas effects (Knudsen effects) such as the failure of the no-slip
boundary condition at the walls. Also the assumption of local thermody-
namic equilibrium will fail. The velocity distribution of molecules is not
necessarily described by one single temperature T . In these lecture notes we
ignore such effects, which are essential in vacuum and space technology. We
focus on large Reynolds number flows, for which the fluid can be described
as a continuum with locally defined thermodynamic state variables such as
the pressure p, temperature T and the density ρ.1
1
We always consider absolute pressures and absolute temperatures.
3
Figure 1.2: Shallow water in a kitchen sink displaying a circular water jump.
Within the circle the water flow is supercritical. The flow velocity is larger
than the propagation speed of small surface waves. We observe Mach cones
on the water surface. The jump is an abrupt transition to subcritical flow.
In acoustics and aeroacoustics one considers the behaviour of small pressure

perturbations. In gas dynamics perturbations can be arbitrarily large, which
involves an essentially non-linear behaviour. The formation of shock waves,
which are discontinuities in the flow, is such a non-linear phenomenon.
4
Figure 1.3: (a) Visualization of Mach waves around a bullet in supersonic
flight obtained by Ernst Mach. The density changes are made visible by
the refraction of light, due to the large density change (schlieren method)
[Settles (2001)]. For an observer moving with the bullet the approaching
flow is supersonic. (b) Bullet shot by a rifle. Schlieren photograph by Gary
Settles.
The understanding of gas dynamics has been developed mainly in the nine-
teenth century by: Poisson (1808) non-linear plane waves, Riemann (1860)
method of characteristics, Rankine (1870) and Hugoniot (1887), Mach (1887)
shock-waves, Prandtl and Meyer (1908) 2-D steady gas dynamics. The sig-
nificance of gas dynamics has dramatically increased in the twentieth century
with the large scale use of gas turbines for electricity production, combustion
car engines and aircraft engines. In the second half of the twentieth century
the space exploration and military applications have become important (su-
personic aircraft, rockets, scramjets). Also turbocompressors are currently
used in modern cars. Supersonic flows are also found in torches used for
welding and plasma surface treatment. Also gas dynamics and shock waves
are essential in astronomy to understand the evolution of stars and galaxies.
As indicated above many non-linear wave phenomena are described by the
same mathematical tools as gas dynamic flows, such as: tsunami waves, car
traffic waves, compositional waves in chromatography, water breakthrough
in secondary oil production, kidney stone destruction by ultrasound waves.
The formation of shock waves explains also simple daily phenomena such as
the whip crack, the sound of hand clapping, the sound of thunder, the tongue
clap and the brassy sound of trombones and trumpets [Hirschberg (1996)].
In these lecture notes we will limit ourselves to a very modest study of a few
basic flow phenomena.
Chapter 2 describes the basic equations of gas flows starting from the mass,
momentum and energy integral balance equations. The differential form of
these equations and constitutive equations are then discussed. Thermody-
namics is refreshed, which is needed to obtain relations between basic state
variables such as pressure, density, temperature, speed of sound, enthalpy
5
and entropy. We then focus on the thermal properties of ideal gases and de-
fine perfect gases. Simplified equations for frictionless flows are introduced.
In particular we discuss the equation of Bernoulli for steady frictionless flows.
Chapter 3 discusses mainly quasi-one dimensional steady flows. We start by

discussing the flow through a Laval nozzle (convergent divergent pipe used
for rocket engine). We then discuss the normal shocks (perpendicular to
the flow), which can appear in the divergent part of the Laval nozzle. Af-
ter a small excursion to 2-D shock waves (waves around aircraft), we discuss
the effect of friction and heat transfer in pipe flows (gas transport pipe lines).
Chapter 4 describes the one-dimensional unsteady wave propagation in pipes.

This is used to introduce the method of characteristics. We use this to un-
derstand the formation of shock discontinuities. Technological applications
of this are the water hammer phenomena, the shock tube and rasping sounds
of combustion engine mufflers.
Chapter 4 also describes the use of the method of characteristics to analyze

car traffic waves [Lighthill (1955)], [Whitman (1974)], [Thompson (1972)].
At the end of each chapter we provide questions with detailed answers. Ba-
sic questions can be used to study the theory. Additional question marked
with a star are useful for students looking for a deeper understanding of the
theory. At the end of the lecture notes a collection of old exam questions is
provided.
In the list of references at the end of these lecture notes we give some refer-
ences to lecture notes and textbooks. The student can find is these excellent
books complementary information or alternative explanations.
These lecture notes are a translation of the original lecture notes of M.E.H.
van Dongen (published in 2008), with some modifications and the addition
of exercises.
6
Chapter 2
Basic Equations
In this chapter we discuss the fundamental equations of fluid dynamics and

thermodynamics. Together they form the underlying basis for an analytical
description of compressible fluid motion.
2.1 Conservation Laws
n
F
v
dA
B
Figure 2.1: Control volume B, with outer boundary F.
We begin with the conservation of mass. Consider an arbitrary fixed volume

B with boundary F , as seen in figure
! 2.1. The mass of a fluid (which can be
a liquid or gas) in this volume is ρ dτ , with ρ the fluid density and dτ an
infinitesimally small volume element within B. Per unit time, a fluid mass
ρ(v · n) dA flows through a surface element dA, defined by its unit normal
vector n (pointing outward). The fluid velocity is v. Without mass sources
and sinks we have that:
" "
d
ρ dτ + ρ(v · n) dA = 0 (2.1)
dt B F
Using the momentum density ρv, we obtain an expression for momentum

balance. The total amount of momentum changes due to volume and surface
7
forces. This leads to two terms on the right hand side of the equation,
describing momentum production:
" " " "
d
ρv dτ + ρv(v · n) dA = ρg dτ + t dA, (2.2)
dt B F B F
with ρg a body force (e.g., gravity) and t a surface force (e.g., caused by
friction or pressure).
For the same volume B we can also consider the energy of the fluid per unit
mass, which comprises kinetic energy (1/2V 2 ) and internal energy (e) per
unit of mass. This energy can flow through F and can be changed by the
work of body forces, surface force, by transport and production of heat:
" # $ " # $
d 1 2 1 2
V + e ρ dτ + V + e ρ(v · n) dA =
dt B 2 F 2
" " " "
−(q · n) dA + ρ(g · v) dτ + (t · v) dA + φE dτ (2.3)
F B F B
with q the heat flow density and V 2 = |v|2 . The rate of energy production
per unit volume φE includes any process not accounted for in the definition
of e. This could be chemical or nuclear reactions, or electrical heating.
Equation (3.39) is a generalization of the first law of thermodynamics to
open systems.
2.2 Constitutive equations

The surface force t depends on the choice of the control surface F . One
prefers to describe this force in terms of a stress tensor S, independent of
F , at a given point in space. The relation between the surface force t, the
normal n and the stress tensor S is given by:
t = n · S ; S = −pI + S ′ , (2.4)
with p the mechanical pressure, I the unit tensor and S ′ the deviatoric stress
tensor. For a Newtonian fluid it holds that:
S ′ = 2ηD + η ′ (∇ · v)I
1
= 2η(D − (∇ · v)I) + κ(∇ · v)I. (2.5)
3
For such a fluid, the stress tensor S ′ depends linearly on the deformation
% &
∂vi ∂vj
tensor D. This deformation tensor is defined as [D]ij = 12 ∂x j
+ ∂xi with
i = {1, 2, 3} and vi the components of the velocity v. η is the dynamic
viscosity, η ′ is the second viscosity coefficient and κ is the so-called bulk
viscosity. They are related by:
8
2
κ = η ′ + η. (2.6)
3
The use of the bulk viscosity instead of the second viscosity coefficient is
preferred, because of its direct relation to the compressibility of the fluid,
and the fact that it is always positive and vanishes for noble gasses (He, Ne,
Ar, Xe, Kr).
The heat flow density q satisfies Fourier’s Law:
q = −λ∇T, (2.7)
in which λ is the heat conduction coefficient and the temperature T will be
defined in section 2.4 where we discuss the thermal equation of state. This
linear relationship between q and ∇T is consistent with Newton’s approxi-
mation (2.5) for the stress tensor.
2.3 Conservation laws in differential form

The constitutive equations (2.4) - (2.7) can be substituted into the conserva-
tion laws. Next, Gauss’s law can be used to transform the surface integrals
into volume integrals. In this way, we obtain a set of integral equations over
an arbitrarily chosen control volume. This allows rewriting the conservation
laws into their differential form:
∂ρ Dρ
+ ∇ · ρv = 0, or + ρ∇ · v = 0, (2.8)
∂t Dt
D ∂
where it was used that Dt ≡ ∂t +v·∇, defining the convective time derivative.
We also have that:
Dv
ρ = −∇p + ∇(η ′ ∇ · v) + ∇ · (2ηD) + ρg; (2.9)
Dt
and
De d ρ1
ρ + pρ = ∇ · (λ∇T ) + η ′ (∇ · v)2 + 2η(D : D). (2.10)
Dt dt
We
' recognize (2.9) as Newton’s law applied to a point mass (mDv/Dt =
F ). We now have a set of 5 scalar equations with 7 unknowns: ρ, v, p, T, e.
From thermodynamics in combination with empirical data, we construct the
constitutive equations we need to close the system of equations.
2.4 Thermodynamic relations

For a gas of uniform composition, it is sufficient to use an equation of state
of the form: 1
e = e(ρ, s), (2.11)
1
The equation of state (2.11) is obtained from quasi-static measurements. We assume
that it remains locally valid in the non-equilibrium flow condition considered. This is
9
with the additional variable s the specific entropy (entropy per unit mass).
Indeed, from the fundamental thermodynamical law
1
de = T ds − pd (Gibbs’ relation) (2.12)
ρ
and the differential form of (2.11), we find that:
# $ ( ) # $
∂e ∂e 1
de = ds + d , (2.13)
∂s ρ ∂ ρ1 ρ
s
so that we immediately find the thermodynamic definitions of T and p:
# $
∂e
T ≡ , (2.14)
∂s ρ
and ( )
∂e
p≡− . (2.15)
∂ ρ1
s
The set of equations (2.8) - (2.10), (2.11), complemented with (2.14) and
(2.15) now contains 8 equations with 8 variables.2
We will now discuss a number of important terms and definitions we will
encounter during the study of gas dynamics.
Enthalpy
The enthalpy is defined as:
p
h≡e+ . (2.16)
ρ
Substitution into (2.12) gives that:
1
dh = T ds + dp. (2.17)
ρ
Specific heat
The specific heats cv and cp at constant volume and constant pressure,
respectively, are given by3 :
# $ # $ # $ # $
δQ ∂e δQ ∂h
cv = = ; cp = = . (2.18)
δT ρ ∂T ρ δT p ∂T p
the so-called ”local” thermodynamic equilibrium assumption, which is consistent with the
choice of Newton’s approximation (2.5) for the viscous stress and Fourier’s law (2.7) for
the heat flux, assuming that fluxes are proportional to the gradients in the flow.
2
As explained by [Thompson (1972)] the hydrodynamic definition (2.15) of the pressure
is the only useful definition of pressure.
3
We use δQ/δT to stress the fact that Q is not a state variable
10
where δQ is the amount of heat added to the system and δT the correspond-
ing increase in temperature. We have following the first law of thermody-
namics δQ = de + pd(1/ρ).
The Poisson ratio γ is defined by: γ ≡ cp /cv . The specific heats cv and cp
correspond to the amount of heat one should supply to increase the temper-
ature of one kilogram of gas by one degree, at respectively constant volume
and constant pressure.
Speed of sound
The thermodynamic property c is defined as:
# $
2 ∂p
c = , (2.19)
∂ρ s
which can also be written as:

% &
# $ ∂h
∂p ∂ρ p
c2 = γ = % & (2.20)
∂ρ T 1
− ∂h
ρ ∂p ρ
Later is will become clear that the property c is the propagation speed of
sound waves (speed of sound).
Ideal gas
At low densities, gases are found to obey closely the Boyle-Gay Lussac equa-
tion of state of the form:
p = ρRT (2.21)
where R is the specific gas constant: R = R0 /M ; with R0 the universal gas
constant (8, 314kJ kmol−1 K−1 ) and M the molar mass (kg kmol−1 ) of the
gas. An ideal gas is defined as a gas which obeys the above equation of
state. By substituting (2.21) into (2.19) it follows directly that
c2 = γRT. (2.22)
For an ideal gas, it can be shown that the internal energy and enthalpy are
functions of temperature only: e = e(T ) and h = h(T ), so that de = cv dT
and dh = cp dT with cv (T ) and cp (T ). By definition of h (2.16), the difference
between the specific heats is:
# $
p
dh − de = (cp − cv )dT = d = RdT
ρ
hence:
cp − cv = R (2.23)
11
Perfect gas
A calorically perfect gas is an ideal gas with constant specific heat. As the
specific heat is independent of temperature, we find:
p 1 c2
e = cv T = = ;
ργ−1 γ(γ − 1)
p γ c2
h = cp T = =
ργ−1 γ−1
The fundamental law of thermodynamics (2.11) provides an expression for

the entropy for an ideal gas:
1
de = cv dT = T ds − pd
ρ
ds dT p dρ dT dρ
= − = − (γ − 1)
cv T cv T ρ ρ T ρ
Integrating, assuming cv and γ to be constant, one obtains for a perfect gas:
s − s0 T ρ
= ln − (γ − 1) ln , (2.24)
cv T0 ρ0
where the index 0 refers to a reference state or initial condition. When we
assume an isentropic proces s = s0 , we obtain:
# $ # $γ−1
T ρ
= (2.25)
T0 ρ0
and using the ideal gas law (2.21), the isentropic gas relation becomes:
# $ # $γ # $γ/(γ−1) # $(2γ)/(γ−1)
p ρ T c
= = = . (2.26)
p0 ρ0 T0 c0
Internal energy
The specific internal energy of a molecule is determined by the number of
degrees of freedom available to store energy:
1
e = cv T = f RT , f = ntr + nrot + 2nvibr + nel (2.27)
2
with:
ntr the number of translational degrees of freedom, each contributing
1
2 RT to the internal energy;
12
nrot the rotational degrees of freedom, contributing 12 RT each when the
temperature is above the characteristic rotation temperature, θr ;
nvibr the vibrational degrees of freedom, contributing RT each when the
temperature is above the characteristic vibration temperature, θv . More
complex molecules have a θv for every vibrational mode;
nel takes into account the electron excitation energy, when the temper-
ature reaches θel .
Figure 2.2 shows how the specific heat cv depends on temperature for hy-
drogen.4 Note the temperature ranges in which cv is constant. This is where
the gas behaves ’perfectly’. In between are regions where the gas gradually
excites new degrees of freedom.
Figure 2.2: cv /R vs. T for hydrogen. ([Owczarek (1964)]). At temperatures

of the order of 104 K, next to dissociation, ionization will become significant.
4
Following classical theory, the total number of degrees of freedom of a molecule of
N atoms is 3N , which corresponds to the coordinates of the positions of the atoms. We
can move a molecule without deformation (coherent motion), by translation, or rotation.
Let ntr and nrot be the number of these degrees of freedom. All other motions of a
molecule will be associated with deformation. For small deformations this will result into
harmonic oscillation around the equilibrium shape. For such a harmonic motion the time
average of the kinetic energy is equal to the time average of the potential energy (due to
the deformation). Hence for any molecule, nvibr = 3N − ntr − nrot corresponds to the
number of vibrational degrees of freedom. A mono-atomic gas (He, Ne, Ar, Xe, Kr) only
has f = 3, because N = 1. For a diatomic gas (H2 , N2 , O2 , CO), N = 2 and we have
ntr = 3, nrot = 2, so that nvibr = 3N − ntr − nrot = 1 and f = ntr + nrot + 2nvibr = 7.
Measurements show that this exact classical result is wrong! This has led to the discovery
of Quantum Mechanics, which does predict that below critical temperatures θrot and θvibr
the rotational or vibrational degrees of freedom are inactive (frozen).
13
With γ = cp /cv , we have
f +2
γ= (2.28)
f
for Poisson’s ratio. At room temperature, linear molecules like O2 , N2 , CO,
CO2 have 2 rotational degrees of freedom while the vibrational mode is
frozen, leading to γ = 7/5.
A number of characteristic temperatures is given in table 2.1 (from Thomp-

son, 1972). Here, θd is the characteristic dissociation temperature at which
dissociation starts. As dissociation and ionization start we have strong peaks
in the specific heat. Figure 2.3 shows that these peaks depend strongly on
the pressure. This is due to the fact that recombination is a three particle
process which is more likely to occur at high densities. Therefore, the de-
gree of dissociation or ionization is dependent on the pressure. Under such
conditions the internal energy is a function of both temperature and density.
The ideal gas law is certainly not valid any more. The specific heat starts
to become a function of pressure as well, as can be seen in figure 2.3.
Gas θr [K] θv [K] θd [K]

H2 87.5 6325 52000
N2 2.89 3393 113400
O2 2.08 2273 59000
CO 2.78 3122 12900
Table 2.1: Characteristic temperatures
14
Figure 2.3: cv /R vs. T for hydrogen. ([Owczarek (1964)])
Relaxation time
A system does not instantaneously achieve a new equilibrium state. It takes
a certain time for the system to adapt to changes in pressure, temperature,
etc; especially when these changes occur very fast. The lagging of internal
processes such as dissociation, ionization, evaporation, chemical reaction
and transfer of energy between molecular modes (translation, rotation, vi-
bration) is called a relaxation process. It is possible to define a relaxation
time, which is a measure of the time required for a system τ to reach equilib-
rium after a disturbance. When the time scale of the process one considers
is small, compared to τ or of the order of τ , the equilibrium equation of
state is no longer valid.
Table 2.2 shows for some common gases the relaxation times for the different
molecular processes ([Thompson (1972)]).
The difference in relaxation time for translation and rotation of air molecules
largely determine the volume viscosity of air. This explains the dissipa-
15
Gas mode T [K] τ [s]
N2 translation 300 1.6 · 10−10
N2 rotation 300 1.2 · 10−9
N2 vibration 3000 3.0 · 10−5
H2 O vibration 486 3.7 · 10−8
O2 dissociation 3100 2.3 · 10−5
Table 2.2: Characteristic relaxation times for various processes, at p = 1

bar ([Thompson (1972)])
tion of high frequency sound upon propagation through the atmosphere

([Pierce (1989)]).
Relation between conservation of energy and the laws of ther-

modynamics
The law of conservation of energy (3.39) can be seen as the differential form
of the fundamental law of thermodynamics:
De D ρ1 1
+p = − ∇ · q + (viscous dissipation) (2.29)
Dt Dt ρ * +, -
>0
We follow a material element (fluid particle) with internal energy e, density

ρ and pressure p. When we let it undergo a reversible change, 5 there is per
definition no viscous dissipation and, for an infinitesimal time step δt,
1 1
de + pd = − (∇ · q)rev δt. (2.30)
ρ ρ
The right hand side can be written as (dQ)rev . From considerations re-
garding reversible cycle processes, we know that (dQ)rev must equal T ds,
thereby defining a new state variable: the specific entropy s. Gibbs’ relation
(2.12) is valid also for non-reversible processes. We can use this relation to
rewrite equation (2.29):
Ds 1
T = − ∇ · q + (viscous dissipation) (2.31)
Dt ρ
also valid for non-reversible processes. Next, we can make use of the vector
identity
q 1 1
∇· = ∇·q+q·∇ , (2.32)
T T T
5
Dissipation involves the square of the rate change such as we see in the law of Ohm
for a resistor: power = RI 2 , for a resistance R and an electrical current I. Transporting
an electrical charge very slowly through a resistor makes the dissipation negligible. Hence
a quasi-steady process is reversible.
16
to obtain:
Ds q 1
ρ + ∇ · = − 2 (q · ∇T ) + ρ(viscous dissipation), (2.33)
Dt T * T +, -
>0
or simply:
ds q
ρ +∇· ≥0 (2.34)
dt T
This relation can be seen as the differential formulation of the second law of
thermodynamics. By using conservation of mass and Gauss’ law, we obtain
the integral version of (2.34):
" " "
d 1
ρs dτ + ρs(v · n) dA + (q · n) dA ≥ 0. (2.35)
dt B F F T
2.5 Simplification of the laws of conservation;

Euler equations
Suppose that the magnitude of the velocity V , the temperature T and the
pressure p vary over a known distance L. This can be the length of the
system or a typical length scale within the system. Then, we can make an
approximation for the relative magnitude of friction and heat conduction by
defining a Reynolds and Péclet number, respectively:
ρV L
Re = (2.36)
η
VL
Pe = , (2.37)
a
with η the dynamic viscosity and a = ρcλp the thermal diffusivity coefficient.
Re compares the stationary inertial forces to the viscous forces; Pe compares
convective energy transport to energy transport by conduction. For most
situations considered in gas dynamics, Re and Pe will both be much larger
than 1, enabling us to neglect the influence of friction and heat conduction
in the bulk of the flow6 . However, it is important to note that this approxi-
mation becomes invalid near walls or within shock waves. When neglecting
the friction and heat conduction terms, equations (2.8 - 2.10) reduce to the
6
As in gas viscous momentum transfer and heat transfer are limited by the same
c η
molecular collision process we have P r = pλ = 0(1). Hence Re and P e are of the same
order of magnitude.
17
Euler equations:
∂ρ
+ ∇ · ρv = 0, (2.38)
∂t
Dv
ρ = −∇p, (2.39)
Dt
Ds
ρT = 0, (2.40)
Dt
where we neglected gravity as well. The last equation, conservation of en-
ergy, follows from the relation between internal energy and enthalpy, (2.16):
De D ρ1 Dh Dp Ds
ρ + pρ =ρ − = ρT
Dt Dt Dt Dt Dt
2.6 The Bernoulli equation

The momentum equation (2.39)
∂v
ρ + ρ(v · ∇)v = −∇p,
∂t
together with the vector identity
1
(v · ∇)v = ∇ V 2 + ∇ × v × v,
2
the energy balance (2.40)
∂s
+ v · ∇s = 0,
∂t
and the Gibbs’ relation for the enthalpy:
1
∇p = ∇h − T ∇s,
ρ
can be reduced to the Crocco-Vazsonyi equation:
∂v 1
+ ∇( V 2 + h) + ∇ × v × v − T ∇s = 0. (2.41)
∂t 2
from this result we can deduce a number of variants of the Bernoulli equa-
tion:
a Bernoulli, in case of a stationary, isentropic flow: v · ∇s = 0. Take
the inner product of (2.41) with v to obtain an equation that is valid
along a streamline:
1
v · ∇( V 2 + h) = 0, or:
2
1 2
V + h = h0 (iso-energetic, valid along a streamline) (2.42)
2
The constant h0 is called the total enthalpy.
18
b Bernoulli, in case of a stationary, homentropic (uniform entropy), rotation-
free flow: ∇s = 0 and ∇ × v = 0. Then:
1 2
V + h = h0 (homo-energetic, valid in the entire flow field) (2.43)
2
c Bernoulli, in case of an instationary, homentropic, rotation-free flow:
∇s = 0 and with ∇ × v = 0. Because ∇ × ⃗v = 0 there exists a scalar
potential φ such that v = ∇φ. Substitution into equation (2.41) gives:
∂φ 1 2
+ V + h = C(t) (entire flow field) (2.44)
∂t 2
d Bernoulli in differential form. From (2.43) it follows that:
1
V dV + dh = V dV + dp = 0. (2.45)
ρ
Stationary Bernoulli equation for a perfect gas
For a perfect gas, by making use of h = cp T ,
1 2
V + cp T = cp T0 ; (2.46)
2
and c2 = γRT, R = cp − cv and γ = cp /cv (2.22 - 2.23), we obtain:
T0 γ−1 2
=1+ M , (2.47)
T 2
where M is the Mach number: M = Vc . Starting with the same Bernoulli
equation, it is also possible by using (2.26) to derive expressions containing p,
ρ and c. The quantities T0 , p0 , ρ0 , c0 are the “total” temperature, -pressure,
-density and speed of sound. They are the magnitudes of temperature,
pressure, etc. that are reached when the fluid is decelerated to V = 0 by
means of an hypothetical isentropic, and quasi-steady process.7 They can be
different from the real values Ts , ps , ρs , cs in a stagnation point. In general
the flow around a stagnation point is not isentropic nor frictionless.
In practice a supersonic flow originates from a settling chamber. The state
in this reservoir where the velocity is negligible is called the reservoir state
pc , ρc and Tc (with the index c stands for settling “chamber”).
From (2.47) we derive expressions relating the density, pressure, speed of
sound by using the isentropic relations for a perfect gas (2.26). Thanks to
this we have now for given total conditions T0 , ρ0 , ... expressed T, ρ, ... as a
function of the Mach number M .
From (2.46) it follows that for a given T0 , there exists a maximum achievable
velocity: . .
Vmax = 2cp T0 = 2h0 (2.48)
which can be reached in a steady flow.
7
a quasi-steady isentropic process is by definition frictionless
19
The critical state
The temperature, pressure and speed of sound at which the Mach number
is equal to 1 are referred to as the critical temperature T ∗ , critical pressure
p∗ and critical speed of sound c∗ . This is a so-called sonic condition, where
the velocity is equal to the speed of sound. Starting with (2.47) and taking
M = 1, we obtain for a steady isentropic flow:
T∗ 2
= . (2.49)
T0 γ+1
Conditions for p∗ , ρ∗ and c∗ can also be found using (2.49) in combination
with (2.26).
The energy ellipse

For a perfect gas, the Bernoulli equation describes an ellipse in the (c, V )
plane. This is shown in figure 2.4. For V < V ∗ = c∗ the flow is subsonic.
Around V = V ∗ the flow is said to be transonic, and for V > V ∗ supersonic.
c
M=1
c0 subsonic
transsonic
c* sup
ers
on
ic
V* Vmax V
Figure 2.4: The energy ellipse.
We observe from figure 2.4 that for low subsonic flows (M ≤ 0.2) the speed
of sound is almost constant hence the flow is almost isothermal. Also the
density changes remain small so that the flow is in good approximation
“incompressible”. For very large Mach number (M ≥ 5), in √ the so called
hypersonic region, the flow velocity is very close to Vmax = 2h0 . Changes
in the Mach number M = V /c are dominated by the variation of the speed
of sound and associated with a strong density variation. Hypersonic flows
are associated with spectacular variations in temperature across the flow
field (between the free flow and a stagnation point for example).
20
For some applications an alternative Mach number M ∗ is used instead of
M . This Mach number is defined as:
V
M∗ = (2.50)
c∗
where c∗ = V ∗ is the critical flow speed, which is reached when the flow
is isentropically and steadily accelerated/decelerated to M = 1. As M ∗ is
proportional to V it is in the finite range:
0 ≤ M ∗ < Vmax /c∗ (2.51)
while the Mach number varies in the range:
0 ≤ M < ∞. (2.52)
2.7 Questions
Questions with a star (*) are more advanced and not considered as basic
study material.
1. How is the control volume B determined when applying the integral

conservation laws (eq. 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3)?
2. How is the unit vector ⃗n determined when applying the integral equa-
tions (eq. 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3)?
3. Why is the bulk viscosity more convenient than the second viscosity?
4. What are the main additional limitations to the validity of the dif-
ferential form of the conservation equations (eq. 2.8, 2.9 and 2.10)
compared to the integral formulation (eq. 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3)?
5. What is a state variable?
6. What is the definition of the temperature T ?
7. What is the difference between an adiabatic process and an isentropic

process?
8. What is the definition of an ideal gas?
* 9. Starting from the Gibbs’ relation (eq. 2.12) show that:

# $ # $
∂(p/ρ2 ) ∂s
=− .
∂T ρ ∂ρ T
21
* 10. Show that: # $ / # $ 0
∂e 1 ∂p
= 2 p−T
∂ρ T ρ ∂T ρ
and verify that the internal energy of an ideal gas is independent of
its density.
* 11. Show that a gas satisfying the equation of state of Gay-Lussac, p =

ρRT , is an ideal gas.
12. Show that for an ideal gas:
cp − cv = R
13. Starting from the Gibbs’ relation, show that for an ideal gas:
γp
c2 =
ρ
14. What is a calorically perfect gas?
15. Starting from Gibbs’ relation show that for a perfect gas:
# $γ # $
p ρ s − s0
= exp
po ρ0 cv
16. Derive equation: # $γ

p ρ
=
po ρ0
Under which conditions is it valid?
17. Why do we assume that the energy in a vibrational degree of freedom

at equilibrium is twice that in a translational or rotational degree of
freedom? When is this reasonable?
18. How many degrees of freedom has a molecule with N atoms when
we assume that electronic states are not excited. How many of these
degrees of freedom are vibrational?
19. Why is the formula:

R
cv = (ntr + Nrot + 2nvibr )
2
in general not valid?
* 20. Starting from the energy equation (2.10) derive the entropy equation
(2.40).
22
21. Using the integral energy equation (2.3) applied to the adiabatic flow
through a segment of a pipe one can show that the total enthalpy is
conserved:
V2 V2
h0 = h1 + 1 = h2 + 2
2 2
What are the differences between this equation and the equation of
Bernoulli:
V2
h0 = h + ?
2
22. Derive equation:
T0 /T = 1 + (γ − 1)M 2 /2
Specify the assumptions you need.
23. Calculate the critical pressure p∗ as a function of the reservoir pressure

p0 for a perfect gas.
24. What is the temperature

√ of a gas when it has reached is maximum
velocity Vmax = 2h0 in a steady flow? What is the physical inter-
pretation at a microscopic level of this result?
* 25. Determine the Mach number dependency of the pressure as a function

of the velocity in a steady isentropic flow. Find an expression valid for
low subsonic flows.
26. Determine the critical velocity V ∗ of a flow as a function of the reser-

voir conditions (p0 , T0 ).
27. What are the differences between the reservoir pressure, the total pres-
sure and the stagnation pressure in a flow?
28. An aircraft flies at a typical Mach number M = 0.8. Estimate the tem-
perature difference between the stagnation point and the surrounding
air. Same question for the Blackbird with M = 3, a scramjet M = 7
and Apollo during re-entry in the atmosphere M = 24. Assume air to
be a perfect gas. Will this assumption be realistic. Provide arguments.
2.8 Answers
1. The control volume B is chosen by the user. Usually it is chosen for
its convenience.
2. The normal is directed outwards. Choosing the normal to the control

surface defines the “interior” of the control surface.
3. The second viscosity is directly related to volume changes.
23
4. The flow is described by continuous fields that allow differentiation.
The integral formulations allow discontinuous fields as found in shocks
or contact surfaces (which we will discuss later).
5. Thermodynamics is the study of the equilibrium state of systems. A

system is in equilibrium when all the macroscopic measurements given
time independent results. All measurable quantities that are indepen-
dent of the way equilibrium was reached are state variables. Such as
temperature T , pressure p, density ρ, entropy s, internal energy e,
speed of sound c...
6. The zeroth law of the thermodynamics states that T is a state variable.

The second law defines further T and the entropy s by stating that T
and s obey T ds = dQ for a reversible process.
7. In both cases there is no exchange of heat with the surroundings, but

the isentropic process is also reversible (quasi-steady).
8. In an ideal gas the molecules interact by collisions but do not have

long range interactions. As a consequence the internal energy depends
only on the temperature, not on the fluid density (volume).
9. From (eq. 1.12):
T ds = de + pd(1/ρ) ⇒ de = T ds − pd(1/ρ)
f = e − T s ⇒ df = −sdT + (p/ρ2 )dρ

As the internal energy is a state variable:
# $ # $
∂f ∂f
df = dT + dρ
∂T ρ ∂ρ T
and: # $ # $
∂f ∂f
= −s ; = (p/ρ2 )
∂T ρ ∂ρ T
Furthermore:
( # $ ) # # $ $
∂ ∂f ∂ ∂f
=
∂ρ ∂T ρ ∂T ∂ρ T ρ
T
implying: # $ # $
∂s ∂(p/ρ2 )
=−
∂ρ T ∂T ρ
24
10.
p
T ds = de + pd(1/ρ) ⇒ de = T ds − pd(1/ρ) = T ds + dρ
ρ2
# $ # $
∂s ∂s
ds = dρ + dT
∂ρ T ∂T ρ
⇒
1 # $ 2 # $
∂s p ∂s
de = T + dρ + T dT
∂ρ T ρ2 ∂T ρ
From question 1.7 we know that:
# $ # $ # $
∂(p/ρ2 ) 1 ∂p ∂s
= 2 =−
∂T ρ ρ ∂T ρ ∂ρ T
Hence: # $ / # $ 0
∂e 1 ∂p
= 2 p−T
∂ρ T ρ ∂T ρ
11. Using Gay-Lussac: # $

∂p p
= ρR =
∂T ρ T
so that: # $ / # $ 0
∂e 1 ∂p
= 2 p−T =0
∂ρ T ρ ∂T ρ
12. # $
1
dQ = de + pd
ρ
# $ # $
δQ ∂e
cv ≡ =
δT ρ ∂T ρ
1
dQ = dh − dp
ρ
p
h≡e+
ρ
# $ # $ # $ # $
δQ ∂h ∂e ∂(p/ρ)
cp ≡ = = +
δT p ∂T p ∂T ρ ∂T ρ
For an ideal gas: # $

∂(p/ρ)
=R
∂T ρ
25
13.
T ds = de + pd(1/ρ)
Isentropic and ideal gas:
# $
∂e p dρ dT R dρ
0= dT − 2 dρ = cv dT − RT ⇒ =
∂T ρ ρ ρ T cv ρ
and
1 2 # $
dp dT dρ cp − cv dρ cp dρ ∂p cp p
= + = 1+ = ⇒ =
p T ρ cv ρ cv ρ ∂ρ s cv ρ
14. A perfect gas is an ideal gas with a constant specific heat.
15. Perfect gas:

T ds = de + pd(1/ρ) ⇒
cv R
ds = dT − dρ
T ρ
" " "
dT dρ
⇒ ds = cv dT − R
T ρ
# $ # $
s − s0 T ρ
= ln − (γ − 1) ln
cv T0 ρ0
# $ # $γ−1 # $
T ρ s − s0
= exp
T0 ρ0 cv
# $γ # $
p ρ T ρ s − s0
= = exp
p0 ρ0 T0 ρ0 cv
16. Starting from: # $γ # $

p ρ s − s0
= exp
po ρ0 cv
We assume an isentropic process :
# $γ
p ρ
=
p0 ρ0
This equation is valid for the isentropic flow of a perfect gas.
17. Translation and rotation of a molecule does not involve a deformation.

Vibration involves deformation. For small vibrational amplitudes, we
can assume a harmonic oscillation around the equilibrium shape of the
molecule. In a harmonic oscillation the time average potential energy is
exactly equal to the time average kinetic energy. For large amplitudes
as we approach dissociation, the vibration becomes un-harmonic and
this assumption fails.
26
18. In 3-D space we need 3 coordinates to determine the position of each
atom. Hence the total number of degrees of freedom of the molecule
is 3N . The number of vibrational degrees of freedom is:
nvibr = 3N − ntr − nrot
In free space (3-D) a molecule has 3 translational degrees of freedom:
ntr = 3
A mono-atomic gas (N = 1) has no rotational nor vibrational degrees

of freedom. A linear molecule (such as in diatomic gases) has two
rotational degrees of freedom and one vibrational degree of freedom.
A non-linear molecule (water, methane, benzene) has 3 rotational de-
grees of freedom. Hence water with 3 atoms has 3 vibrational modes.
Methane with 5 atoms has 9 vibrational modes.
19. Due to quantum mechanical effects degrees of freedom remain “frozen”

(inactive) below a critical temperature. The energy in the modes can
only increase stepwise. If the energy step is large compared to the
average translational kinetic energy, only very few molecules will reach
the excited state for that mode. For example at room temperature the
vibrations of oxygen and of nitrogen molecules in air are negligible.
It is interesting to note that the difference between the measured
specific heat (for air cv = 5R/2 and the predicted value following
cv = 7R/2) led to the discovery of quantum mechanics (Planck, Ein-
stein).
20.
De D(1/ρ)
ρ + pρ = ∇ · (λ∇T ) + η ′ (∇ · ⃗v )2 + 2η(D : D)
Dt Dt
Reversible process, Gibbs’ relation:
T ds = de − pd(1/ρ)
Yields:
Ds
ρT = ∇ · (λ∇T ) + η ′ (∇ · ⃗v )2 + 2η(D : D)
Dt
No friction nor heat transfer:
Ds
ρT =0
Dt
21. The equation of Bernoulli is valid along a stream line in a frictionless

isentropic flow. It is valid over the entire flow if the entropy is uniform.
In the integral energy equation applied to a pipe of uniform cross
section, we assume that the flow is adiabatic. Friction is taken into
27
account so that the flow is not isentropic. Due to the no-slip condition
at the wall the friction forces do not carry any work. The flow is steady
but not uniform. The velocity term V 2 /2 is the average of this term
over the pipe cross section (not a local value).
22. We assume steady frictionless isentropic flow so that the equation of

Bernoulli is valid along a streamline:
V12 V2
h0 = h1 + = h2 + 2
2 2
For a perfect gas we have:
h = cp T
For an ideal gas we have furthermore:
R = cp − cv
And:
c2 = γRT
Hence:
V2
cp T0 = cp T +
2
# $2
T0 V2 γR V cp c p − cv 2
=1+ =1+ =1+ M
T 2cp T 2cp c cv 2cp
23. The critical temperature is given by (M = 1):
T0 γ−1 γ+1
∗
=1+ =
T 2 2
We have furthermore:
# $γ # $γ
p ρ p T0
= =
p0 ρ0 p0 T
# $ γ # $ γ
p∗ T∗ γ−1 2 γ−1
= =
p0 T0 γ+1
24. At M = ∞ the gas has reached the absolute zero (T = 0K), which
is impossible following the third law of thermodynamics. This means
that all the random kinetic energy (translation, rotation and vibra-
tion) of the molecules in the reservoir has been transformed into a
macroscopic translation kinetic energy. The density is vanishing small
so that we have a kind of “vacuum” in which there is no collision
between molecules.
28
25. For a perfect gas:
V2
cp T0 = cp T +
2
T0 γ−1 2
=1+ M
T 2
# $ γ ( ) γ
γ−1
p T γ−1 1
= =
p0 T0 1 + γ−1
2 M
2
Taylor expansion:
# $ γ
p0 γ−1 2 γ−1
= 1+ M
p 2
# $# $
γ−1 γ 1 γ γ γ−1 2 2
≈1+ M2 + −1 M ...
2 γ−1 2γ−1 γ−1 2
# $
γ 2 1 2
= 1 + M 1 + M + ...
2 4
# $
2 V2 V2 γ−1 2
M = = 1+ M
γRT γRT0 2
# # $ $
p0 − p γ V2 γ−1 1 V2
= 1+ + + ...
p 2 γRT 2 4 γRT0
# $# $
p0 − p ρ M2
1 2
= 1+ + ...
2 ρ0 V
ρ0 4
# $ −1
ρ γ − 1 2 γ−1 M2
= 1+ M =1− + ...
ρ0 2 2
# $
p0 − p M2
1 2
= 1− + ...
2 ρ0 V
4
26. We look for the critical velocity as a function of the reservoir condi-
tions.
. .
V ∗ = c∗ = c0 (c∗ /c0 ) = c0 T ∗ /T0 = 2γRT0 /(γ + 1)
27. The reservoir pressure is the pressure in a “reservoir”(settling cham-

ber), which is used in order to generate the flow. We often assume that
the flow velocity in the reservoir is negligible and that the flow is steady
and isentropic. In that case the reservoir conditions correspond to the
“total” pressure and temperature. The “total” pressure and tempera-
ture correspond to the thermodynamic state reached by a fluid particle
which we bring to “rest” by using a steady, reversible isentropic pro-
cess. The stagnation conditions are the pressure and temperature,
29
which are reached in a stagnation point. As the flow near a stagna-
tion point is not necessarily isentropic and reversible, the stagnation
pressure deviates in general from the total pressure and temperature.
In the particular case of a Pitot tube placed in a supersonic flow, the
stagnation pressure will be lower than the total pressure upstream of
the tube, because of dissipation on a shock wave in front of the tube
(see chapter 3). Furthermore the heat conduction along the tube and
radiation heat transfer will result into a temperature at the stagna-
tion point which is different from the total temperature upstream of
the tube.
28.
γ = 1.4
γ−1 2
(T0 /T ) = 1 + M = 1 + 0.2M 2
2
T = 300K
M = 0.8 ⇒ (T0 /T ) = 1.128 ⇒ T0 − T = 38.4K
M = 3 ⇒ (T0 /T ) = 2.8 ⇒ T0 − T = 540K
M = 7 ⇒ (T0 /T ) = 10.8 ⇒ T0 − T = 2940K
M = 24 ⇒ (T0 /T ) = 116.2 ⇒ T0 − T = 34560K
Note that the temperature in the air varies strongly depending on the
altitude from 250K (11 km) up to 450K (20 km).
Obviously an aircraft flying at M = 3 cannot be build from aluminium.
One uses titanium.
At M = 7 the theory fails (perfect gas) because air starts dissociating.
A classical rocket has to carry for a given mass of hydrogen eight
time the mass in oxygen. A scram-jet uses the oxygen from the air
for its propulsion. This allows to reach the critical escape velocity
(from the earth gravitation, about M = 7) with a much lighter engine
than a classical rocket. Until most scram-jet experiments failed due
to thermal problems.
At M = 24 the theory fails (perfect gas) because the gas is dissociated
and ionized. Above a temperature of the order of 12 000 K radiation
heat transfer becomes very important. In general there are strong
deviations from local thermodynamic equilibrium. The electrons will
have another temperature than atoms and ions.
30
Chapter 3
Stationary Quasi-1D
Gas Dynamics
3.1 Laval tube

3.1.1 Quasi-one dimensional theory
Figure 3.1: A Laval nozzle is a smoothly converging-diverging duct. It is

an essential part of rocket engines, of gas turbines and of a supersonic wind
tunnel.
Consider the situation in figure 3.1 above, a so-called Laval tube (or nozzle):
a perfect gas flows steadily from a reservoir with pressure p0 and entropy s0
through a converging channel followed by a diverging channel after passing
a throat of section Ak . We assume there is no friction (Re >> 1). The
diameter is assumed to change slowly with x, so that it holds that:
L dA
<< 1
A dx
where L is the nozzle length. This allows us to regard this flow as quasi-
one-dimensional : the flow is in good approximation parallel to the walls
31
and only a function of x: ⃗v = (V, 0, 0) with V = V (x). We assume that this
steady frictionless isentropic flow emerges from a uniform reservoir. Hence
all the flow properties are uniform in a cross section: p = p(x), T = T (x),
and ρ = ρ(x). From the conservation of mass (2.1) we have:
d
(ρV A) = 0,
dx
Bernoulli’s equation (2.45) can be written in differential form:
dV 1 dp
V + = 0,
dx ρ dx
and from the definition of the speed of sound c (2.19) we have for this
isentropic flow:
dp dρ
= c2 .
dx dx
It follows after some algebra that:
1 dV 1 1 dA
=− 2
. (3.1)
V dx 1 − M A dx
Concerning M , there are three possible scenarios:
a The flow is subsonic: M < 1. This implies that dV dA

dx and dx have opposite
signs. The flow accelerates when the duct converges and it decelerates
when the duct diverges. The highest velocity is reached for a subsonic
flow at the “throat” of the Laval tube, with diameter Ak .
b The flow is supersonic: M > 1. Now dV dA

dx and dx have identical signs.
For a converging duct, the flow decelerates and in a diverging duct it
accelerates. The lowest velocity is expected at the “throat”. We will
later see that an entirely supersonic quasi-1D flow through a Laval nozzle
cannot be realized. A supersonic flow approaching a converging nozzle
cannot anticipate on the reduction in duct section. The flow will collide
with the wall and will abruptly be slowed down by a so-called shock wave.
This will be discussed later in this chapter.
c The flow changes from subsonic to supersonic, or from supersonic to sub-

sonic. This implies that at some position we have M = 1. The only
location where M = 1 is possible is inside the “throat”, where dA
dx = 0 so
that the acceleration dV
dx remains finite.
In this last case, in order to determine the acceleration dV /dx at the throat,
we look at the second derivative of A(x). To find an expression for dV /dx
when dA/dx = 0 and M = 1 we use de l’Hôpital’s rule:
32
3 d
4 1 dA 5 33 3
1 d2 A 3
1 dV 33 − dx A dx 3 A dx2 3
= d 3 = 3 .
V dx 3throat dx (1 − M 2) 3 2M dM 3
dx throat
throat
Rearranging terms and using c = V /M and M = 1 we obtain:
2 dV dM 1 d2 A
= (3.2)
c dx dx A dx2
2
Because dV dM d A
dx and dx always have the same sign, dx2 will always be positive.
Indeed, the Mach number can pass through unity only at an area minimum
or throat. Hence we need a Laval nozzle to reach supersonic flows by a
steady expansion from a high pressure reservoir.
Next we look at the mass flux through the nozzle. This will provide us with
a less mathematical explanation for the fact that M = 1 can only be reached
at the throat of the Laval nozzle.
Using Bernoulli in terms of temperature and Mach number (2.47) for a

perfect gas, together with the isentropic gas relations (2.26) we obtain an
expression for the normalized mass flux density ρV /ρ∗ V ∗ :
/ 0 γ+1
ρV ρ0 c 0 ρ c (γ + 1)/2 2(γ−1)
=M ∗ ∗ =M (3.3)
ρ∗ V ∗ ρ c ρ0 c 0 1 + γ−1
2 M
2
ρV
ρ∗ V ∗ 1
0
0 1 2 3 4
M
Figure 3.2: Normalized mass flux density as a function of the Mach number.
This function is plotted in figure 3.2. Obviously ρV is positive, as we assume

the flow velocity to be positive. From the above expression we see that the
mass flux vanishes at M = 0 and in the limit M → ∞. The function has
one maximum, at M = 1 we have d(ρV )/dM = 0. As in the 1-D steady
flow through the nozzle, mass conservation implies that ρV A = ρ∗ V ∗ Ak we
see that Ak /A should be a minimum at M = 1. Indeed this confirms that
the transition M = 1 can only occur at a throat. As ρ∗ V ∗ is the maximum
33
of the mass flux, the maximum mass flow ρ∗ V ∗ Ak through the nozzle oc-
curring when M = 1 at the throat is reached. We then say that the nozzle
is “choked” or “critical”.
In a similar way as for the pressure, temperature, velocity... one can in an

arbitrary steady duct flow introduce the concept of (local) critical throat
section A∗ . This corresponds to the duct section at which the critical state
M = 1 would be reached by considering an ideal steady isentropic process
(flow) starting for the flow condition considered (ρ, V, A).
From the mass conservation law ρV A = ρ∗ V ∗ Ak we also conclude that

A/A∗ = ρV /(ρ∗ V ∗ ) = F (M ) is a function of the Mach number only. Hence
if the flow at the nozzle throat is critical M = 1 (Ak = A∗ ) the geometry
A/Ak determines the Mach number of the flow. We have for a given ratio
A/Ak two solutions for M , one subsonic M < 1 and one supersonic M > 1.
Using the isentropic gas relations in combination with the equation of Bernoulli
we can express the ratios p/p0 , T /T0 , ρ/ρ0 ...as functions of the Mach num-
ber M (2.47 and 2.26). Hence given a nozzle geometry and the reservoir
conditions we can determine the state of the gas along the nozzle.
An alternative for the Mach number M is the ratio of the velocity and
the critical velocity M ∗ = V /V ∗ = V /c∗ (2.50). The advantage of this
normalized
. velocity is that it has a finite range 0 ≤ M ∗ < Vmax /c∗ =
(γ + 1)/(γ − 1) while for M = 1 we have M ∗ = 1. In terms of the
normalized velocity M ∗ we find:
# $1/(γ−1)
ρV γ + 1 γ − 1 ∗2
= M∗ − M , (3.4)
ρ∗ V ∗ 2 2
where M ∗ ≡ V /c∗ . Because c∗ is a constant along a stream line, the right
hand side is now a function of V only.
This formula is plotted in figure 3.3. From this graph we see that, as the
velocity increases along a stream line, the mass flux increases as long as
the flow remains subsonic. For low Mach numbers, this curve rises as a
straight line, corresponding to an incompressible flow. In the supersonic
range however, the mass flux density diminishes for increasing velocity and
vanishes when V → Vmax .
The flux has its maximum value ρ∗ V ∗ when M ∗ = 1 (at the critical velocity).
3.1.2 Pressure distributions inside a nozzle

The fully frictionless subsonic steady flow of a fluid from a pipe (without
nozzle) into the atmosphere can be described by potential flow theory. Such
34
ρV
leb
ρ*V*
ssi
pre
1.0
om
inc
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
M*=V/c*
Figure 3.3: Normalized mass flux density as function of M∗

[Thompson (1972)].
a flow would follow the sharp angle wall at the exit of the pipe and would
expand radially in all directions. Such a flow is never observed in practice.
In reality, due to friction losses, the flow will not be able to follow the
sharp edges at the outlet. It separates tangentially from the wall, as shown
in figure 3.3. A shear layer is formed between the main jet flow and the
surrounding stagnant gas. Across this shear layer, pressure and velocity
must be continuous.
a) b)
pe pe
pa
pa
Frictionless subsonic outflow Actual subsonic outflow
Figure 3.4: (a) Potential flow, (b) Separated discharge in a subsonic flow
(from [Thompson (1972)]).
35
The discharge of fluid into a reservoir may either be subsonic or super-
sonic:
(a) Subsonic discharge

The continuity of pressure across the contact surface (shear layer) re-
quires that the surrounding (atmospheric) pressure pa is equal to the
pressure at the exit of the pipe pk . One can demonstrate that for a
steady subsonic isentropic flow pk = pa is the only possible solution.1
(b) Supersonic discharge

In this situation we also have continuity of pressure across the contact
surface. However, because the outflow is supersonic, this pressure does
not propagate upstream. In the exit plane of the pipe, the pressure pk
can be higher or lower than the atmospheric pressure pa . When it is
higher we call the jet under-expanded. When it is lower we call the jet
overexpanded. Outside the pipe the flow will immediately expand or
compress to make the pressure match with the atmospheric pressure at
the contact surface. Expansion or compression flows will be generated
from the side edges of the pipe outlet.2
Suppose that a reservoir with pressure p0 and temperature T0 is connected to

converging nozzle. In other words, the throat is at the nozzle exit. The flow
discharges into the atmosphere, which has a pressure pa . By decreasing the
ratio pa /p0 , for instance by increasing the pressure in the reservoir, the ve-
locity of the flow increases until M = 1 is reached at the throat of the nozzle.
Figure 3.5 shows the pressure distribution p(x)/p0 of the flow in the nozzle
and just outside the nozzle, for different values of pa /p0 . In case a, where
1
Let us assume a subsonic flow. If one assumes that pk > pa the gas will expand as it
leaves the nozzle to adapt to the surrounding pressure pa . Hence the streamlines should
diverge following the continuity equation applied to a steady flow ⃗v · ∇ρ = −ρ∇ · ⃗v , which
demonstrates that ∇ · ⃗v > 0 when ⃗v · ∇ρ < 0. Following our analysis (1/V )(dV /dx) =
(1/A)(dA/dx)/(M 2 − 1) (equation 3.1). As sign[(1/A)(dA/dx)] = sign[∇ · ⃗v ] we conclude
that the flow velocity should decrease. Following Bernoulli a decrease in velocity implies an
increase in pressure. Hence we come to a contradiction. We assumed that the pressure in
the jet was decreasing in order to adjust itself to atmospheric pressure and we come to the
conclusion that the pressure is increasing. Obviously the same conclusion can be deduced
for a steady subsonic flow with pk < pa . Hence pk = pa should prevail. This boundary
condition is actually a dynamic boundary condition. When a pressure disturbance arrives
at the outlet it is reflected as an inverse pressure perturbation travelling as a sound wave
to the reservoir and adjusting the mass flow to match the boundary condition pk = pa .
2
These waves will meet at the center of the flow. In first approximation they add up,
resulting into an over expansion or compression on the jet center line. Further down-
stream these waves reflect on the shear layer, resulting into an inversion of the wave sign.
An expansion (compression) wave reflects as a compression (expansion). The process is
then repeated, resulting into an oscillating pressure along the jet center-line. A further
discussion of this will be provided later because this flow is not one-dimensional and due
to non-linearity shock waves can be formed.
36
Figure 3.5: Pressure distributions in a converging nozzle for differ-
ent ratios pa /p0 of outlet pressure pa to reservoir pressure p0 (from
[Thompson (1972)]).
pa = p0 , there is no flow. In case b, p0 > pa > p∗ , the flow is everywhere

subsonic and the pressure at the throat pk = pa . At the sonic condition,
γ
2
case c, the ratio pa /p0 equals the critical pressure ratio p∗ /p0 = ( γ+1 ) γ−1 .
Lowering the ratio pa /p0 further will not produce an additional increase in
velocity, since the maximum velocity for this configuration is reached when
M = 1 at the throat. The flow is choked at the nozzle outlet. In case d,
where pa < p∗ , the flow velocity and the ratio p(x)/p0 inside the nozzle
is exactly the same as in case c. Outside the nozzle, the flow expands in
order to adapt itself to the atmospheric pressure. The maximum mass flow
through the nozzle is:
# $ γ+1 # $ γ+1
∗ ∗ 2 2(γ−1) 2 2(γ−1) γp0
Φmax = ρ V Ak = ρ0 c0 Ak = Ak (3.5)
γ+1 γ+1 c0
Next, we consider the case of a settling chamber (reservoir) connected to a
37
Figure 3.6: Pressure distributions in a Laval nozzle for different ratios pa /p0
of outlet pressure pa to reservoir pressure p0 (from [Thompson (1972)]).
Laval nozzle, i.e., a converging- diverging nozzle with throat cross section Ak
and outlet (exit) cross section Ae . Figure 3.6 shows the geometry and cor-
responding pressure distribution p(x)/p0 inside the nozzle. Again, lowering
pa /p0 by increasing p0 will increase the mass flow through the throat, until
the critical condition is reached Φmax (equation 3.5) . Consider the cases a
through g, where we vary the ratio of ambient to reservoir pressures pa /p0 .
At a, pa = p0 and there is no flow. In case b, the flow is entirely subsonic,
and the velocity changes with the cross-sectional area A according to:
ρe Ve Ae = ρ(x)V (x)A(x) < Φmax
In case c, the sonic condition pk /p0 = p∗ /p0 is reached at the throat and
the nozzle is chocked: ρ(x)V (x)A(x) = Φmax . In the diverging section, the
flow is subsonic in order to let the exit pressure pe match with the ambient
pressure pe = pa . There exists exactly one other pressure (f ), for which the
diverging flow leads to pressure matching at the exit, without shock for a
supersonic flow. The flow is supersonic downstream of the throat. In this
case the jet flow is supersonic and fully expanded. Further lowering of the
ambient pressure (g) does not affect the flow inside the nozzle. The flow
38
within the nozzle is fully determined by the reservoir conditions and the
fact that the throat is critical. Lowering of the ambient pressure implies,
that pe > pa . The jet flow outside the nozzle is under-expanded now.
Figure 3.7: Strongly under-expanded jets at take off of the SR-71 Blackbird

(Aerospaceweb.org, Shock Diamonds and Mach Disks)
Figure 3.8: Schlieren photograph of the flow in a Laval nozzle with a slightly
under-expanded jet at the outlet (L. Prandtl).
We now discuss the flow for the pressure range pa /p0 in between cases c
and f. In this case the differential equation we have derived (equation 3.1)
has no solution. Nature finds a solution by violating our assumptions of a
continuous and isentropic solution. In the diverging section a discontinuous
pressure change occurs: a shock wave. We will now simply assume that it is
39
a narrow region, which can be described as a discontinuity with negligible
volume 3 .
Figure 3.9: Normal shock in divergent part of Laval nozzle (G. Settles).
Please note the forks due to the interaction of the shock with the viscous
boundary layers at the wall.
As we will demonstrate the flow downstream of the shock is subsonic. There-

fore in cases d and e, the exit pressure is equals the ambient pressure pe = pa .
Upon lowering of pa , the position of the shock moves downstream from the
throat. Close to the throat it is a vanishing small pressure discontinuity.
The pressure difference increases first and the decreases again until the shock
reaches the nozzle outlet where it vanishes if the jet is fully expanded.
Choking does not only occurs in converging and Laval nozzles. Due to
friction forces, volume forces, combustion or heat transfer it can also occur
3
In practice, depending on the geometry of the nozzle and the interaction with viscous
boundary layers, this can be a complicated structure of interacting oblique shock waves
and expansion wave.
40
in a straight pipe. We will discuss this at the end of this chapter.
3.2 Normal shock waves

3.2.1 Rankine-Hugoniot adiabate
The existence of “discontinuities” in the state of a gas within a flow has long
time been a controversial subject. An interesting discussion of this historical
debate is provided by Thompson [Thompson (1972)].
We restrict our discussion now to normal shock, which are in a (y, z) plane
normal to the flow direction ⃗v = (u, 0, 0). In the present discussion we
simply assume that the shock is infinitely thin4 . In other words its volume
is negligible.
Figure 3.10: Control volume used to derive the shock relations from the
integral mass, momentum and energy balances.
Applying the integral conservation laws over such a shock while we assume
a uniform flow upstream and downstream of the shock we find the so called
shock relations. Note that because the flow is uniform upstream and down-
stream of the shock the friction forces and heat flux vanish (the flow outside
4
A “strong” shock has a thickness of the order of a few times the mean free path λ̄. For
steady shocks the thickness of the shock is not relevant. In that case the steady integral
conservation laws hold anyhow!
41
the shock is isentropic). We choose a thin control volume delimited by planes
parallel to the shock, which it encloses. The mass conservation law yields:
ρu = ρ̂û (3.6)
where ρ is the density in front of the shock and u the corresponding flow
velocity. The density behind the shock is ρ̂ and û is the corresponding
velocity. In other words the mass flux φm = ρu is conserved over a normal
shock φm = φ̂m . The momentum equation yields:
p + ρu2 = p̂ + ρ̂û2 (3.7)
where p and p̂ are the pressures respectively in front and behind the shock.
The energy equation yields:
u2 û2
h+ = ĥ + (3.8)
2 2
where h and ĥ are the enthalpy respectively upstream and downstream of
the shock. Obviously the total enthalpy is conserved across a shock h0 = ĥ0 .
We now eliminate the velocity in order to obtain a relationship between the

thermodynamic states (p, ρ) and (p̂, ρ̂) respectively in front and at the back
of the shock. Using the mass conservation law we re-write the momentum
and energy equations in the form:
# $
1 1
p̂ − p = − φ2m (3.9)
ρ ρ̂
and: # $
1 1
2(ĥ − h) = − φ2m . (3.10)
ρ2 ρ̂2
Taking the ratio of these two equations we eliminate the mass flux φm to
obtain the so called Rankine-Hugoniot relation:
1 1
(p̂ − p)( + ) = 2(ĥ − h). (3.11)
ρ ρ̂
As in a uniform gas the thermodynamic state is fully determined by two
state variable such as (p, ρ). The enthalpy is a function of these variables
h = h(p, ρ). Given a initial state (p, ρ) in front of the shock, the Rankine-
Hugoniot relation provides all the possible states (p̂, ρ̂) behind the shock.
The actual state (p̂, ρ̂1 ) will be determined by the value of the mass flux φm
imposed by the upstream boundary conditions.
For a perfect gas we have furthermore: h = cp T = (cp /R)(p/ρ) = (γ/(γ −
1)(p/ρ). After a significant amount of algebra we can rewrite the Rankine-
Hugoniot relation for a perfect gas in the form:
p̂ µ ρ̂ρ − 1
= (3.12)
p µ − ρ̂ρ
42
or:
ρ̂ 1 + µ p̂p
= (3.13)
ρ µ + p̂p
where we define µ by:
γ+1
µ= . (3.14)
γ−1
It is interesting to compare the Rankine-Hugoniot
% &γ adiabate with the isen-
p̂ ρ̂
tropic perfect gas relation: p = ρ . A first essential difference is that
the Rankine-Hugoniot depends on two parameters (p, ρ). Along a Rankine
Hugoniot curve in the (p, 1/ρ) plane there is only one point corresponding
to the initial state (in front of the shock). All the other points correspond to
the state behind a shock (p̂, 1/ρ̂). Starting a new Rankine-Hugoniot curve
from this final state yields a different curve than the one starting at (p, 1/ρ).
Along the isentropic equation of state, any point can be used as initial state,
because the curve depends only on one parameter, the entropy s. This
entropy along a Rankine-Hugoniot adiabate changes following the equation
of state: # $
ŝ − s p̂ ρ̂
= ln − γ ln . (3.15)
cv p ρ
From this equation in combination with the Rankine-Hugoniot relation (3.13)
we conclude that the entropy increases over a compression shock p̂ > p
for a perfect gas. It decreases for an expansion shock, which implies that
an expansion shock of a perfect gas does not exist. For real gasses how-
ever expansion shocks can exist depending on the sign of (∂ 2 p/∂(1/ρ)2 )s
[Landau (1987)], [Thompson (1972)]].
3.2.2 Entropy production in shocks

Defining the relative increase in density ϵ = (ρ̂ − ρ)/ρ = (ρ̂/ρ) − 1 we can
compare the isentropic equation of state for a weak compression ϵ ≪ 1:
p̂ γ 2 − γ 2 γ 3 − 3γ 2 + 2γ 3
= (1 + ϵ)γ = 1 + γϵ + ϵ + ϵ + ... (3.16)
p 2 6
and the Rankine-Hugoniot equation:
p̂ µ(1 + ϵ) − 1 γ 2 − γ 2 γ 3−2 γ 2 + γ 3
= = 1 + γϵ + ϵ + ϵ + ... (3.17)
p µ − (1 + ϵ) 2 4
The two expressions differ only for terms of order ϵ3 or higher. Hence the
entropy production of a weak shock scales as ϵ3 :
ŝ − s p̂ ρ̂ γ3 − γ 3
= ln − ln ( )γ = ϵ + ... (3.18)
cv p ρ 12
43
Rankine−Hugoniot
Isentroop
Impulswet
10
p̂
p
γ = 1.4
0
0 γ−1 0.5 1
γ+1
ρ
ρ̂
Figure 3.11: Comparison of the Rankine-Hugoniot adiabate with an isen-

trope starting from the same initial state. Note the vertical asymptote of
the Rankine-Hugoniot with limp̂/p⇒∞ (ρ/ρ̂) = (γ − 1)/(γ + 1).
As shown in Figure 3.12, the straight line joining the initial state (p, 1/ρ)
to the end %state (p̂, 2
& 1/ρ̂) has following the momentum law the slope φm =
1 1
−(p̂ − p)/ ρ̂ − ρ . The slope of the Rankine-Hugoniot adiabate at the
initial point is: (∂p/∂(1/ρ))RH = −ρ2 (∂p/∂ρ)s = −(ρc)2 . For a weak shock
we have furthermore (∂ p̂/∂(1/ρ̂))RH = −ρ̂2 (∂p/∂ρ)RH ≃ −(ρ̂ĉ)2 . Because
for a perfect gas we have (∂ 2 p/∂(1/ρ)2 )s > 0 we see that at the initial point
−(φ2m /(∂ p̂/∂(1/ρ̂)RH ) = (u/c)2 = M 2 > 1 hence the flow is supersonic
ahead of the shock M > 1. At the end point of the Rankine-Hugoniot
we have (φ2m /(∂p/∂ρ)RH ≃ (û/ĉ)2 = M̂ 2 < 1 so that the flow is subsonic
44
behind the shock M̂ < 1. This result appears to be much more general as
Figure 3.12: For a weak shock the Rankine-Hugoniot adiabate can be ap-
proximated by an isentrope. The Rayleigh line derived from the momentum
balance joints the initial point to the state behind the shock. The slope
of the Rayleigh line is proportional to the square of the mass flux density
φ2m = (ρu)2 = (ρ̂û)2 . The tangents at the initial point and the end point
have a slope proportional to the square of the speed of sound, (ρc)2 and
(ρ̂ĉ)2 respectively. We clearly see that M = u/c > 1 while M̂ = û/ĉ < 1.
demonstrated by Landau and Lifchitz [[Landau (1987)]] by using a stability

argument. The flow in front of a normal shock is always supersonic and
it is subsonic behind the shock. It is also quite interesting to compare the
% &γ 1+µ p̂p
isentrope equation of state p̂p = ρ̂ρ with the Rankine-Hugoniot ρ̂ρ = p̂
µ+ p
for very strong shocks ϵ >> 1. As γ > 1 we see that following the isentrope
relation the density increases without any bound as the pressure ratio is
increased to infinity p̂/p → ∞. In contrast the maximum compression one
can achieve with a shock is limp̂/p→∞ (ρ̂/ρ) = µ = (γ + 1)/(γ − 1). Due to
the dissipation in the shock an increase in pressure ratio only contributes to
the heating of the gas rather than a compression. Therefore strong shocks
should generally be avoided.
45
3.2.3 Mach number dependance
The Mach number M in front of the shock is a convenient parameter to
relate the state of the gas in front it to the state behind it. The momentum
equation (3.9) can be written as:
# $
p̂ φ2 ρ
−1= m 1− . (3.19)
p ρp ρ̂
For a perfect gas we have:
φ2m /(pρ) = ρu2 /p = γ(u/c)2 = γM 2 . (3.20)
Combining these equations with the Rankine-Hugoniot relation 3.12 and

3.13 for a perfect gas we find:
p̂ − p 2γ
= (M 2 − 1) (3.21)
p γ+1
and:
ρ − ρ̂ û − u 2 1 − M2
= = (3.22)
ρ̂ u γ + 1 M2
and with M̂ = û/ĉ:
# $2 % & # $2
2 û c 2 2 û T 2 M2 − 1
1 − M̂ = 1 − M =1− M = 2γ .
u ĉ u T̂ 1 + γ+1 (M 2 − 1)
(3.23)
From this equation we see that for M > 1 we have indeed M̂ < 1. This is
only valid for normal shocks (flow direction normal to the shock front). We
will see further that when the shock is oblique to the flow, the Mach number
behind the shock can be supersonic.
Figure 3.13: In a) we consider a steady flow u in front of a shock in a

coordinate system in which a shock has a fixed position us = 0. Changing
towards a coordinate system shown in b), in which the fluid ahead of the
shock is stagnant, we see a shock travelling at a constant speed us = −u. In
the limit case u → c corresponding to M → 1 the shock is an acoustic wave
propagating at the speed of sound c.
46
From these equations we can see that in the limit M → 1 the shock strength
ϵ = (ρ̂ − ρ)/ρ → 0 vanishes. In fact this very weak normal shock is an
acoustic wave travelling with the velocity u = c with respect to the fluid.
This can be best visualized by changing of coordinate system. Until now,
the shock had a fixed position. Now we choose a coordinate system in which
the fluid in front of the shock is stagnant. This is illustrated in figure 3.13.
In figure 3.14 we show the shock relations for the range 1 ≤ M ≤ 5 for a
perfect gas with γ = 1.4. We see that limM →∞ ρ̂ρ = (γ + 1)/(γ − 1) and
.
limM →∞ M̂ = (γ − 1)/(2γ)
2
10
γ = 1.4
p̂
p
1
10
ρ̂
ρ
T̂
T
0 M̂1
10
M̂
−1
10
1 2 3 4 5
M
Figure 3.14: Shock relations for a perfect gas γ = 1.4 as functions of the
Mach number.
47
3.2.4 Mach number from pressure measurements
We now consider a Pitot tube as show in figures 3.15, 3.16 and 3.17.
Figure 3.15: Schlieren photograph of the flow around the Pitot tube (D.
Rouwenhorst and H. Stobbe, UTwente)
In front of the shock we assume a uniform flow with Mach number M ,

stagnation pressure p0 and stagnation temperature T0 . Assuming a perfect
gas the stagnation temperature across the shock is conserved T̂0 = T0 while
due to friction the total pressure decreases p̂0 < p0 . Using the equation of
state for a perfect gas:
( )
p̂0 ŝ − s T̂0
= exp(− ) (3.24)
p0 cv T0
we obtain:
# $ −1 # $ γ
p̂0 ŝ − s p̂ γ−1 ρ γ−1
= exp( )= (3.25)
p0 cv p ρ
which can be expressed in terms of the Mach number M in front of the
shock:
In figure 3.18 we show the Mach number dependency of p̂0 /p0 . We also show
the ratios p/p0 and p/ps .
For subsonic flows M < 1 we can use the isentropic gas relation ps /p ≃
γ
p0 /p = (1+ γ−1
2 M )
2 γ−1 to determine the Mach number. For supersonic flows
we use the relation ps /p ≃ (p0 /p)(p̂0 /p0 ) to determine the Mach number.
48
Figure 3.16: Detail of the shock wave in front of a Pitot tube (D. Rouwen-
horst and H. Stobbe, UTwente)
Figure 3.17: A Pitot tube measures the stagnation pressure ps . For su-
personic flows M > 1 a normal shock is formed in front of the tube. The
stagnation pressure is approximatively equal to the total pressure behind
the normal shock ps = p̂0 .
3.3 Oblique shocks

3.3.1 Mach lines in steady flow
Consider a uniform steady flow of velocity
49 ⃗v = (u, 0, 0) and speed of sound c.
A small pressure perturbation is generated at time t = 0 at ⃗x0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ).
γ = 1.4
1
ps
p0
0.5
p
✙
✟ ps
p ✯
✟
p0
0
0 1 2 3 4
M
Figure 3.18: From the measurement of the stagnation point pressure ps ≃ p̂0
by means of a Pitot tube and the static pressure p by means of a static
pressure tube or a pressure hole in a wall, we can calculate the Mach number
M.
This perturbation forms an expanding spherical wave of radius ct, which is

convected by the main flow ⃗v . If the flow is subsonic M = u/c < 1 the
spherical wave will, given sufficient time, reach any point in the flow. If the
flow is supersonic M > 1 the perturbation will only reach points within a
cone around the x-axis with apex at ⃗x0 and an opening angle α such that:
α c 1
sin = = . (3.26)
2 u M
This is illustrated in figure 3.19.
Figure 3.19: Pressure perturbations expand in a uniform flow as spherical

waves. For subsonic flows (a) they will reach any point in the flow. For
supersonic flow (b) they only reach points within the Mach cone with apex
angle α = 2 arcsin(1/M ).
50
If we consider a continuous source of infinitesimal perturbations at ⃗x0 in a
uniform steady supersonic flow, the boundary between the Mach cone and
the unperturbed region is a M ach wave. In contrast with a normal shock
of vanishing strength a compression Mach wave does not induce a transition
from a supersonic to a subsonic flow. The flow behind this very weak oblique
shock remains supersonic. We will see later that for finite shock strength
an oblique shock can either be a strong shock with M̂ < 1 (subsonic flow
behind the shock) or a weak shock with M̂ > 1 (supersonic flow behind the
shock).
3.3.2 Shock relations for plane oblique shocks

We consider a plane oblique shock with an angle β with respect to the
incoming uniform flow ⃗v1 = (u, v, 0). We choose the x-axis normal to the
shock. Hence we have: tan β = u/v (see figure 3.20).
Figure 3.20: Definition of approach angle β and flow turning angle θ for a
plane oblique shock.
The flow ⃗v2 = (û, v̂, 0) behind the shock is also uniform, making an angle θ
with respect to the approach flow: cos θ = (⃗v1 · ⃗v2 )/(|⃗v1 ||⃗v2 |).
Using the integral conservation law for mass over a thin controle volume
enclosing the shock, we have:
ρu = ρ̂û = φm (3.27)
From the y- momentum equation we find:
φm (v − v̂) = 0 (3.28)
51
and from the x-momentum:
ρu2 + p = ρ̂û2 + p̂. (3.29)
The energy equation yields:
u2 + v 2 û2 + v̂ 2
h+ = ĥ + . (3.30)
2 2
This implies that v = v̂ and that the shock relations for an oblique shock are
identical to those for a normal shock observed in a reference frame moving
with the velocity (0, v, 0). Such a Galilean transformation does not affect
the flow physics. Hence we can use all the results obtained for a normal
shock by simply replacing the Mach number by the normal Mach number
Mn = u/c = M sin β. Obviously a shock wave can only be found if Mn >
1. The Mach number behind the shock M̂ is related to the normal Mach
number M̂n by the relation: M̂n = M̂ tan(β − θ).
3.3.3 Weak and strong oblique shocks
Figure 3.21: Relationship between the approaching angle β and the flow
turning angle θ for a planar shock at fixed approach Mach number M (after
[Shapiro (1953)]).
52
Figure 3.22: Weak shock attached to a wedge in a supersonic flow (D.
Rouwenhorst and H. Stobbe, UTwente)
From goniometry and v = v̂ we have (figure 3.20):
û tan(β − θ)
= . (3.31)
u tan β
From the normal shock relations for a perfect gas we have:
û 2γ 1 − Mn2
=1+ . (3.32)
u γ + 1 Mn2
Eliminating û/u we find a relationship between β, θ and Mn = M sin β:
tan(β − θ) 2γ 1 − Mn2
=1+ . (3.33)
tan β γ + 1 Mn2
For a fixed Mach number we obtain a curve in the (β, θ) plane. Such curves
are shown in figure 3.21. We observe that for a given Mach number there is
a maximum flow turning angle θmax . For θ > θmax there is no plane shock
solution. A detached shock will be formed ahead of the wedge (see figure
3.24). This is the reason why supersonic aircraft have a sharp nose and
wings with sharp leading edges.
For any turning angle θ < θmax we have two solutions for β. They both
correspond to an attached plane shock. One of the solutions corresponds to
a subsonic flow behind the shock M̂ < 1, which we call a strong shock. The
other solution is a weak shock solution M̂ > 1. Of course the weak shock
solution is preferred, as it has less dissipation than the strong shock.
53
Figure 3.23: For large apex angles a detached shock will be formed in front
of a wedge placed in a supersonic flow.
3.4 Pipe flow with friction and heat transfer

3.4.1 Integral conservation laws for quasi-one dimensional
pipe flow
Consider an infinitesimally thin section of a cylindrical pipe between x and
x + dx (see figure 3.24).
Figure 3.24: Thin pipe segment for balance equations.
We assume a quasi-one dimensional steady flow along the pipe of radius a

in the x-direction: ⃗v = (V (x), 0, 0), ρ = ρ(x), p = p(x)... The integral mass
54
conservation implies that the mass flux is conserved along the pipe:
d[ρV ] = 0 (3.34)
or:
ρ(x)V (x) = φm (3.35)
where φm is a constant determined by the boundary conditions. The mo-
mentum balance implies that:
Ap d[ρV 2 + p] = Pp dxτ (3.36)
where τ is the wall shear stress (viscous force per unit area of the pipe wall
on the fluid). The perimeter of the pipe section is Pp = 2πa and the cross
sectional area is Ap = πa2 . The integral energy balance applied to the pipe
section yields: 1 2
V2
Ap φm d (h + ) = Pp qdx (3.37)
2
where q is the heat flux from the wall to the flow. Using the conservation of
mass flux ρV = φm we rewrite the momentum equation as:
dp 2τ
+ V dV = dx (3.38)
ρ ρa
and energy balance equation as:
2q
dh + V dV = dx. (3.39)
φm a
Eliminating the flow velocity V by substraction the momentum equation
3.38 from the energy equation 3.39 and using the fundamental Gibbs’ equa-
tion yields an equation for the entropy:
1 2
dp 2q 2τ
T ds = dh − = − dx. (3.40)
ρ φm a ρa
Heat flow into the pipe and friction do correspond to entropy production.
Note that the sign of τ is negative because the wall friction opposes the flow.
Hence friction increases the entropy of the flow.
3.4.2 Choking due to friction and heat transfer

Using the mass conservation dρ/ρ = −dV /V we can also re-write the mo-
mentum equation as:
dp dρ 2τ
−V2 = dx. (3.41)
ρ ρ ρa
55
We can furthermore describe the enthalpy as a function of p and ρ, which
implies: # $ # $
∂h ∂h
dh = dp + dρ. (3.42)
∂p ρ ∂ρ p
Substitution into equation 3.40 we have:
# $ # $
∂h 1 ∂h 2q 2τ
[ − ]dp + dρ = [ − ]dx. (3.43)
∂p ρ ρ ∂ρ p φm a ρa
The two equations 3.41 and 3.43 form a set of linear equations for dp and
dρ. The determinant D of this set of equations is given by:
( 1
)
hρ 2ρ
− hp
D= 1−V (3.44)
ρ hρ
where we used the short hand notation hp = (∂h/∂p)ρ and hρ = (∂h/∂ρ)p .

Using the Gibbs relation dh = T ds + dp/ρ = hp dp + hρ dρ we have that for
ds = 0:
1
( − hp )dp = hρ dρ (3.45)
ρ
which implies that c2 = (∂p/∂ρ)s = ((1/ρ) − hp )/hρ (2.20) and:
hρ
D= (1 − M 2 ). (3.46)
ρ
When D ̸= 0 the system of equations yields a solution so we find expressions
for dp/dx and dρ/dx. For M = 1 the determinant vanishes (D = 0), so that
we have no solutions for dp/dx and dρ/dx. They become infinitely large.
This situation corresponds to choking induced by friction and heat transfer.
We consider now a subsonic M < 1 adiabatic q = 0 flow. The pressure

decreases due to friction. It seems logical that we need a negative pressure
gradient in order to balance the friction forces to maintain a positive velocity
(V > 0 implies dp/dx < 0). This corresponds to our intuition based on expe-
rience with incompressible flows. An adiabatic decrease of pressure implies
a decrease of density dρ/dx < 0. From mass conservation d(ρV )/dx = 0 we
see that the flow velocity should increase dV /dx > 0 in order to keep the
mass flow constant. Hence due to friction a subsonic flow speed along a pipe
increases. This continues until the critical condition M = 1 is reached. Fur-
ther increase becomes impossible because of the singularity of the pressure
gradient dp/dx → −∞. We then have two possibilities:
-either we reach the end of the pipe for M ≤ 1

or:
56
-the mass flow decreased for given inlet pressure.
As in the case of a Laval nozzle the behaviour for supersonic flows M > 1
is opposite to that found for subsonic flows. This is due to the fact that
D > 0. Instead of accelerating the flow will now decelerate, contradicting
our intuition. The Mach number decreases approaching M = 1. As choking
is approached (the pipe is too long) a shock wave will form and the flow will
continue as subsonic flow behind the shock. This subsonic flow accelerates
up to M = 1. If the pipe is too long, the shock will move up to the pipe
inlet causing the mass flow to change.
This complex behaviour has been studied for an adiabatic pipe flow of a per-
fect gas by [Fanno (1904)]. He obtained an analytical solution [[Shapiro (1953)],
[Thompson (1972)], [Owczarek (1964)], [Landau (1987)]].
3.4.3 The long pipe-line problem

We consider a gas transport pipe line buried under the ground. This can be
a pipe of 1 m diameter and a few hundred kilometers length transporting
natural gas from a gas field to costumers. The gas is in good thermal
contact with the ground. We therefore assume an isothermal flow. The
mass conservation law is:
dρV
= 0. (3.47)
dx
The momentum equation is:
dV dp 2τ
ρV =− + . (3.48)
dx dx a
The energy equation reduces to:
dT
= 0. (3.49)
dx
We complement this set of equation with the ideal gas law p = ρRT , written
in differential form:
1 dp 1 dρ 1 dT
= + . (3.50)
p dx ρ dx T dx
At high Reynolds numbers for subsonic flows it is reasonable to approximate
the wall shear stress by means:
cf
τ =− ρV 2 (3.51)
2
where the friction factor cf is constant.
After some algebra we find:
ρV 2 1 dV cf ρV 2
(1 − ) = . (3.52)
p V dx a p
57
We recognize the isothermal
. Mach number MT = V /cT with the isothermal
speed of sound cT = p/ρ. Hence we have:
1 dV cf MT2
= . (3.53)
V dx a(1 − MT2 )
As for friction in an adiabatic flow (Fanno flow) we observe choking when
the flow is accelerated from a subsonic velocity MT < 0 up . to MT = 1.
The fact that this involves the isothermal
. speed of sound c T = p/ρ rather
than the adiabatic speed of sound c = γp/ρ is logical because the flow is
isothermal. Hence acoustic waves transmitting information to the reservoir
to regulate the mass flow travel at the speed cT rather than c.5
By integrating between position x1 with MT = MT,1 and x2 with MT = MT,2
we find: / # $0
x2 − x1 1 1 1 MT,1
a
=
cf 2MT,1 2 − 2M 2 + ln M (3.54)
T,2 T,2
As one approaches MT = 1 one expects that the isothermal approximation

will fail because the gas pressure varies very fast, so that heat transfer from
the wall is not fast enough to maintain a constant temperature.
3.4.4 Choking due to heat transfer

We now consider the effect of a constant heat transfer q into a frictionless
steady pipe flow of an ideal gas. The conservation equations become:
dρV
= 0, (3.55)
dx
dV dp
ρV =− (3.56)
dx dx
and
dT 1 dp 2q
−
cp = . (3.57)
dx ρ dx aφm
Assuming an ideal gas we find after some algebra:
1 dV 2q
= . (3.58)
V dx acp T φm (1 − M 2 )
We see that a subsonic flow is accelerated by heat addition until M = 1 is
reached. Again this involves choking. The heat addition can also be due to
a combustion process. Hence a subsonic combustion in a straight pipe can
accelerate the flow up to M = 1. To reach a higher Mach number we need
a Laval nozzle. We use such a laval nozzle downstream of a rocket engine as
shown in Figure 3.25.
5
The isothermal speed of sound can also prevail in a flow with very efficient heat
transfer. This can be for example radiative heat transfer in diluted gasses at very high
temperature (astronomy).
58
Figure 3.25: Laval nozzle downstream of the combustion chamber of the
solid propellant motor of the Ariane V rocket.
3.5 Questions
Questions with a star (*) are more advanced and not considered as basic
study material.
1. Following the quasi-one dimensional theory for steady flows the accel-
eration dV /dx along a pipe is related to the change in cross-section
area dA/dx by:
1 dV 1 dA
= 2
.
V dx (1 − M )A dx
where M = V /c is the Mach number. Is this theory also valid for a
liquid flow?
59
2. Following equation 1 there is a singularity of the factor (M 2 − 1)−1 at
M = 1. What does this implies for the actual flow in a Laval nozzle?
3. Which parameters determine the maximum mass flow through a chocked

Laval nozzle Φmax = ρ ∗ V ∗ Ak ?
4. Make a sketch of the mass flow Φ = ρV A through a Laval nozzle for

given reservoir conditions as a function of pa /p0 in the range pa ≤ p0 .
5. Make a sketch of the pressure profile p(x) along a Laval nozzle for
various values of the parameter pa /p0 .
6. Is it true that the mass flow Φ = ρV A through a chocked Laval nozzle

cannot be changed?
7. How much does the mass flow Φ of a perfect gas through a choked
Laval nozzle increase if we double the reservoir pressure p0 at fixed
T0 ?
8. How much does the mass flow Φ of a perfect gas through a choked Laval
nozzle increase if we double the reservoir temperature T0 at fixed p0 ?
9. Given that at launch-off the pressure in the combustion chamber of

the solid propellant motor of the Ariane V rocket rises up to p0 = 60
bar at a temperature T0 = 3000 K and that we assume a perfect gas
flow with γ = 1.3:
-Estimate the Mach number M of the nozzle needed to obtain a fully
expanded free jet at the outlet.
-Estimate the ratio Ak /Ae of the throat to exit cross sections of this
nozzle.
-Estimate the free jet gas temperature Te .
10. A blow down supersonic wind tunnel consists of an air reservoir with
T0 = 298 K and p0 = 60 bar. Such tunnels are commonly used up to
M = 4. Why are they not used at M = 24?
* 11. As a result of the curvature of the streamlines, the pressure at the

wall in the throat of a Laval nozzle will be different from that on the
center-line. Do you expect the pressure on the center-line to be higher
or lower than that at the wall? For a radius of curvature rk of the wall
and a throat cross section radius ak estimate the order of magnitude
of this pressure difference.
* 12. Due to the non-uniformity of the flow at the throat discussed in the
previous exercise, the critical line M = 1 will be a curve. Make a
sketch of this curve in a Laval nozzle.
60
13. What are the conditions of validity of the integral balances for mass,
momentum and energy taken over a normal shock wave?
ρu = ρ̂û
p + ρu2 = p̂ + ρ̂û2
u2 û2
h+ = ĥ +
2 2
Did we neglect friction and heat transfer to derive these equations?
14. Why are the shock relations for mass, momentum and energy discussed
in the previous exercise also valid for a moving shock (speed us )? Are
they also valid for a time dependent shock velocity us (t)?
15. What are the fundamental differences between an isentropic compres-

sion of a perfect gas described by (p̂/p = (ρ̂/ρ)γ and the Rankine-
Hugoniot adiabate:
ρ̂ 1 + µ p̂p
=
ρ µ + p̂ p
with µ = (γ + 1)/(γ − 1)?
16. What is the maximum of the compression ρ̂/ρ that can be reached
by a single shock compression? What is the maximum of compression
that can be reached by two successive shock compressions?
17. Make a sketch comparing a single strong shock compression from

(p, 1/ρ) to (p̂, 1/ρ̂) in a (p, 1/ρ) diagram with the same increase in
pressure obtained by two successive shocks.
18. Determine the ratio T̂0 /T0 of the total temperatures across a normal
shock in a perfect gas.
19. Is an expansion shock possible?
20. Given the initial point (p, ρ1 ) and the mass flow φm through a shock,
draw the line along which one can find all the possible end states (p̂, ρ̂1 )
behind a normal shock as imposed by the momentum balance equation
(so called Rayleigh line). What is the physical meaning of the slope
dp̂/d(1/ρ̂) of the Rayleigh line?
61
21. The increase in entropy across a shock can be calculated for a perfect
gas by combining the equation of state:
ŝ − s p̂ ρ̂
= ln( ) − γ ln( )
cv p ρ
with the Rankine-Hugoniot. Compare, for ρ̂/ρ = 2 and γ = 1.4, the
value of (ŝ − s)/cv calculated in this way to the result obtained by
means of the weak shock approximation:
ŝ − s γ3 − γ 3
= ϵ
cv 12
What happens for ρ̂ = 1.2.
22. Which additional information do we need in order to determine the
Mach number M from the Pitot tube pressure measurement ps ? Can
we determine the Mach number from the ratio ps /p0 of Pitot tube
pressure and reservoir pressure?
* 23. We place a Pitot tube in the diverging section of a Laval nozzle. Make
a sketch of the variation of the Pitot pressure ps as a function of the
variation in atmospheric pressure pa for fixed reservoir pressure p0 .
24. Derive the expression for the angle α of Mach waves with the flow
velocity direction as a function of the Mach number M . What occurs
when M < 1?
25. What is the difference between a weak and a strong planar oblique
shock for given flow turning angle θ?
26. Estimate the Mach numbers of these two flows, shown in figure 3.26:
(a) Flow in supersonic wind tunnel HST of NLR (A. Elsenaar [Elsenaar (2012)],
50 jaar HST)
(b) Flow in supersonic wind tunnel (Spaceex, Space Launcher, DNW)
27. What is the difference between MT and M ? When is MT more useful

than M ?
28. Consider an underground natural gas transport pipe line of pipe diam-
eter 2a = 1 m and friction coefficient cf = 2 × 10−3 . Assume for the
gas properties γ = 1.3 and Mm = 16 kg/kmol. The temperature of
the soil is T = 278K. The initial velocity of the flow is V1 = 10 m/s.
The initial pressure is p1 = 60 bar. Estimate the distance x∗ = x2 − x1
at which choking will occur.
29. Does chocking occur earlier for an isothermal pipe flow or for an adi-
abatic pipe flow of a perfect gas (Fanno process)?
62
a b
Figure 3.26: (a) Supersonic HST wind tunnel of NLR (Amsterdam); (b)
Supersonic flow around a space launcher, DNW.
3.6 Answers
1. The theory is valid for a steady frictionless quasi-one dimensional fluid
flow. We assumed local thermodynamic equilibrium. No other as-
sumptions where made concerning the type of fluid. It can be a gas
or a liquid. Hence the theory is valid for a liquid.
2. The critical state corresponding to M = 1 can only be reached at a

stationary point A1 dA
dx = 0. Further analysis demonstrates that this
should be a minimum of A (throat). When M = 1 is reached at
the throat, the nozzle is chocked. The flow is then independent of the
downstream conditions, because acoustic waves generated downstream
cannot pass the throat.
3. The critical density ρ∗ and critical velocity V ∗ = c∗ are determined

by the reservoir conditions.
4. See figure 3.27.
5. See figure 3.6.
6. Φ = Φmax = ρ∗ V ∗ Ak is independent of downstream boundary condi-

tions. It is determined by the reservoir conditions. By changing the
reservoir conditions we can change Φ in a chocked Laval nozzle.
7. For a perfect gas ρ∗√∼ ρ0 . At constance temperature T0 we have

ρ0 ∼ p0 while c∗ ∼ T0 remains constant. Doubling p0 at fixed T0
doubles the mass flow Φ of a chocked Laval nozzle.
8. For a perfect gas

√ at constant pressure p0∗ we have ρ∗√∼ ρ0 ∼ (1/T0 )
∗
while c ∼ c0 = γRT0 . Hence ∗
√ Φmax = ρ c Ak ∼ (1/ T0 ). The mass
flow decreases by a factor 2 when we increase the reservoir temper-
ature by a factor 2, while keeping the reservoir pressure constant.
63
Figure 3.27: Comparison of a strong single shock compression from (p, 1/ρ)
to (p̂/ρ̂) with a double shock compression with an initial shock from (p, 1/ρ)
to (p̂1 , 1/ρ̂1 ) followed by a second shock from (p̂1 , 1/ρ̂1 ) to (p̂2 , 1/ρ̂2 ) in the
(p, 1/ρ) diagram.
9.
T0 γ−1 2
=1+ M
T 2
p0 ρ0 p0 T
= ( ) γ = ( )γ ( )γ
p ρ p T0
T0 γ−1 2 p0 γ−1
=1=+ M =( ) γ
T 2 p
Figure 3.28: Sketch of stagnation pressure measured as a function of pa in

the diverging part of a Laval nozzle at fixed reservoir pressure p0 .
64
6 # $
2 p0 γ−1
M= ( ) γ −1 = 3.24
γ−1 p
T = 1166 K
Ak ρ V ρ0 ρ c 0 c
= ∗ ∗ = ∗ M
Ae ρ c ρ ρ0 c ∗ c 0
/ 0 γ+1
Ak (γ + 1)/2 2(γ−1)
=M = 0.05
Ae 1 + γ−1
2 M
2
10. At M = 24 we have for γ = 1.4:

T0 γ−1 2
=1+ M = 116
T 2
so that T = 2.6 K. At such a low temperature the air liquifies. Fur-
thermore at M = 24 with T = 300 K we have T0 = 35 × 103 K so
that air is dissociated and ionized.
11. The curvature of streamlines following the wall involves a pressure gra-
dient which should compensate the centrifugal acceleration. Hence the
pressure on the center line is larger than at the wall. The pressure dif-
ference is of the order pcenter −pwall ≃ [ρ∗ (c∗ )2 /rk ]ak = (ak /rk )γp0 (p∗ /p0 ) =
γ
2
(ak /rk )γp0 ( γ+1 ) γ−1 .
12. The critical condition is reached near the wall earlier than on the center
line. Hence the critical line is convex seen from downstream.
13. We assume a stationary shock us = 0 of negligible thickness bounded

by uniform flows (up- and downstream). Hence we neglect heat trans-
fer and friction at the control surface enclosing the shock. Friction and
heat transfer do occur within the shock, which explains the increase
of entropy over the shock.
14. A thin shock has !a negligibly

! small volume.
! Hence the time derivative
2
of the integrals ρdτ , ρ⃗v dτ and ρ(h + u2 )dτ vanish and there
is within a coordinate system moving with the shock no difference
between a shock moving at constant speed us = const or a shock
moving with time dependent speed us = us (t).
15. An isentrope curve depends on a single parameter (the entropy). Each

point can be an initial point for a process ending along the same curve
(compression or expansion). A Rankine-Hugoniot adiabate has one
65
(and only one) initial point and depends on two parameters (the coor-
dinates of this initial point). Furthermore some processes are forbidden
because they would reduce the entropy. This is the case for expansion
shocks for ideal gasses. The Rankine-Hugoniot describes irreversible
processes (with increase in entropy).
16. For γ = 1.4 the maximum compression with a single shock compression
is ρ̂max /ρ = (γ + 1)/(γ − 1) = 6. For two successive shocks we have
the total temperature is conserved ρ̂max /ρ = [(γ + 1)/(γ − 1)]2 = 36.
17. See Figure 3.27.
18. From the energy balance across a shock we have: h0 = ĥ0 . For a
perfect gas h = cp T . Hence we have T0 = T̂0 over a shock in a perfect
gas.
19. An expansion shock is possible if (∂ 2 p/∂(1/ρ)2 )s < 0. This can occur
near the critical region of a fluid.
dp
20. The slope is d(1/ρ) = −φ2m . As this is a constant imposed by the
upstream boundary conditions, the Rayleigh line is a straight line in
the (p, ρ1 ) plane.
21. For ρ̂/ρ = 2:
p̂ µ ρ̂ρ − 1
= = 2.75
p µ − ρ̂ρ
# $
ŝ − s
= 0.041
cv exact
# $
ŝ − s
= 0.112
cv weak−shock
While the shock is almost isentropic, the prediction of the entropy is
not accurate. For ρ̂/ρ = 1.2:
p̂ µ ρ̂ρ − 1
= = 1.29
p µ − ρ̂ρ
# $
ŝ − s
= 6.8 × 10−4
cv exact
# $
ŝ − s
= 9.010−4
cv weak−shock
The shock is almost perfectly isentropic and the predicted entropy
increase is reasonably accurate.
66
22. From a measurement of the stagnation pressure ps (Pitot tube) and the
static pressure p (wall pressure) we can determine the Mach number
because ps /p is a function of M . For M >> 1 we can also determine
the Mach number from ps /p0 . For M ≤ 1 we have ps /p0 = 1 so we
cannot determine the Mach number from a measurement of pS /p0 .
23. See figure 3.28.
24. α = 2 arcsin (c/V ) = 2 arcsin (1/M )

For M < 1 this equation cannot be satisfied because sin(2α) ≤ 1.
There are no Mach waves in subsonic flows.
25. For weak oblique shocks M̂ > 1.

For strong oblique shocks M̂ < 1.
26. (a) M ≃ 1.8

(b) M ≃ 1.3.
.
27. M = V /c with
. c = (∂p/∂ρ)s (isentropic wave speed). MT = V /cT
with cT = (∂p/∂ρ)√ T (isothermal wave
√ speed).
For an ideal gas c = γRT and 7 cT = RT .
5 c 5
As 1 < γ ≤ 3 we have 1 < cT ≤ 3.
28. Integration of:
1 dV 1 dMT cf MT2
= =
V dx MT dx a(1 − MT2 )
yields: / 0
a 1 1 MT,1
x2 − x 1 = 2 − 2 + ln
cf 2MT,1 2MT,2 MT,2
For MT,2 = 1 we have:
/ 0
a 1 1
x∗ = x2 − x1 = 2 − + ln MT,1
cf 2MT,1 2
√
R = R̄/Mmol = 520Jkg −1 K −1 , cT = RT = 380m/s, MT,1 =
V1 /cT = 0.0263
x∗ = 180 km. In practice a compressor is placed each 100 km. The
pressure is not allowed to decrease below 40 bar. The flow velocity
can be higher than 10 m/s.
29. In an adiabatic (Fanno) process the temperature decreases as the

pressure decreases. Hence the density decreases less than during an
isothermal process. Therefore the velocity increases less. Furthermore
the isentropic speed of sound is higher than the isothermal speed of
67
sound. Consequently choking will occurs in an adiabatic process after
a longer distance than in an isothermal process.
This can also be understood by the fact that in an isothermal flow
there is a heat flux into the pipe, which by itself promotes choking
already. As explained in 3.4.4 heat addition to the flow can cause
choking by itself (without friction).
68
Chapter 4
Instationary 1D compressible
flows
4.1 Introduction
Disturbances in pressure and density of a compressible medium give rise to
travelling pressure waves. In case the amplitudes are small the waves are
called acoustic waves or sound waves; their propagation velocity is the speed
of sound and a simple linear relation between pressure amplitude and veloc-
ity amplitude exists. In case the amplitudes are not small, the propagation
velocity in a disturbance becomes dependent on the amplitude. Wavefronts
will show a change in shape. In some cases wave fronts will become steeper
which eventually gives rise to the appearance of shock waves. This non-linear
wave propagation is subject of this chapter. Analytic solutions of non-linear
wave problems will be found with the so called method of characteristics.
The 1D gasdynamics equations are applied to, amongst others, the descrip-
tion of the so called shock tube and the supersonic wind tunnel based on
the shock tube principle. Finally, we will pay attention to the striking anal-
ogy between non-linear wave propagation in compressible media and wave
phenomena which occur on a freeway, in traffic flow.
4.2 Non-linear waves

Non-linear effects should be taken into account at high wave amplitudes.
The propagation velocity of a wave will depend on the amplitude of the dis-
turbance. The method of characteristics is particularly useful for analyzing
non-linear wave problems.
We start with the Euler-equations where we assume a homentropic situation,
i.e., s = s0 :
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂u
+u +ρ =0, (4.1)
∂t ∂x ∂x
69
∂u ∂u 1 ∂p
+u + =0, (4.2)
∂t ∂x ρ ∂x
# $
2 ∂p dp
p = p(ρ) ; c = = ; s = s0 . (4.3)
∂ρ s dρ
We eliminate dρ with dρ = dp/c2 , and in addition we introduce the gasdy-
namic variable Γ:
dp
dΓ = . (4.4)
ρc
With dρ = ρc dΓ and dp = ρcdΓ (4.1-4.2) become:
∂u ∂u ∂Γ
+u +c =0, (4.5)
∂t ∂x ∂x
∂Γ ∂u ∂Γ
+c +u =0. (4.6)
∂t ∂x ∂x
Adding up, respectively subtracting gives:
# $
∂ ∂
+ (u + c) (u + Γ) = 0 , (4.7)
∂t ∂x
# $
∂ ∂
+ (u − c) (u − Γ) = 0 . (4.8)
∂t ∂x
These are the non-linear characteristic equations. In case ρc ≈ ρ0 c0 and
u << c0 , c ≈ c0 , then Γ ≈ p′ /ρ0 c0 and we find the linear equations. The
variable Γ plays an important role in gasdynamics:
" "
1 c
Γ= dp = dρ ; s = s0 . (4.9)
ρc ρ
γ−1
For a calorically perfect gas we find with c ∝ ρ 2 ; γ = cp /cv :
"
2 dc 2
Γ= c = c. (4.10)
γ−1 c γ−1
In that case the characteristic equations are:
# $
dx 2c
along =u±c: d u± =0. (4.11)
dt γ−1
We note that along the path described by dx/dt = u + c, the Riemann

invariant u + Γ is constant. This path is called a C + characteristic. The
family of lines in the x−t plane with dx/dt = u+c is called the C + family; the
lines with slope dx/dt = u − c form the C − family. In general these lines are
curved and are a priori unknown trajectories in the x−t plane. On the other
hand, the general solution in the c − u plane is known and consists of two
families related to the C ± characteristics which are called the Γ± families.
70
Figure 4.1: C ± characteristics. Γ± characteristics.
2
For a perfect gas these are straight lines with slopes du/dc = − γ−1 for Γ+
2
en du/dc = γ−1 for Γ− .
Solving a gasdynamic problem by means of the method of characteristics
means:
finding the trajectories of the C + and C − characteristics in the x − t plane.
When these trajectories are known , also u, c can be found in any point by
applying the Riemann invariants. Suppose that the solution (u, c) is known
at line segment AB in the x − t plane of figure 4.2. We divide the line
segment in a number of elements with nodes (1 t/m 6 in figure 4.2.), and
calculate the characteristic directions u + c en u − c in those points. These
C + and C − characteristics cross (7 t/m 11). Applying the Γ± relations gives
the new values of u and c etc. It is clear that line segment AB affects only
a limited area in the x − t plane, terminating in point D.
Figure 4.2: Characteristics in the x − t plane.
This property gives rise to the Courant-Friedrichs-Lewy condition for dis-

cretisation of wave equations, ∆t < 12 ∆x/|u ± c|. Region ABD sketched
in figure 4.2 is called the domain of dependence, corresponding to line D.
For more reading see Courant and Friedrichs (Supersonic Flow and Shock
71
Waves).
4.3 Simple waves.

The method of characteristics is particularly useful for the description of the
so called “simple” waves. Disturbances which propagate without reflections
or other disturbances in a uniform region with constant u0 , p0 , c0 are always
simple waves, either of the C + or C − type, depending on the position of the
source of disturbance. We shall now deduce some important properties of
simple waves and we shall take the equations of a perfect gas as a starting
point. The reasoning will apply to any medium of arbitrary thermodynamic
properties. In such case it should be mentioned that the gasdynamic variable
Γ is a unique function of the speed of sound c.
Figure 4.3: Left travelling simple wave with its representation in the x − t
plane and its representation in the c − u plane.
We will first treat the left travelling simple wave (of the C − type). Assume,
we generate a disturbance in a long tube for x > x0 . At t = 0, x < x0 , a
uniform flow exists with velocity u0 and speed of sound c0 . The disturbance
propagates in the negative x-direction.
Property I
2c 2c0
All C + characteristics emerge from the uniform region. So u+ γ−1 = u0 + γ−1
for all (x, t) bounded by the uniform area. So a unique relation exists be-
tween u and c in the whole field. This means that the whole x−t plane (con-
nected to the uniform region) is represented by one single Γ− characteristic
in the c − u plane corresponding to state (u0 , c0 ).
Property II
For each single wave travelling to the left, the C − characteristics are lines
72
of constant state. The C − characteristics are straight lines! The proof is
2
simple, du − γ−1 dc = 0 along the C − characteristics. Moreover, because of
2
Property I: du + γ−1 dc = 0, such that du = 0, dc = 0. This implies that in
−
the u − c plane, Γ characteristics reduce to points.
Note
If we consider a single wave travelling to the right, now the C + characteristics
2c 2c0
are lines of constant state. Also u − γ−1 = u0 − γ−1 for all (x, t) and the
+
C characteristics are straight lines in this case.
Note
The indication “to the left” and “to the right” should be seen with regard to
the gas particles. The whole treatment remains valid in case of a supersonic
flow (u > c > 0), in which both the u + c waves and the u − c waves travel
to the right with regard to the laboratory coordinate system.
4.4 Examples of simple waves, expansion waves,

expansion fans, compression waves, origin of
shock waves.
a. Accelerating piston, expansion wave
At first a piston is at rest in a long tube at x = 0. The piston accelerates in

the negative x-direction with trajectory ξ(τ ) until it reaches a final velocity
-V , as is shown in figure 4.4. What is the solution for u(x, t) , c(x, t) and
p(x, t) at x > ξ ?
The piston trajectory is ξ = ξ(τ ). Assume a constant acceleration a < 0.

1
ξ = aτ 2 , up = aτ , 0 < τ < τ0 =, −V /a , (4.12)
2
in which up is the piston velocity. The wave pattern has to be classified as
a C + simple wave, so that
2c 2c0
u− =− ∀x, t . (4.13)
γ−1 γ−1
The state at the piston is now fully known:
γ−1
cpiston = c0 + up , (4.14)
2
and
# $ 2γ
pp cpiston γ−1
= , γ = cp /cv . (4.15)
p0 c0
73
Figure 4.4: Expansion wave caused by a accelerating piston.
Because up decreases, cpiston and pp decrease. Apparently, the wave is an

expansion wave. Also u + c decreases so that the straight C + characteristics
diverge!
We find the complete solution by specifying the trajectory of the straight
C + characteristics:
x − ξ = (u + c)(t − τ ) . (4.16)
Next, we express ξ and τ in terms of u, which is constant along the C + characteristics
and therefore equals up :
u2
ξ= , τ = u/a , (4.17)
2a
and express c in terms of u by using (4.13):
γ−1
c = c0 + u. (4.18)
2
Substitution of (4.17) and (4.18) in (4.16) gives:
# $
u2 γ+1
x− − c0 + u (t − u/a) = 0 , (4.19)
2a 2
a quadratic equation for u that can be solved for arbitrary x, t, i.e. within
the range −V < u < 0. Outside this range, the velocity is either zero or −V .
b. Expansion fan
A special case is found when the piston velocity is changed step-wise from
0 to -V . An expansion fan is formed as shown in figure 4.5.
74
Figure 4.5: An abruptly accelerating piston causes an expansion wave. Dot-
ted line: particle trajectory.
The solution follows from (4.19) by taking the limiting case for a → −∞,
τ0 → 0, such that a − τ0 = −V :
2 %x &
u= − c0 ; −V < u < 0 . (4.20)
γ+1 t
The spatial extent of the expansion fan follows from (4.20) by substitution
of u = 0, respectively −V :
γ+1 x
c0 − V < < c0 . (4.21)
2 t
The value of the piston velocity V is in principle unlimited. The particle
2c0
velocity u however is bounded. From (4.13) it follows that |u| ≤ γ−1 , because
2c0
c ≥ 0. When in this example u = − γ−1 , then c = 0, p = 0, ρ = 0, which
means that a vacuum state is found. Expansion fans are bounded:
2 x
− c0 < < c 0 . (4.22)
γ−1 t
A complete expansion fan is formed by the instationary expansion of a gas

into vacuum. Suppose, gas in a long tube at x > 0 is separated from a
vacuum at x < 0 by a diaphragm. Taking away the diaphragm causes
the situation sketched in figure 4.6. An expansion fan is an example of
a similarity solution, since there is no imposed length or time scale. The
solution must be of the form u/c0 = f (x/c0 t), to which (4.20) clearly applies.
The origin is a singular point. All C + characteristics of the fan come from
the origin and thus satisfy:
dx x
= =u+c . (4.23)
dt t
75
Figure 4.6: Expansion in vacuum; dotted line: particle trajectory.
In this way we directly find (with c = c0 + γ+12 u) solution (4.20).

The particle trajectories have to satisfy the equation of motion. This yields,
with (4.20):
dx 2 x
= u(x, t) = ( − c0 ) . (4.24)
dt γ+1 t
With initial condition: x = x0 , t = x0 /c0 the solution is:
2c0 γ+1 c0 t 2
x=− t+ x0 ( ) γ+1 .
γ−1 γ−1 x0
A particle trajectory is shown in figure 4.6.
c. Accelerating piston, compression wave
We now consider the case of accelerating piston (figure 4.7), which now ac-
celerates from rest into the positive x-direction with a constant acceleration
a > 0 until it attains the final velocity V . The solution is identical to the
solution of case a. However, the straight C + characteristics are not divergent
but convergent, which has important consequences.
Since u increases, also c and u + c increase. The straight C + characteristics
will approach each other so that the compression wave becomes abrupter
and steeper. Finally a shock wave is formed, for which the condition of
isentropy is no longer valid. With solution (4.19) we can estimate where
and when the shock wave is formed. Equation (4.19) is of the form:
F (x, t; u) = 0 (4.25)
and can be considered as an equation describing a straight line with u as a

parameter. Intersection of characteristics will occur when also:
F (x, t; u + du) = 0 (4.26)
76
Figure 4.7: An accelerating piston causes a compression wave.
at the same (x, t). This is equivalent with

∂F
=0. (4.27)
∂u
Applying (4.27) to (4.19) gives the result:
2γ u 2 c0
ts = + . (4.28)
γ+1a γ+1 a
The smallest value of ts is found for u = 0, so for ts and the corresponding
position xs = c0 ts we find:
2 c0 2 c20
ts = ; xs = . (4.29)
γ+1 a γ+1 a
Large accelerations are apparently necessary to obtain a shock wave after
1m (c20 = 105 m2 s−2 , γ = 1, 4, a ≈ 105 ms−2 ).
d. Compression by an abruptly accelerating piston
When we abruptly accelerate a piston from rest to a velocity V , a shock wave

is formed immediately. The solution follows from the conservation laws for
a shock wave, the so called Rankine Hugoniot relations. For a perfect gas,
the velocity u1 (= V , see Appendix A) induced by the shock wave follows
from:
V 2 M2 − 1 us
= , M= .
c0 γ+1 M c0
From this the shock Mach number M can be evaluated. M has to be inter-
preted as the ratio of the relative velocity of the shock wave in the undis-
turbed medium and the speed of sound of the undisturbed medium.
77
Figure 4.8: Abruptly accelerating piston causes a shock wave.
The formation of shock waves caused by “pistons” is a problem that oc-

curs when high velocity trains (like the Shinkansen in Japan or the TGV in
France) are passing tunnels. Especially in Japan this has been a hindering
factor in making the Shinkansen faster.
4.5 Deformation of an arbitrary disturbance. Con-

ditions of shock wave formation in a medium
with arbitrary thermodynamic properties.
Figure 4.9: Deformation of an arbitrary disturbance in a C + simple wave.
We discuss the development of an arbitrary disturbance in a C + simple

wave, as sketched in figure 4.9. Suppose that the velocity u at t = t0 is
described by:
u = F (ξ) for x < ξ0 ; u = 0, c = c0 for x > ξ0 . (4.30)
78
Because it concerns a C + simple wave, c must also satisfy:
γ−1
c = c0 + F (ξ) . (4.31)
2
The equation for the straight C + characteristic again gives the solution of
the problem:
# $
γ+1
x = ξ + (u + c)(t − t0 ) = ξ + c0 + F (ξ) (t − t0 ) . (4.32)
2
From this we can determine ξ and the ξ dependent variables u and c at

arbitrary (x, t). The velocity gradient develops in time according to:
∂u ∂u 8 ∂x F ′ (ξ)
= = γ+1 ′ . (4.33)
∂x ∂ξ ∂ξ 1+ 2 F (ξ)(t − t0 )
With F ′ (ξ) = dF/dξ.

In case F ′ (ξ) < 0 the denominator decreases, the wave becomes steeper. A
shock wave is formed when the denominator becomes zero. In case F ′ (ξ) > 0
the disturbance becomes more gradual. With plane compression waves in
a perfect gas, “steepening” of the wave front always occurs. That is not
the case in cylindrical and spherical symmetry. Then there are two counter-
acting effects: decrease of the amplitude by spatial expansion and the steep-
ening of the front due to non-linearity. For a discussion see Zierep, J.,
Theoretische Gasdynamik, Braun, Karlsruhe, 1976.
Shock wave formation in an arbitrary medium.

We have seen that for a perfect gas, compression waves become steeper and
expansion waves become more gradual. Most non-perfect media show a
similar behaviour, but there are exceptions.
We shall again look at a C + simple wave, now for an arbitrary medium. For
all x, t:
1
du = dΓ = dp . (4.34)
ρc
The velocity of a C + characteristic is u+c. A C + compression front becomes
steeper in case:
d(u + c)
>0, (4.35)
dρ
so that with (4.34) and with dp/dρ = c2 (s = s0 ):
ρ dc
1+ > 0, s = s0 . (4.36)
c dρ
The left hand side is called the fundamental derivative or the non-linearity
coefficient by P.A. Thompson.
79
When (4.36) is not satisfied, expansion waves will become steeper. This can
be seen in gas-vapour mixtures with many internal degrees of freedom, as has
been demonstrated by P.A. Thompson and co-workers. See e.g. S.C. Gulen,
P.A. Thompson, H.J. Cho in “Adiabatic Waves in Liquid-Vapor Systems”,
G. Meier, P.A. Thompson, eds, Springer 1989 or the extensive contribution
of A. Kluwick in the Handbook of Shock Waves (Academic Press, 2001).
4.6 The shock tube

A versatile research tool with applications in physics, chemistry, aerodynam-
ics, mechanical engineering, etc. is the shock tube. Well defined shock waves
can be generated in a shock tube. In the simplest design, a shock tube is a
long tube consisting of two compartments, separated by a diaphragm. At
one side, x > 0 in figure 4.10, the tube is filled with the test gas. The other
Figure 4.10: Time-space diagram of a shock tube and a snapshot of pressure,

velocity and temperature in the tube.
side is filled with the driver gas with a pressure p4 higher than the pressure
p1 in the test gas. The diaphragm is removed at t = 0 and the driver gas
expands due to which the test gas endures shock compression. The wave
80
phenomena are shown in the x − t plane of figure 4.10. We recognize the
expansion fan in the driver gas and the shock wave in the test gas. Both
gases are separated by a contact plane over which velocities and pressures
must be continuous. In the x − t plane we distinguish several uniform re-
gions: the initial states of the test gas (1) and the driver gas (4), the test
gas, compressed and accelerated by the shock wave (2) and the expanded
driver gas (3). The transition (4) → (3) passes a simple expansion wave and
is isentropic:
γ4 − 1
c3 = c4 − u3 , (4.37)
2
p3 c3 2γ4
= ( ) γ4 −1 (s3 = s4 ) . (4.38)
p4 c4
The transition (3) → (2), a contact plane, is characterized by:
u3 = u2 ; p3 = p2 . (4.39)
The transition (1) → (2) is a shock transition. Therefore, applying the shock
relations of a perfect gas yields:
2 M2 − 1
u2 = c1 , (4.40)
γ1 + 1 M
p2 2γ1 γ1 − 1
= M2 − , (4.41)
p1 γ1 + 1 γ1 + 1
with M : shock Mach number (M = Us /c1 ).
Equations (4.37) to (4.41) can be combined to:
p4 p4 p2 γ4 − 1 c1 M 2 − 1 −2γ 4 2γ1 γ1 − 1
= = {1 − } γ4 −1 { M2 − }. (4.42)
p1 p3 p1 γ1 + 1 c 4 M γ1 + 1 γ1 + 1
So, this provides us the relation between the pressure ratio over the di-
aphragm p4 /p1 and the shock Mach number for an arbitrary combination of
perfect gases. The maximum shock Mach number is attained for p4 /p1 → ∞;
this corresponds to:
γ4 − 1 c 1 M 2 − 1 γ 1 + 1 c4
1− → 0 , Mmax ≈ . (4.43)
γ1 + 1 c 4 M γ 4 − 1 c1
The combination air/air leads to Mmax ∼ 6.2. The combination H2 as
driver gas and Ar as test gas is very effective: Mmax ≈ 27. For a perfect gas
this would yield a temperature jump (absolute temperature) of a factor 228!
In reality this cannot be realized, but the example gives an impression of
the large temperature (and pressure) ranges attainable by means of a shock
tube.
Light driver gases with many internal degrees of freedom have a large maxi-
mum expansion velocity Vmax = 2c0 /(γ −1), and therefore are very effective.
81
Sometimes the driver gas is heated in order to produce stronger shock waves,
since c ∼ T 1/2 . This can be done by burning a mixture of hydrogen and
oxygen, possibly diluted with helium in the so called “combustion-driven
shock tube”.
Shock reflection
The shock will reflect at the end wall of a closed shock tube. A stagnant
gas of relative high temperature and pressure appears: region (5) in figure
4.10. We have to use the Rankine Hugoniot relations of a shock wave to
determine p5 and T5 . We restrict ourselves to a perfect gas. In that case
the shock relations are completely symmetrical. We will use this property.
Figure 4.11: Shock reflection.
Assume velocity u and pressure p in front of the shock wave. The velocity
and pressure behind the shock wave are û and p̂; the speed of sound before
and after shock wave passage are c and ĉ. The velocity jump is described
by (see Appendix A):
# $
u − û 2 1 u − Us
= M− ; M= (4.44)
c γ+1 M c
and because of the symmetry it must also satisfy:

# $
û − u 2 1 û − Us
= M̂ − ; M̂ = (4.45)
ĉ γ+1 M̂ c
in which Us is the shock velocity. All velocities have been defined here with
respect to the same coordinate system. We shall now apply (4.45) to the
transition (1) → (2) and use the notation M+ = (u2 − Us )/c2 :
# $
u2 2 1
= M+ − ,
c2 γ+1 M+
u2 −Ur
and we apply (4.44) to transition (2) → (5) with notation M− = c2 .
82
With Ur < 0 this gives:
# $
u2 2 1
= M− − .
c2 γ+1 M−
It follows that M+ = − M1− .

For the determination of the pressure we will use (see Appendix A):
p̂ 2γ γ−1
= M2 − ; (4.46)
p γ+1 γ+1
Because of symmetry the following relation must also hold:
p 2γ γ−1
= M̂ 2 − . (4.47)
p̂ γ+1 γ+1
Applying (4.47) to transition (1) → (2) gives:

p1 2γ γ−1
= M+2 − ,
p2 γ+1 γ+1
and (4.46) to transition (2) → (5):

p5 2γ γ−1
= M−2 − .
p2 γ+1 γ+1
With M+ = − M1− it follows:
p5 − p1 1 + γ−1
γ+1
= 1 + p1 γ−1 . (4.48)
p2 − p1 p2 + γ+1
p5 −p1
For weak shocks p1 ≃ p2 : p2 −p1 = 2, the acoustic result. For strong shocks
p5 −p1 γ+1
p1 /p2 → 0 and we find p2 −p1 = 2 + γ−1 . For air (γ =1, 4) the pressure
jump at the end wall of the tube is at most 8 times the pressure jump over
the first shock wave! For the temperature we can deduce:
9 γ+1 p5 :
T5 p5 γ−1 + p2
= . (4.49)
T2 p2 1 + γ+1 p5
γ−1 p2
Example:
γ = 1, 4 , M = 10 , P2 /p1 = 117 , T2 /T1 = 20, 7 , p5 /p1 = 878 , T5 /T1 = 46 .
83
4.7 Shock tube applications
With a shock tube, an almost ideal and known step-wise change in the state
of a gas can be realized. The state jump satisfies elementary conservation
laws such that a simple measurement of the shock velocity at known initial
conditions is sufficient to calculate the velocity, temperature, pressure, den-
sity of the gas behind the shock.
A large range of temperatures and pressures can be realized with a shock
tube. Shock tubes are applied for studying properties of gases and plasma’s
from cryogenic temperatures up to temperatures of 3 104 K. When focusing
the shock waves, even much higher temperatures and pressures can be ob-
tained.
We will give some examples of fields of application:
a. Physics and chemistry.

One takes argon as carrying gas and adds some traces of a test gas. Tem-
perature and pressure are only prescribed by the argon. The gas mixture
is brought in state of known T and p by shock wave passages. Usually one
chooses the reflected shock region (5) in figure 4.10 as observation point be-
cause the gas there is stagnant again. With spectroscopic methods, vibration
and dissociation relaxation processes, chemical reactions, combustion, etc.
can be analyzed. At TUE, shock tubes are used to study combustion and
gasification by coal and biomass particles and to determine birth rates (nu-
cleation rates) and growth rates of droplets in a large rates of temperatures
and pressures. (K.N.H. Looijmans, M.E.H. van Dongen. A pulse-expansion
wave tube for nucleation studies at high pressures. Exp. Fluids, 23 (1997)
54-63).
b. Aerodynamics/hydrodynamics.
The shock tube can be used as a wind tunnel because the shock wave also
causes a velocity jump in the gas. The flow Mach number with respect to the
laboratory frame is dependent on the shock Mach number as shown in figure
4.12 (Appendix A). The maximum Mach number is 1.8 for air (γ = 1, 4).
The shock tube is especially useful as a transonic wind tunnel. Because in
principle high pressures can be applied, also high Reynolds numbers can be
realized.
A so called shock tunnel is obtained by connecting a shock tube to a vacuum
vessel through a Laval nozzle, as sketched in figure 4.13.
After a shock reflection at the side of the Laval nozzle a high enthalpy stag-
nation area is formed which feeds the Laval nozzle, the supersonic wind
tunnel. With a normal shock tube, the stagnation enthalpy is insufficiently
high to simulate the conditions of spacecrafts re-entering the atmosphere.
To realize this anyway, the “free-piston shock tunnel”is used, also called
the “Stalker-tunnel”, named after the inventor R.J. Stalker, AIAA J, 5, 12,
84
Figure 4.12: Relation between shock Mach number and the flow Mach number
induced by the shock wave, γ = 1.4.
Figure 4.13: Shock tunnel. HD: high pressure section, D1,2 : diaphragms,
LD: low pressure section, V : vacuum vessel, L: Laval nozzle.
85
2160-2165, 1967. An impressive shock tunnel is used by DLR in Göttingen
to study the high enthalphy flows associated with the re-entry of space ve-
hicles in the tunnel.
Figure 4.14: Principle of the “free-piston shock tunnel”, R.J. Stalker, AIAA
J, 5, 12, 2160-2165, 1967.
The driver gas, mostly helium or hydrogen is heated by use of a piston which
is driven by compressed air. The driver gas has both high temperature and
pressure and is able to cause strong shock waves.
Shock tubes are of course used to study the consequences of shock wave
interactions with obstacles. In the Netherlands this is done at the Prins
Maurits Laboratory, TNO, Rijswijk. The laboratory also has a so called
“blast-wave simulator”, with which the consequences of an explosion can be
studied.
The step-wise velocity jump, induced by a shock wave gives excellent op-
portunities to study the time dependent flow resistance of small spheres,
accelerated by this shock induced flow. Shock tubes are used to study prop-
erties of dusty gases, of water bubble mixtures, of cavitating bubbles. A
good insight in the diversity of shock tube applications is given by the pro-
ceedings of the bi-annual Shock Wave Symposia. See for example:
Ball, G.J., Hillier, R., Roberts, G.T., Shock Waves, Proceedings of the 22th
International Symposium on Shock Waves, Imperial College, London, 1999,
86
or the journal “Shock Waves”. Also the Handbook of Shock Waves (Aca-
demic Press, 2001, three volumes) offers aan extensive overview of the rich
variety of shock wave applications, and so does the Shock Wave Science and
Technology Reference Library (2007).
4.8 Some elementary wave interactions

a. Reflection expansion fan
Figure 4.15: x − t diagram of a reflection of the expansion fan at a wall.
The reflection of an expansion fan at a fixed wall is characterized by the

interaction of incoming and reflecting waves. The problem can be solved
analytically by means of a hodograph transformation, i.e. x and t are con-
sidered as the dependent variables and u and c (in fact the Riemann invari-
ants) as the independent parameters. We define the Riemann invariants α
and β:
2c ∂x ∂t
C + , Γ+ : u + =β ; = (u + c) (4.50)
γ−1 ∂α ∂α
2c ∂x ∂t
C − , Γ− : u− = −α : = (u − c) . (4.51)
γ−1 ∂β ∂β
Along a C + characteristic β is constant and α varies. Along a C + characteristic
α is constant and β varies. The characteristic velocities (u + c) and (u − c)
are expressed in terms of α and β such that the equations become:
# $
∂x γ−3 γ+1 ∂t
= α+ β , (4.52)
∂α 4 4 ∂α
# $
∂x γ+1 γ−3 ∂t
= − α− β . (4.53)
∂β 4 4 ∂β
87
The boundary characteristic I (see Fig.) applies to (4.52) and is just part of
2c0
the expansion fan such that, with β0 = γ−1 :
# $
γ+1 γ−3
x = (u − c)t = − α− β0 t . (4.54)
4 4
Combining (4.52) and (4.54) gives after elimination of x and with β = β0 :
∂t γ+1 t
+ =0. (4.55)
∂α 2(γ − 1) α + β0
2c0
The solution must satisfy: t = t0 = L/c0 , α = α0 = γ−1 and is:
# $ 1 γ+1
β0 + α 0 2 γ−1
t(α, β0 ) = t0 . (4.56)
β0 + α
The corresponding x(α, β0 ) follows from (4.54).

Next, (4.52) and (4.53) are differentiated with respect to β and α, respec-
tively, and combined:
# $
∂2t γ−1 1 ∂t ∂t
+ + =0. (4.57)
∂α∂β 2(γ − 1) α + β ∂α ∂β
The solution must satisfy (4.56) and is given by Shaw (Courant and Friedrichs,
p. 196):
# $ # $
α0 + β0 λ α0 β0 + αβ
t(α, β) = t0 Pλ−1 ;
α+β αβ0 + βα0
γ+1
Pλ : Légendre polynomials; λ = 2(γ−1)
For γ = 1, 4, λ = 3 ; P2 (x) = 12 (3x2 − 1).
b. Shock wave - shock wave interaction
Figure 4.16: Interaction of shock waves; representation in a p − u diagram.
88
A second shock will always overtake a first shock in the same direction.
So, shock B in figure 4.16 will travel faster than shock A. This is because
state (2) is subsonic with respect to shock (a) and supersonic with respect
to shock B. Thus uA − u2 ≤ c2 and uB − u2 ≥ c2 such that uB ≥ uA .
A new shock will be generated: shock E. A contact discontinuity D and
an expansion fan C will leave from the interaction point. The entropy in
(4) is influenced by two shock compressions, the entropy in (5) just by one
shock compression. Because of the non-linear relation between the entropy
jump and the shock strength: s4 ̸= s5 . This explains the formation of a
contact discontinuity separating two gaseous states with the same pressure,
but different entropy, temperature and density. That an expansion wave
must be generated follows from a representation of the different states in
a p − u diagram. The shock polar A, E in such a p − u plane is found by
eliminating the Mach number from the shock relations (Appendix A) for p̂
and û. This shock polar gives all possible states that can be attained from
state (1) by means of a shock wave transition. From state (2) a new shock
polar can be drawn. The gas arrives then in state (3). From here the gas
has to expand in order to arrive again at the first shock polar A, E. This is
only possible by means of an expansion wave C.
4.9 Traffic waves

Disturbances in the traffic density on a freeway propagate backwards with
a wave speed which is dependent on the vehicle density. The propagation
of such disturbances appears to have strong similarities with the non-linear
waves of gas dynamics. The dynamics, the force equilibrium, is now of no
importance. We denote these waves therefore as kinematic waves which are
completely defined by the relation between flux q, the number of vehicles
passing a certain point per second, and the traffic density ρ, the number of
vehicles per unit of length. The analogy is first formulated by Lighthill and
Whitham, see: G.B. Whitham, Linear and Non-linear Waves, Wiley 1974.
The relation between flux q and density ρ will be shaped as sketched in
figure 4.58. At maximum density ρj (with index j of “traffic jam”), the
flux is obviously zero. When the density is zero the same holds for the flux.
In between, the function q will have a maximum qm at a certain optimum
density ρm . Of course the velocity V is related to q and ρ:
q = ρV . (4.58)
In figure 4.17, V equals tan α.
The conservation law relating q and ρ is of course the conservation of number
of vehicles, in which we will neglect the effects of freeway accesses and exits
(so there are no source terms):
∂ρ ∂q
+ =0. (4.59)
∂t ∂x
89
Figure 4.17: Relation between flux q and density ρ at a freeway.
Because q = q(ρ) it immediately follows:

∂ρ dq ∂ρ
+ =0. (4.60)
∂t dρ ∂x
thus: # $
∂ ∂
+ c(ρ) ρ=0 (4.61)
∂t ∂x
with for the characteristic velocity c(ρ):
dq dV
c(ρ) = =V +ρ (4.62)
dρ dρ
and for the Riemann invariants:
dρ = 0 . (4.63)
All characteristics are straight lines! We have to expect the generation of
“shock waves”.
Note that c(ρ) in figure 4.17 is connected to the tangent of the q(ρ) curve:
c(ρ) = tan β . (4.64)
The q(ρ) curve of figure 4.17 always satisfies c(ρ) < V , in other words traffic
waves propagate always backwards.
Model for q(ρ)
Suppose L is the length of a vehicle and δ = V 2 /2a is the braking distance,

then we find a simple model for q(ρ) by assuming the following relation be-
tween the density ρ and the velocity V :
1 2a
ρ= = 2 . (4.65)
δ+L V + 2aL
90
This results in:
# # $$1/2
1 1
V = 2a −L and q = ρV = {2aρ(1−Lρ)}1/2 , ρm = . (4.66)
ρ 2L
Assume a = 7m/s2 , L = 5m. This gives Vm = (2aL)1/2 ∼ 8, 5m/s.
Expansion fan at a traffic light
Assume that a queue of cars is waiting in front of a traffic light which at

t = 0 turns green. An expansion fan comparable to an expansion fan in
vacuum (treated in §1.8) will appear. The front of the fan is bounded by
ρ = 0, corresponding to the maximum velocity Vmax (tangent through the
origin of figure 4.17). The wave velocity c equals V . The other end of the
expansion fan is bounded by the characteristic x/t = cj , corresponding to
the wave velocity at maximum density ρj . The formal solution of the prob-
lem is: c = dq/dρ = x/t, with (dq/dρ)j < xt < (dq/dρ)0 . Note that the flux
attains its maximum at the traffic light since there: x/t = dq/dρ = 0, in
other words, q = qm !
Shock waves
A convergent cluster of straight characteristics must eventually form a shock

wave. As an example, we shall trace the development of the density distur-
bance of figure 4.19 in time:
Figure 4.18: Response of a long queue of waiting vehicles to the turning

green of a traffic light; x − t diagram.
The shock wave conservation law for a road is simple and follows immediately
from the integral mass conservation law.
Suppose the velocity and density ρ, V jump to the values ρ̂, V̂ by a shock
with velocity Vs . Mass conservation demands:
ρ(Vs − V ) = ρ̂(Vs − V̂ ) , (4.67)
91
Figure 4.19: Development of a density disturbance into a shock wave.
Figure 4.20: Shock wave in traffic flow.
such that:
q̂ − q
Vs = . (4.68)
ρ̂ − ρ
This corresponds with the connecting line AB in figure 4.20. Remember
again that q̂ and ρ̂ are not independent and that the expression above in
fact gives the relation between Vs and ρ̂ for given ρ.
Traffic light application
We treat again a traffic light which alternately turns green and red. We
denote the ‘green’ and ‘red’ times with tg and tr . A suddenly red turning
traffic light causes a shock wave with velocity:
−q
Vs = . (4.69)
ρj − ρ
The density jumps from ρ to ρj over the shock.
A good functioning traffic light must satisfy:
q(tr + tg ) < tg qm ,
92
Figure 4.21: Traffic wave at a traffic light. Drawn are “particle trajectories’,
shock waves - - - , and the characteristics of the expansion fan.
Figure 4.22: Space-time diagram of an overburden traffic light. S: shock

wave, D: trajectory of a car.
93
so that:
tr q
tg ≥ ,
qm − q
in which it is used again that at the traffic light the relation q = qm holds.
If this condition is not satisfied the following picture will appear: (see figure
4.22)
See also: S.A. Smulders, Control of freeway traffic flow, Proefschrift UT,
1989.
94
4.10 Questions
1. Starting from the equations of Euler:
1 Dρ
= −∇ · ⃗v
ρ Dt
D⃗v
ρ = −∇p
Dt
Ds
=0
Dt
Write these equations for a one-dimensional unsteady flow. Which are
the conditions of validity of these equations?
2. How many parameters are needed to determine the flow in a point

within a one-dimensional unsteady flow (of a single phase of a fluid)?
3. Show that the Euler equations for a one-dimensional unsteady fric-

tionless flow can be written in the characteristic form:
# $
∂ ∂
±u (u ± Γ) = 0
∂t ∂x
Specify the parameter Γ as a function of other flow parameters. Which
equation(s) should be added to this to obtain a closed set of equations?
4. What is the definition of C + characteristics? What is the definition of

C − characteristics? Which quantities are preserved along respectively
C + and C − characteristics?
5. Can a C + characteristic have a negative slope dx/dt < 0? In other

words can a C + travel to the left or does it always travel to the right?
If so, can this physically be realized?
6. In figure 4.23 we show a sketch in an (x, t) diagram of the compression

waves C + in front of an acceleration piston. Why is this sketch wrong
(impossible to realize physically)?
7. What is the definition of a particle path in a (x, t) diagram?
8. What is the definition of a uniform region in an (x, t) diagram? What

is particular for the characteristics in a uniform region?
9. What is the definition of a simple wave? What is a specific property

of the characteristics in a simple wave?
10. What is a self-similar solution of the wave equation? What are the
conditions for the occurrence of such a solution? Give two examples
of simple waves for one-dimensional unsteady frictionless flows?
95
Figure 4.23: A physically impossible to realize (x, t) diagram.
11. Consider small perturbations (p′ , c′ , u′ ) of a uniform state (p0 , c0 , u0 ).

What is the condition to allow linearization of the one-dimensional
equation of motion? In other words, to what should we compare the
perturbations in order to judge whether they are small? Provide the
linearized equations of motion in characteristic form. Specify Γ′ , the
perturbation in Γ. What kind of curves correspond to C ± character-
istics in the (x, t) diagram?
12. Show that for a perfect gas:

2c
Γ=
γ−1
13. Show that for γ = 3 the characteristics C ± are straight lines in a (x, t)
diagram.
14. When two characteristics C + and C − meet in a point of the (x, t)

diagram, this provides 2 equations in order to determine the three
parameters determining the state of the flow at this point (see exercise
4.2). What is the third equation which can be used in order to close
the system of equations?
15. Can two characteristics of the same family (either C + or C − ) intersect

in a point of the (x, t)? What would be the consequence of such an
intersection?
16. What is the maximum velocity a perfect gas (with γ = 5/3) can
reach when starting from a uniform stagnant state (p0 , c0 , u0 = 0) in a
one dimensional unsteady frictionless expansion? Compare this to the
maximum velocity that can be reached in a quasi-steady frictionless
expansion. Which of the two velocities is largest?
17. Consider a uniform frictionless flow (p0 , c0 , u0 ) along an infinitely long

pipe. At t = 0 we abruptly close a valve at x = 0. Assume that the
perturbations are small, so that a linear theory can be used.
96
(a) The fluid state a the left side of the valve x = −ϵ is determined
by a boundary condition at the valve and by the message carried by a
family of characteristics. Which characteristics are doing the job? (b)
What is the message carried by these characteristics to the wall of the
valve? (c) What is the boundary condition, which prevails for t > 0
at x = −ϵ? (d) Calculate the magnitude of the perturbations p′ and
u′ for t > 0 at x = −ϵ. (e) Same questions for the other side of the
valve. (f) Make a drawing of the waves in an (x, t) diagram. Indicate
in the diagram the uniform regions. (g) Make a sketch of the pressure
perturbation p′ as a function of x for a given time t > 0. Specify
the position of the front of the waves and their amplitudes. Consider
a water flow with p0 = 1 bar, ρ0 = 1000 kg/m3 , c0 = 1500 m/s and
u0 = 1 m/s. Determine p′ and u′ on both sides of the valve. Determine
the force acting on the valve for t > 0 when the pipe has a cross section
of A = 10−2 m2 . Is a linear approximation accurate?
18. Consider a semi-infinite pipe x < 0 bounded at x = 0 by a porous wall.

The fluid in the pipe is uniform (p0 , c0 ) and stagnant u0 = 0 for t < 0.
For t > 0 a pressure p(0, t) = p1 < p0 is imposed at x = 0. Make a
sketch of the waves in an (x, t) diagram. Calculate the flow in the case
that (p0 −p1 )/p0 << 1 by means of a linear approximation. Repeat the
exercises for a perfect gas γ = 7/5 in case of a large pressure difference
(p0 − p1 ) for which linearization is not possible. Discuss the particular
case when (p0 − p1 ) is independent of time (constant pressure p1 ).
19. Consider a semi infinite pipe separated in two with a diaphragm at x =

0. At one side x > 0 we have a perfect gas γ = 5/3, which is stagnant
and uniform (p0 , c0 , u0 = 0). On the other side we have a vacuum.
At t = 0 we abruptly remove the diaphragm. Argue that the flow for
t > 0 is self similar. Make a qualitative sketch of the wave diagram
in the (x, t) plane. Determine the uniform regions. Determine the
simple wave regions. Determine the complex wave region. Calculate
the pressure profile as function of x at an arbitrary time t > 0.
20. In figure 4.24 we see the pressure measured in the mouth-piece of

a trombone played at fortissimo level. Consider the trombone as a
straight pipe of uniform cross-section of 3m length. Neglecting friction
and heat transfer show that a shock wave is predicted at a time:
/ 0 ⎡ ⎤
u+c u+c
ts = ∂(u+c) = ⎣ (γ+1) ∂p ⎦ .
c
∂t min 2γ p ∂t min
97
Figure 4.24: Pressures measured within the mouthpiece of a trombone at
piano (p), mezzo forte (mf ) and fortissimo (ff ) level.
and the shock formation distance is:

⎡ ⎤
(u + c) 2 c0
xs = ⎣ (γ+1) ∂p ⎦ ≃ ? @ .
c (γ+1) 1 ∂p
2γ p ∂t min 2γ p ∂t max
Specify and justify the approximations used in this derivation (hint:

we assume a simple wave). Do you expect a shock to be formed in the
trombone? Explain.
21. The tunnel entrance for high speed trains M = 0.3 is a long converg-
ing tube (see figure 4.25). In some cases the walls of the horn are
perforated. Why is this useful?
22. Consider a semi-infinite pipe x < 0 of cross-section A bounded at

x = 0 by a converging nozzle with throat Ak . This corresponds for
steady flow to a Mach number M0 . The throat of the nozzle is closed
for t < 0 by a diaphragm. The pipe is filled with a uniform stagnant
perfect gas (p0 , c0 , u0 = 0) and γ = 7/5. At t = 0 the diaphram is
removed, connecting the nozzle to a large vacuum reservoir. Make a
qualitative sketch of the expected wave diagram in the (x, t) plane.
Calculate the pressure as function of x for an arbitrary time t > 0.
23. Consider a uniform frictionless flow (p0 , c0 , u0 ) of a perfect gas γ = 7/5

along an infinitely long pipe. At t = 0 we abruptly close a valve at
x = 0. Argue that the solution is self-similar. Which type of self-
similar solution do you expect at the right side of the valve x = ϵ > 0?
The fluid state a the right side of the valve x = ϵ is determined by
98
Figure 4.25: Entrance (right) and exit (left) of a tunnel for high speed trains
M = 0.3.
the message carried by characteristics and by a boundary condition at

the valve. Which family characteristics are doing this job (see exercise
17)? What is the message carried by these characteristics to the wall
of the valve on the right side x = ϵ? What is the boundary condition,
which prevails for t > 0 at x = ϵ? Calculate the pressure p and
velocity u for t > 0 at x = ϵ. Make a qualitative drawing of the waves
in an (x, t) diagram. Indicate in the (x, t) diagram the uniform regions
that you expect. Explain why is it not possible to use the method of
characteristics to determine the state of the gas for t > 0 at the left
side of the valve? Which type of wave solution do you expect there?
Make a sketch of the pressure perturbation p as a function of x for a
given time t > 0. Specify the position of the front of the waves and
their amplitudes. Hint: In a reference frame moving with the shock
we have the shock relations:
p̂ 2γ
−1= (M 2 − 1)
p γ+1
and:
ρ 2 (1 − M 2 )
−1= .
ρ̂ γ + 1 M2
24. Consider the perturbation of a uniform water flow (p0 , c0 , u0 ) at time
t = 0 in an infinitely long pipe:
p′ = ∆p for |x| < L
99
p′ = 0 for |x| ≥ L.
Furthermore we have u′ = 0 and s′ = 0. Assume that the perturbation
is so small that a linear approximation can be used in order to deter-
mine the wave pattern for t > 0. Make a sketch of the (x, t) diagram
that you expect. Indicate in this diagram the uniform regions, the
simple wave regions and the complex wave regions. Calculate the flow
p′ and u′ in each region and specify the boundaries of the regions.
25. Consider a pipe of length 2L and cross section A that is divided in two
equally long sections by a fixed piston of mass m at x = 0. The section
left (x < 0) is filled at pressure p0 with a perfect gas γ = 3 with the
speed of sound c0 . The section right (x > 0) is filled with the same
gas at pressure p = p0 /2 with speed of sound c0 . At t = 0 the piston
is released. Assuming a frictionless movement of the piston, write the
equation of motion for the piston in terms of the pressures on each
sides. Derive an expression for the pressures on each side of the piston
before waves reflecting from the end walls reach the piston. Assume
that L is much shorter than the shock wave formation distance xs .
Show that for short times we have:
m du p0 u
= [1 − 9 ].
A dt 2 c0
Estimate the shock formation length xs . Make a sketch of the wave
pattern before the reflections from the walls reach the piston.
26. Consider a quasi-one dimensional shallow water flow ⃗v = (u(x, t), 0, 0)

of height h(x, t) under influence of gravity ⃗g = (0, 0, −g). Show that
the mass conservation law can be written as:
∂h ∂hu
+ = 0.
∂t ∂x
Specify the assumptions made to derive this equation. Show that the
momentum equations reduce under these circumstances to:
∂p
= −ρg
∂z
and: 1 2
∂u ∂u ∂h
+u = −g .
∂t ∂x ∂x
Specify the assumptions made. Write these equations in characteristic
form. How many parameters determine the flow in a point (x, t)?
Write a closed set of equations describing the flow. Determine Γ and
the wave velocity c as a function of the parameters of the flow.
100
27. Consider a reservoir with stagnant water height h0 for x > 0. The
water level is h = 0 for x < 0 for t < 0. The dam suddenly collapses
at t = 0. Using a shallow water approximation calculate h(x, t) and
u(x, t) for t > 0.
4.11 Answers
1.
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂u
+u +ρ =0
∂t ∂x ∂x
1 2
∂u ∂u ∂p
ρ +u + =0
∂t ∂x ∂x
∂s ∂s
+u =0
∂t ∂x
These equations are valid for a one dimensional unsteady frictionless
isentropic flow.
2. In order to determine the flow in a point of the (x, t) plane we need

to specify two thermodynamic intrinsic state variables (such as p, ρ,
c, s...) and one dynamical variable (such as u, M ...).
3. As the entropy is conserved for a given fluid particle:

∂s ∂s
+u =0
∂t ∂x
We can use the equation of state in differential form:
# $
∂p ∂p 2 ∂ρ ∂ρ
+u =c +u
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂x
where we used the definition of speed of sound c2 = (∂p/∂ρ)s . Substi-

tution in the mass conservation equation yields:
# $
1 ∂p ∂p ∂u
2
+u +ρ =0
c ∂t ∂x ∂x
which can be rewritten as:

# $
1 ∂p ∂p ∂u
+u +c = 0.
ρc ∂t ∂x ∂x
The momentum equation can be written as:

1 2
∂u ∂u c ∂p
+u + = 0.
∂t ∂x ρc ∂x
101
Addition and substraction of the mass and momentum equation yields:
1 2 1 2
∂u ∂u ∂u 1 ∂p ∂p ∂p
+u ±c ± +u ±c =0
∂t ∂x ∂x ρc ∂t ∂x ∂x
or: 1 2 1 2
∂u ∂u 1 ∂p ∂p
+ (u ± c) ± + (u ± c) = 0.
∂t ∂x ρc ∂t ∂x
As by definition: "
dp dp
=d
ρc ρc
we can write this equation in the form:
1 2 1 2
∂u ∂u ∂Γ ∂Γ
+ (u ± c) ± + (u ± c) = 0.
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂x
or: 1 2
∂(u ± Γ) ∂(u ± Γ)
+ (u ± c) = 0.
∂t ∂x
with: "
dp
Γ= .
ρc
4. The C + characteristics are lines in the (x, t) diagram determined by

the differential equation:
dx
= u + c.
dt
The C − characteristics are lines in the (x, t) diagram determined by
the differential equation:
dx
= u − c.
dt
Physically they correspond to the path of acoustic perturbations in the
(x, t) diagram. Mathematically they correspond to lines across which
the flow solution can display a discontinuity in the derivatives, imply-
ing that the solution cannot be extrapolated without use of additional
information. The quantity (u + Γ) is conserved along a C + as we move
towards increasing times. The quantity (u − Γ) is conserved along a
C − as we move towards increasing times.
5. A C + characteristic has the slope dx/dt = u + c which obviously can

be negative if u < 0 and u/c < −1. This is the case if the flow is
supersonic and directed in the negative x-direction. (See figure 4.26).
102
Figure 4.26: C + characteristic with a negative slope due to supersonic flow
in negative x-direction.
6. The path of the piston travels back in the time, which is impossible.
Also some of the C + travel back in the time providing information
form the future to the present. Please note that if the piston travels
back in time there will be two simultaneous positions (x) for a given
time (t).
7. A particle path is the line in the (x, t) plane described by the differ-
ential equation dx/dt = u.
8. The flow parameters (p, c, u) are uniform in the region. This implies
that the characteristics are straight lines because the slopes dx/dt =
(u + c) and dx/dt = u − c are constant. A constant slope corresponds
to a straight line. (See figure 4.27)
Figure 4.27: A uniform region in (x, t) plane has straight characteristics.
103
9. A simple wave is a region that is reached by waves emanating from a
uniform region. As a consequence the other family of characteristics
are straight lines. See figure 4.28 Demonstration: Let us assume that
Figure 4.28: Simple region with straight C + characteristics as a consequence

of message carried by C − characteristics from a uniform region.
the C − are coming from a uniform region carrying the message u −

Γ = u0 − Γ0 determined by the state in the uniform region. Along a
particular C − the parameter u − Γ = K, which is a constant specific
for that particular line. This provides a set of two equations from,
which u and Γ can be solved. We find: u = 12 [u0 − Γ + K] and
Γ = 12 [u0 − Γ0 − K]. We see that both u and Γ are constants along
the C − characteristics. !As the entropy of the flow is conserved along a
particle path and Γ = dp/(ρc) is a second intrinsic thermodynamic
quantity which is constant, we conclude that the thermodynamic state
is constant along the particular C + characteristics considered. This
implies that c, which is a state variable is constant. Hence u + c is
constant and the C + characteristics are straight lines. Note that the
C − characteristics emanating from the uniform region are in general
not straight lines.
10. When there are no independent time nor length scales in a flow the
solution should depend on a dimensionless combination of parameters
involving both time t and space coordinate x. In one dimensional fric-
tionless isentropic flows the only dimensionless combination we can
obtain is x/(c0 t) where c0 is a characteristic speed of sound. Such a
self-similar solution is generated when a uniform region is abruptly
perturbed. There are three types of waves generated by such pertu-
bations (see figure 4.29):
-the expansion fan
-the shock wave
-the contact discontinuity.
104
The expansion fan is a simple wave with (straight) characteristics
Figure 4.29: Self-similar solutions of the 1-D wave problem. Two pressure
waves (shock wave or expansion fan) and a contact discontinuity are formed.
emanating from a point in the (x, t) diagram. The self similar shock
is due to a sudden compression and should have a constant velocity
(straight line in the (x, t) diagram). The contact line is a particle path
separating two regions of fluids which can have different entropies. It
is again a straight line when we consider a self similar solution. In the
Rieman problem two uniform states (p1 , c1 , u1 ) and (p2 , c2 , u2 ) prevail
each at one side of a contact line at t = 0. Three waves are emanating
from this contact point. In general this will be two pressure waves and
a contact discontinuity.
11. Linearization is allowed when u′ /c0 << 1 and p′ /(ρ0 c20 ) << 1. In
linear approximation we have:
# $
∂ ∂
+ (u0 ± c0 ) (u′ ± Γ′ ) = 0
∂t ∂x
By definition:
dp
dΓ =
ρc
hence for small perturbations of a uniform region:
p′
Γ′ =
ρ0 c 0
In linear approximation, the C ± lines are straight lines with slopes

(u0 ± c0 ) in the (x, t) plane.
12. We have: " "

dp c2 dρ
Γ= =
ρc ρc
105
where we assume dp = c2 dρ because the flow is isentropic.
Furthermore we have for an isentropic flow of an ideal gas with dp =
(γp/ρ)dρ and c2 = γRT :
1 2 1 2
dρ 1 dp 1 dρ dT 1 dρ dc
= = + = +2
ρ γ p γ ρ T γ ρ c
This yields:
γ − 1 dρ dc
= .
2 ρ c
So that: "
2dc
Γ= .
γ−1
As for a perfect gas γ is constant we find:
2c
Γ=
γ−1
13. As we have Γ = 2 c/(γ − 1), for a perfect gas with γ = 3 we have

Γ = c. So along a C ± characteristic u ± Γ = u ± c is constant (by
definition of the characteristics). Hence the slope of the characteristics
dx/dt = u ± c is constant along each characteristic. They are straight
lines in the (x, t) plane.
14. The equation for the entropy is given by:

∂s ∂s
+u = 0.
∂t ∂x
Stating that the entropy is constant along a particle path provides the
third “message” determining the flow in the point (x, t) together with
the information provided by the C + and C − characteristics that meet
there. At a wall one characteristics is not available (it cannot emerge
from of the wall). An additional information should be provided in
the form of a boundary condition.
15. When characteristics of the same family intersect in a point of the

(x, t) plane, we have a multiple-valued solution. For surface waves on
a shallow water flow this is possible. We can have three levels at which
there is water-air contact. In a gas, a multiple-valued solution would
imply several values of the pressure in a point (x, t). This is impossible.
Hence when characteristics of the same family intersect we expect
a shock wave to be formed. This is a discontinuous solution. The
continuous solution obtained by integrating the differential equations
is not valid any more. As a strong shock involves dissipation, the
assumption of isentropic flow does not hold.
106
2c 2c0
16. Along a C + characteristic we have u + γ−1 = u0 + γ−1 . Expanding
2 c0
to vacuum if u0 = 0 we find c = 0 so that umax = γ−1 = 3 c0 for
an unsteady expansion. For a steady frictionless
√ expansion
. we have
u2
from Bernoulli h + 2 = h0 so that umax = 2 h0 = 2 cp T0 =
. √ √
c0 2/(γ − 1) = c0 3. This is a factor 3 lower than the maximum
velocity achievable in an unsteady expansion.
17. The C + characteristics emerging from the uniform region x < 0 and
t < −x/c0 reach the left side of the closed valve. They carry the
message:
u + Γ = u0 + Γ 0 .
In linear approximation we can linearize the equations. The perturba-
tion are defined by: u′ = u − u0 and p′ = p − p0 . We have furthermore
Γ′ = p′ /(ρ0 c0 ). See figure 4.30. This implies:
p′
u′ + =0
ρ0 c 0
The boundary condition at the valve is u = 0, implying u′ = u − u0 =

−u0 . Hence we have for x = −ϵ: p′ = ρ0 c0 u0 . In a similar way the C −
characteristics imply at the right side of the valve: u′ − p′ /(ρ0 c0 ) = 0
and u′ = −u0 . Consequently we find : p′ = −ρ0 c0 u0 . In the linear
approximation the C + are straight lines with slope dx/dt = u0 +c0 and
the C − characteristics have the slope dx/dt = u0 − c0 . As the linear
approximation implies that u′ /c0 = p′ /(ρ0 c20 ) << 1 we can also use
the approximation: dx/dt = c0 and dx/dt = −c0 for respectively the
C + and C − characteristics. At the left of the valve the C − emanating
Figure 4.30: Linear theory of response of water flow in pipe to the abrupt
closure of a valve.
from the valve meet the C + emerging from the original uniform region,
107
which implies:
p′
u′ − = −2u0
ρ0 c 0
And:
p′
u′ + = 0.
ρ0 c 0
This implies that we find a new uniform region for x < 0 and t >
−x/c0 for which: u′ = −u0 and p′ = ρ0 c0 u0 as at the valve. At
the right side of the valve x > 0 and t > x/c0 we find: u′ = −u0
and p′ = −ρ0 c0 u0 . For a water flow with u0 = 1 m/s we find p′ =
15 bar at the left of the valve and p′ = −15 bar at the right. As
p′ /(ρ0 c20 ) = O(10−3 ) << 1 a linear approximation is certainly valid at
the right hand side. The negative pressures found at the right hand
side p = p0 + p′ = −14 bar imply that cavitation can occur. In such a
case the linear approximation fails because ρ′ /ρ0 = O(1). The largest
pressure difference we can have accros the valve is of the order of
30 bar. With a cross section of 10−2 m2 this implies a force of 3 kN
on the valve. If cavitation occurs this force is reduced to 1.6 kN . If
you do not understand this explanation, please read sections 4.2 and
4.3.
18. In linear approximation (valid for (p0 − p1 )/p0 << 1) we find at the
wall the message:
p′
u′ + = 0.
ρ0 c 0
Carried by the C + characteristics emanating from the uniform region
x < −c0 t. At the wall we have the boundary condition:
p′ = p1 − p0 .
Solving these equations yields for x = 0:
p′ p0 − p1
u′ = − = .
ρ0 c 0 ρ0 c 0
The intersection of the C + and C − in the region x < 0 and t > −x0 /c0
yields:
p′
u′ + = 0.
ρ0 c 0
For the C + from the original uniform region and:
p′ p0 − p1
u′ − =2 .
ρ0 c 0 ρ0 c 0
108
For the C − coming from the wall. As a consequence we have a uniform
region x < 0 and t > −x/c0 with:
p′ = p1 − p0
and:
p0 − p1
u′ = .
ρ0 c 0
At a point (x, t) within the simple wave region we have a perturbation
! "
% & p0 −p1 t− cx
′ ′ ′ x ′
(p , u ) given by p (x, t) = p1 t − c0 − p0 and u (x, t) = ρ0 c0
0
.
For large pressure differences p0 − p1 we consider a perfect gas. In that
Figure 4.31: Porous wall imposing a pressure p(0, t) at x = 0.
case (see figure 4.31):

2c 2 c0
u+ =
γ−1 γ−1
And at x = 0 the boundary condition p(0, t) = p1 . Using the isentropic

law for a perfect gas we find with c2 = γRT and p = ρRT :
# $γ # $γ % &
p ρ p c0 2 γ
= = .
p0 ρ0 p0 c
Hence we have:
# $ γ−1
c p 2 γ
= .
c0 p0
Consequently at x = 0 for t > 0 we have:
# $ γ−1
p1 2 γ
c = c0 .
p0
109
And: / # $ γ−1 0
2 c0 p1 2 γ
u= 1− .
γ−1 p0
A general solution of the simple wave region can be obtained by follow-
ing C − characteristics with slope dxdt = u(0, tw ) − c(0, tw ) along which
u = u(0, tw ) and c = c(0, tw ) where tw is the time at which the C −
leaves the wall at x = 0. If p1 is contant the state found at the porous
wall can be extended to a uniform region t > (u − c)t left of the wall.
The original uniform region is delimited by t < −x/c0 . Between these
two uniform regions, we a a simple wave region corresponding to an
expansion fan. In the expansion fan the C − characteristics are straight
lines emanating from the origin, so that:
x
= u − c.
t
Combining this equation for given (x, t) with the message carried by
the C + emanating from the original uniform region:
2c 2 c0
u+ =
γ−1 γ−1
yields:
2 c0 γ − 1 %x&
c= −
γ+1 γ+1 t
And:
x 2 x
u=c+ = (c0 + ).
t γ+1 t
19. As there are no independent time nor length scales in this problem we
expect a self similar solution, which can consist of two pressure waves
(expansion fan or shock wave) and a contact discontinuity. We do not
have a complex wave region. As we have an expansion to vacuum,
the compression wave (shock) and the contact discontinuity vanish.
We have only an expansion fan, which is a simple wave. As we have a
uniform region for x > 0 the characteristics travelling from the uniform
region into the simple wave region are C − and they carry the message
(see figure 4.32):
2c 2 c0
u− =− .
γ−1 γ−1
With γ = 5/3 we have 2/(γ − 1) = 3:
u − 3 c = −3 c0 .
The other family characteristics in the simple wave region are the C +
emerging from the origin (x, t) = (0, 0). As these characteristics are
110
straight lines with the slope dx/dt = u + c we have:
x
= u + c.
t
From these equations we find for the expansion fan:
3 %x &
u= − c0
4 t
and:
1 %x &
c= + 3 c0 .
4 t
The fan is delimited on the right by the line x = c0 t on which u = 0
(limit of uniform stagnant region). On the left it is limited by the
line x = −3 c0 t corresponding to the maximum expansion (c = 0 and
umax = −3 c0 ). The pressure follows from:
# $5
c
p = p0 .
c0
Figure 4.32: Expansion to vacuum.
20. We assume that the wave in the trombone is a simple wave propagating
in a uniform region (p0 , c0 , u0 = 0). This assumption is reasonable
because p−p 0
p0 < 1. We assume air to be a perfect gas with γ = 7/5.
−
The C characteristics emerging from the uniform region carry the
message:
2c 2 c0
u− =− .
γ−1 γ−1
Assuming an isentropic flow, we have:
# $ # $ γ−1
c p 2γ
= .
c0 p0
111
Figure 4.33: Pressure measured at the end of the slide of a trombone. We
clearly observe a shock wave at fortissimo level.
This implies that:

/ # $ γ−1 0
γ+1 p 2γ 2
u + c = c0 − .
γ−1 p0 γ−1
Hence we have for a small perturbation ∆p:

γ + 1 ∆p
∆(u + c) = c .
2γ p
Furthermore we have:
u+c
ts = lim∆t→0 ∆(u+c) .
c ∂p
∆t = u+c
γ+1 p ∂t
2γ
As for small perturbations as considered here u << c we have u + c ≃

c ≃ c0 :
2γc0
xs = (u + c)ts ≃ (γ+1) ∂p .
p ∂t
From the given data we estimate xs ≃ 2 m. As shown in figure

4.33 we do observe a shock at the end of the slide of a trombone
[Hirschberg (1996)] (4.33).
21. A gradual inlet of the tunnel increases the rise time of the pressure
in the tunnel (decrease ∂p/∂t), which increases the shock formation
distance. A good design should avoid shock wave formation, which is
an environmental nuissance (as the sonic boom of aircrafts).
112
22. For M0 > 0 we have an expansion of the gas in the pipe. As there
are no independent time or length scales we expect an expansion fan
as simple wave in the region −c0 t ≤ x ≤ 0. At x = 0 we have the
message carried by the C + emerging from the uniform region:
u + 5c = 5c0 .
Using u(0, t)/c = M0 we find at x = 0:

5 c0 M0
u=
5 + M0
and M0 = u/c yields:
u 5 c0
c = c0 − = .
5 M0 + 5
The C − characteristics emanating from the x = 0 bring the message:
M0 − 5
u − 7c = c(0, t)[M0 − 5] = 5 c0
M0 + 5
Along the C + characteristics we have:
u + 5c = 5c0 .
As a consequence we find a uniform region extending between the lines

x = 0 and x = M5c0 +5
0
(M0 −1)t. In the region −c0 t < x < M5c0 +5
0
(M0 −1)t
−
we have an expansion fan with straight C characteristics emanating
from the origin (x, t) = (0, 0) so that:
x
= u − c.
t
Combined with the message from the C + emanating from the uniform
region:
u + 5c = 5c0
we find:
1 x
c = (5c0 − )
6 t
and: # $7
c
p = p0 .
c0
23. For x = ϵ > 0 we have a uniform region at the wall and between this
uniform region and the original uniform region x > c0 t we have an
expansion fan. The C − bring the message to the wall:
u − 5c = u0 − 5c0 .
113
At the wall we have u = 0 so that c = c0 − u0 /5. The limiting C +
characteristics of the new uniform region has the slope dx/dt = u+c =
c0 − u0 /5 and passes through the origin: x = (c0 − u0 /5)t. Between
this characteristics and the limit of the old uniform region x = c0 t we
have an expansion fan with straight characteristics:
x
= u + c.
t
In this fan region we have:
1% x &
c= 5c0 + − u0
6 t
and: # $7
c
p = p0 .
c0
On the other side of the valve x = −ϵ < 0 we have a sudden compres-
sion involving a shock wave. We cannot use the method of character-
istics. As we expect a self similar solution, the shock should have a
time independent velocity us . We expect furthermore a uniform region
between the shock and the valve −us t < x < 0. Using the continuity
of mass flux over a shock ρw = ρ̂ŵ we find a shock relation for the
velocities w and ŵ in the reference frame moving with the shock. The
valve the flow velocity vanishes u = 0 for t > 0 . We find using the
shock relations in a framework moving with the speed us of the shock
(w = u0 − us and ŵ = −us ):
−us − (u0 − us ) −u0 2 c20 − (u0 − us )2

= =
u0 − us u0 − u s γ + 1 (u0 − us )2
After some algebra we find:
6 # $2
w u0 − us γ+1 4
M= = = [M0 + M02 + ].
c0 c0 4 γ+1
The pressure behind the shock is uniform and given by:

p − p0 2γ
= (M 2 − 1).
p0 γ+1
The shock velocity us is given by us = u0 − M c0 . Notice that for a
weak shock we find us = −c0 . The shock degenerates into an acoustic
wave.
24. We have four lines delimiting the various wave regions: Two C + char-
acteristics:
-Line I defined by x = L + (u0 + c0 )t.
114
-Line II defined by x = (u0 + c0 )t.
Two C − characteristics:
-Line III defined by x = (u0 − c0 )t.
-Line IV defined by x = L + (u0 − c0 )t.
Right from line I (x > L + (u0 + c0 )t) we have the original uniform
region. Left from line III (x < (u0 − c0 )t) we have the original uniform
region. Below lines II and IV (t < L/(2c0 )) we have a uniform pertur-
bation p′ = Deltap and u′ = 0. Above lines II and IV (t > L/(2c0 ))
we have a uniform region p′ = 0 and u′ = 0. The two regions left
are simple waves. In the simple wave above line IV and between lines
I and II we have a perturbation p′ = ∆p/2 and u′ = ∆p/(2ρc0 ). In
the simple wave above line II and between lines III and IV we have a
perturbation p′ = ∆p/2 and u′ = −∆p/(2ρ0 c0 ).
25. For γ = 3 we have 2/(γ − 1) = 1 and 2γ/(γ − 1) = 3.. Hence we have:

# $3
p c
= .
p0 c0
At le right side of the piston the C − from the uniform region x > c0 t
bring the message:
u − c = −c0 .
At the left side of the piston the C + from the uniform region x < −c0 t
bring the message:
u + c = c0 .
The equation of motion of the piston is:
1 2
dup − + up 3 1 up 3
m = A[p − p ] = Ap0 (1 − ) − (1 + ) .
dt c0 2 c0
For short times we find by Taylor expansion:

dup Ap0 up
m = [1 − 9 ]
dt 2 c0
The initial acceleration a0 = du/dt = Ap0 /(2m). For short times
up ≃ a0 t. Hence on the compression side of the piston x > 0 we have
c ≃ c0 + u and for the slope of the C + characteristics dx/dt = u + c ≃
c0 + 2u = c0 + A mp t . The shock formation distance is xs = c0 ts =
c0 (u + c)/(∂(u + c)/∂t) ≃ m c20 /(A p0 ).
26. We assume a quasi-one dimensional flow ⃗v = (u, 0, 0). The equations

motion for a frictionless incompressible fluid under influence of gravity
are: 1 2
∂u ∂u ∂p
ρ +u =−
∂t ∂x ∂x
115
and:
∂p
0=− − ρg.
∂z
Integration of the z-component yields:
p − patm = ρg(h − z)
where z = 0 is the bottom of the flow and h the height of the free
surface. Applying a integral mass conservation on a slab between x
and x + ∆x we have:
∂h∆x
= u(x)h(x) − u(x + ∆x)h(x + ∆x).
∂t
Dividing by ∆x and taking the limit for ∆x → 0 we find:
∂h ∂u h
=− .
∂t ∂x
Applying the momentum equation for z = 0 we find:
∂u ∂u ∂h
+u = −g
∂t ∂x ∂x
√
Using the notation c = gh we can write these equations as:
A
∂u ∂u g ∂h
+u + c =0
∂t ∂x h ∂x
and: A 1 2
g ∂h ∂h ∂u
+u +c = 0.
h ∂t ∂x ∂x
Addition and substraction yields:
# $1 " A 2
∂ ∂ g
+ (u ± c) u± dh .
∂t ∂x h
Hence: " A
g
Γ= dh = 2 c.
h
√
27. We have an expansion fan for x < t g h0 . The maximum velocity√
−
√ C message u − 2c = −2c0 = −2 gh0 ,
of the water is given by the
which√implies umax = −2√ gh0 . Hence the expansion fan is delimited
by t gh0 > x > −2 t gh0 . Within the expansion fan we have:
x
=u+c
t
and:
u − 2c = −2c0 .
116
Hence:
. 1 ?x @ 1 ?x . @
c= g h= + 2c0 = + 2 g h0 .
3 t 3 t
or:
1 ?x . @2
h= + 2 g h0 .
9 t
and:
x 2 ?x . @
u= −c= − g h0 .
t 3 t
Appendix A
Shock relations for a perfect gas.
p̂ 2γ 2
A1 : p =1+ γ+1 (M − 1)
ρ−ρ̂ û−u 2 1−M 2

A2 : ρ = u = γ+1 M 2
T̂ −T 2(γ−1)(γM 2 +1)(M 2 −1)

A3 : T = (γ+1)2 M 2
M 2 −1 û
A4 : 1 − M̂ 2 = 2γ ; M̂ = ĉ
1+ γ+1 (M 2 −1)
7
u−û 2 M 2 −1 T
A5 : M̂1 ≡ ĉ = γ+1 M T̂
These relations can be deduced from the elementary conservation laws:
A6 : ρu = ρ̂û,
A7 : p + ρu2 = p̂ + ρ̂û2 ,
1 2
A8 : 2u + h = 12 û2 + ĥ,
combined with the following expression for the enthalpy of a calorically per-
fect gas:
γ p γ γ p̂ γ
h = γ−1 ρ = γ−1 RT , ĥ = γ−1 ρ̂ = γ−1 RT̂ .
The solution of the problem is very much simplified by the condition that
the medium in the tube is initially at rest. The disturbance generated at
x = 0 propagates in the +x-direction. There are no reflections or other
disturbances which travel in the −x-direction. This is an example of a so
called simple wave, a concept that will appear to be very important in the
analytical description of non-linear waves. In this case we have a so-called
right-running simple wave. Such a simple wave has two important proper-
ties:
117
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Fundamental of Gas Dynamics (revised lecture notes)

Research · August 2016

M. E. H. van Dongen Avraham Hirschberg

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Course on Gas Dynamics View project

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M.E.H. van Dongen, A. Hirschberg, D.M.J. Smeulders

3 Stationary Quasi-1D Gas Dynamics 31

4 Instationary 1D compressible flows 69

In general a change in gas flow velocity involves a change in pressure, which

Supersonic flows involve large velocities. The Reynolds number Re = V L/ν

In acoustics and aeroacoustics one considers the behaviour of small pressure

Chapter 3 discusses mainly quasi-one dimensional steady flows. We start by

Chapter 4 describes the one-dimensional unsteady wave propagation in pipes.

Chapter 4 also describes the use of the method of characteristics to analyze

In this chapter we discuss the fundamental equations of fluid dynamics and

2.1 Conservation Laws

Figure 2.1: Control volume B, with outer boundary F.

We begin with the conservation of mass. Consider an arbitrary fixed volume

Using the momentum density ρv, we obtain an expression for momentum

2.2 Constitutive equations

2.3 Conservation laws in diﬀerential form

2.4 Thermodynamic relations

which can also be written as:

The fundamental law of thermodynamics (2.11) provides an expression for

Figure 2.2: cv /R vs. T for hydrogen. ([Owczarek (1964)]). At temperatures

A number of characteristic temperatures is given in table 2.1 (from Thomp-

Gas θr [K] θv [K] θd [K]

Table 2.1: Characteristic temperatures

Table 2.2: Characteristic relaxation times for various processes, at p = 1

tion of high frequency sound upon propagation through the atmosphere

Relation between conservation of energy and the laws of ther-

We follow a material element (fluid particle) with internal energy e, density

2.5 Simplification of the laws of conservation;

2.6 The Bernoulli equation

The energy ellipse

Figure 2.4: The energy ellipse.

0 ≤ M ∗ < Vmax /c∗ (2.51)

while the Mach number varies in the range:

1. How is the control volume B determined when applying the integral

5. What is a state variable?

6. What is the definition of the temperature T ?

7. What is the diﬀerence between an adiabatic process and an isentropic

8. What is the definition of an ideal gas?

* 9. Starting from the Gibbs’ relation (eq. 2.12) show that:

* 11. Show that a gas satisfying the equation of state of Gay-Lussac, p =

12. Show that for an ideal gas:

14. What is a calorically perfect gas?

16. Derive equation: # $γ

17. Why do we assume that the energy in a vibrational degree of freedom

19. Why is the formula:

23. Calculate the critical pressure p∗ as a function of the reservoir pressure

24. What is the temperature

* 25. Determine the Mach number dependency of the pressure as a function

26. Determine the critical velocity V ∗ of a flow as a function of the reser-

2. The normal is directed outwards. Choosing the normal to the control

3. The second viscosity is directly related to volume changes.

5. Thermodynamics is the study of the equilibrium state of systems. A

6. The zeroth law of the thermodynamics states that T is a state variable.

7. In both cases there is no exchange of heat with the surroundings, but

8. In an ideal gas the molecules interact by collisions but do not have

9. From (eq. 1.12):