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PLC Scada Automation PDF
PLC Scada Automation PDF
INTRODUCTION
Training is important phase of student life. During this period student gets both theoreti-
cal as well as practical knowledge of the subject. Training also impresses a student over-
all approaches to life and impress his personality and confidence.
Our training was in Doordarshan Kendra Lucknow. This report contains a detailed
study of Doordarshan Kendra Lucknow.
1.1 STUDIO
Doordarshan is a leading broadcasting service provider in india. DD Lucknow is full-
flathead broadcast set up. Many serials &program are being made here like "BIBI
NATIYON WALI", "NEEM KA PED" and "HATIM TAI" etc. recorded in studio.
1.2 TRANSMITTER
Here the transmission of both audio and video has been made. The transmission sec-
tion does the function of modulation of signal. Power amplification of the signal &
mixing of audio and video signal is done here.
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CHAPTER 2
FUNDAMENTALS OF
MONOCHROME &
COLOUR TV SYSTEM
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2.3 RESOLUTION
The capability of the system to resolve maximum number of picture elements along
scanning lines determines the horizontal resolution. It means how many alternate
black and white elements can be there in a line. The vertical resolution depends on
the number of scanning lines and the resolution factor (also known as Kell factor)
2.5 BRIGHTNESS
Brightness reveals the average illumination of the reproduced image on the TV
screen. Brightness control in a TV set adjusts the voltage between grid and cathode
of the picture tube (Bias voltage).
2.6 CONTRAST
Contrast is the relative difference between black and white parts of the reproduced
picture. In a TV set the contrast control adjusts the level of video signal fed to the pic-
ture tube.
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CHAPTER 3
COLOUR COMPOSITE VIDEO SIGNAL (CCVS)
Video is nothing but a sequence of picture .The image we see is maintained in our
eye for a 1/16 sec so if we see image at the rate more than 16 picture per sec our eyes
cannot recognize the difference and we see the continuous motion.
In TV cameras image is converted in electrical signal using photo sensitive materi-
al. Whole image is divided into many micro particles known as Pixels.
These pixels small enough so that our eyes cannot recognize pixel and we see contin-
uous image ,thus at any instant there are almost an infinite no. of pixel that needs to be
converted in electrical signal simultaneously for transmitting picture details. However
this is not practicable because it is no feasible to provide a separate path for each pixel
in practice
This problem is solved by scanning method in which information is converted in one
by one pixel line by line and frame by frame .
Colour Composite Video Signal is formed with Video, sync and blanking signals.
The level is standardized to 1.0 V peak to peak (0.7 volts of Video and 0.3 volts of
sync pulse). The Colour Composite Video Signal (CCVS) has been shown in fig-
ure.
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3.2 FREQUENCY CONTENT OF TV SIGNAL
The TV signals have varying frequency content. The lowest frequency is zero.
(when we are transmitting a white window in the entire active period of 52 micro
seconds the frequency is Zero). In CCIR system B the highest frequency that can be
transmitted is 5 MHz even though the TV signal can contain much higher frequency
components.
(In film the reproduction of frequencies is much higher than 5 MHz and hence clari-
ty is superior to TV system.) long shots carry higher frequency components than
mid close ups and close ups. Hence in TV productions long shots are kept to a min-
imum. In fact TV is a medium of close ups and mid close ups.
TV Transmission takes place in VHF Bands I and III and UHF Bands IV and V. Pic-
ture is amplitude modulated and sound is frequency modulated on different carriers
separated by 5.5 MHz. Also for video amplitude modulation negative modulation is
employed because of the following main advantages.
Pictures contain more information towards white than black and hence average power
is lower
Resulting in energy saving.
(Bright picture points correspond to a low carrier amplitude and sync pulse to maxi-
mum carrier amplitude).
Interference such as car ignition interfering signals appear as black which is less ob-
jectionable.
AM produces double side bands. The information is the same in both side bands. It is
enough to transmit single side band only. Carrie r also need not be transmitted in
full and a pilot carrier can help.
5
However, suppressing the carrier and one complete side band and transmitting a
pilot carrier leads to costly TV sets. A compromise to save RF channel capacity is
to resort to vestigial side band system in which one side band in full, carrier and a
part of other side band are transmitted
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3.6 THE COLOUR TELEVISION
It is possible to obtain any desired colour by mixing three primary colours i.e. Red,
Blue and green in a suitable proportion. The retina of human eye consists of very
large number of light- sensitive cells. These are of two types, rods and cones. Rods
are sensitive only to the intensity of the incident light and cones are responsible for
normal colour vision. The small range of frequencies to which the human eye is re-
sponsive is known as visible spectrum. This visible spectrum is from 780 mm (Red)
to 380 mm(Violet).
The figure shows the effect of projecting red, green, blue beams of light so that they
overlap
on screen. Y= 0.3 Red + 0.59 Green + 0.11 Blue
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CHAPTER 4
TV CAMERA
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
A TV Camera consists of three sections.
4.1.1 A Camera lens & Optics: To form optical image on the face plate of a pick up
device
4.1.2 A transducer or pick up device: To convert optical image into a electrical sig-
nal
4.1.3 Electronics: To process output of a transducer to get a CCVS signal
4.2.1 PHOTO EMISSIVE MATERIAL: These material emits electrons when the
light falls on them. Amount of emitted electrons depends on the light . Mono-
chrome cameras used in Doordarshan were based on this material. These cameras
were called Image Orticon Cameras. These cameras were bulky and needed lot of
light. These are no longer in use at present.
8
provement in these cameras lead to the development of Plumb icon and Sat icon
cameras.
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severe vertical smear, which produced a vertical line running through a highlight.
This was caused by excessive highlights penetrating deeply into the semiconductor
material, leaking directly into the vertical shift register. Later IT devices have im-
proved the technology to make this a much less objectionable effect.
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4.7 CCD CAMERAS (CHARGE COUPLED DEVICES)-
A typical three tube camera chain is described in the block diagram. The built in
sync pulse generator provides all the pulses required for the encoder and colour bar
generator of the camera. The signal system is described below:
The signal system in most of the cameras consists of processing of the signal
from red, blue and green CCD respectively. The processing of red and blue channel
is exactly similar. Green channel which also called a reference channel has slightly
different electronic concerning aperture correction. So if we understand a particular
channel, the other channels can be followed easily. So let us trace a particular chan-
nel. The signal picked up from the respective CCD is amplified in a stage called pre-
pre amplifier. It is then passed to a pre amplifier board with a provision to inserts
external test signal. Most of the cameras also provide gain setting of 6 dB, 9dB and
18dB at the pre amplifier. Shading compensator provides H and V shading adjust-
ments in static mode and dynamic mode by readjusting the gain. After this correc-
tion the signal is passed through a variable gain amplifier which provides adjustment
for auto white balance, black balance and aperture correction.
Gama correction amplifier provides suitable gain to maintain a gamma of 0.45 for
each channel. Further signal processing includes mixing of blanking level, black clip,
white clip and adjustment for flare correction. The same processing take place for
blue and red channels. Green channel as an additional electronic which provides aper-
ture correction to red and blue channels. Aperture correction provide corrections to
improve the resolution or high frequency lost because of the finite size of the electron
beam . Green channel has fixed gain amplifier instead of variable gain amplifier in
the red and blue channels.
All the three signals namely R, G and B are then fed to the encoder section of
the camera via a colour bar/camera switch. This switch can select R, G and B from
the camera or from the R, G, B Signal from colour bar generator. In the encoder sec-
tion these R, G, B signals are modulated with SC to get V and U signals. These sig-
nals are then mixed with luminance, sync, burst, & blanking etc. to provide colour
composite video signal (CCVS Signal). Power supply board provides regulated volt-
ages to various sections.
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CHAPTER 5
TV LIGHTING
5.1.1 Light Source: Any light source has a Lumnance intensity (I) which is
measured in Candelas. One Candela is equivalent to an intensity released by stand-
ard one candle source of light.
5.1.4 Luminance (L): It is a measure of the reflected light from a surface meas-
ured in Apostilbs. A surface which reflects a total flux of 1 lumen/m2 has a lumi-
nance of 1 Apostilbs.
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e) CID (Compact Iodide Daylight) 5500+- 400o
Colour TV Display, white 6500oK
f) Monochrome TV 9300oK
g) Blue sky 12000 – 18000oK
h) Tungsten Halogen 3200oK
i) Average summer sunlight (10am –3pm) 5500oK
It can be noted that as the temperature is increased, the following things happen:
1) Increase in maximum energy released
2) Shift in peak radiation to shorter wavelengths (Blue)
3) Colour of radiation is a function of temperature
Hence by measuring the energy content of the source over narrow bands at the red
and blue ends of the spectrum , the approximate colour temperature can be de-
termyined. All the color temperature meter are based on this principle.
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5.4 DIFFERENT LIGHTING TECHNIQUES:
Eye light, Low intensity light on camera itself to get extra sparkle to an actor's eye
Rim light, to highlight actor's outline, it is an extra back on entire body at camera lev-
el
Kickkar light, Extra light on shadow side of the face at an angle behind and to the
side of the actor.
Limbo Lighting, Only subject is visible, no back ground light
Sillhoutt lighting, No light on subject, BG is highly lit
5.6 DIMMERS
Three basic methods for dimming are :-
5.6.1 Resistance
This is the simplest and cheapest form of dimmer. It consists of a wire wound re-
sistor with a wiper .It is used in series with the load.
5.6.2 Saturable Reactor (System SR)
The basic principle of the saturable reactor is to connect an iron cored choke in series
with the lamp.
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5.7 OUTDOOR DAYLIGHT AND MOONLIGHT:
The direction of the light is dictated by the position of the 'sun' or 'moon'. As a gen-
eral principle one should remember that sunlight (hard source) is accompanied by
the reflected "skylight" (soft source) whereas moonlight is a single hard source. One
of the biggest problems when lighting exteriors is the maintenance of “single shad-
ow" philosophy - double shadows on a long shot will quickly destroy the apparent
realism created in the set. Very large area filler light is ideal for exterior daylight
scenes.
This can be achieved by using a suspended white screen 12' x 8' where the filler
would be positioned then lighting it with hard light.
In colour, to obtain a night effect, blue cinemoid is used over the luminaries. This
gives a stylized effect. An alternative is to use much more localized lighting than for
daylight and light only the artists and odd parts of the set.
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CHAPTER 6
MICROPHONES
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Microphone plays a very important role in the art of sound broadcasting. It is a de-
vice which converts acoustical energy into electrical energy. In the professional
broadcasting field microphones have primarily to be capable of giving the highest
fidality of reproduction over audio bandwidth.
Depending on the relationship between the output voltage from a microphone and the
sound pressure on it, the microphones can be divided into two basic groups.
Pressure Operated Type.
Velocity or Pressure Gradiant Type
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CHAPTER 7
RECORDING
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Video tape recorder is a most complex piece of studio equipment with analog and
digital processing servo system, microprocessors, memories, logic circuits and me-
chanical devices etc. Also these recorders have been the main limitation so for as the
quality output from studio is concerned. Right from fifties, continuous efforts are be-
ing made to improve its performance so as to reproduce cameras faithfully by im-
proving S/N ratio and resolution. Designer for video tape recorders had to consider
the following differences in the video and audio signals:
8.1 INTRODUCTION
With the advent of digital signals, breakthrough came in the field of recording
from analog recording to digital recording around the year 1990. In the series of de-
velopment of digital tape recording systems, it is felt to have a system which
should be handy for the purpose of field recording along with capability of long
duration recording. A recording format is developed by a consortium of ten compa-
nies as a consumer digital video recording format called “DV”. DV (also called ”mini
DV” in its smallest tape form) is known as DVC (Digital Video cassette).
DVCAM is a professional variant of the DV, developed by Sony and DVCPRO on
the other hand is a professional variant of the DV, developed by Panasonic. These
two formats differ from the DV format in terms of track width, tape speed and tape
type. Before the digitized video signal hits the tape, it is the same in all three formats.
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CHAPTER 9
VISION MIXING
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Vision mixing is a process of creating composite pictures from various sources.
Vision mixing involves basically three types of switching or transitions between var-
ious sources. These are mixing, wiping and keying. These transitions can also be ac-
companied by special effects in some of the vision mixers.
9.2 MIXING
Two input sources are mixed in proportion in a summing amplifier as decided by the
position of control fader. Two extreme position of the fader gives either of the
sources at the output. Middle of the fader gives mixed output of the two
sources; control to the summing amplifier is derived from the fader.
9.3 WIPE
In this case the control for the two input sources is generated by the wipe
pattern generator (WPG), which can either be saw tooth or parabola at H, V or both
H & V rate. Unlike in MIX, during WIPE, one source is present in one side of the
wipe and the second source on other side of the wipe. A very simple to very complex
wipe patterns can be generated from the WPG.
9.4 KEY
In the Key position between two sources i.e. foreground (FG) and background (BG)
the control derived from one of the source itself (overlay), or by the third source
(external key). This keying signal can be generated either by the luminance, Hue or
chrominance of the source input. The keyed portion can be filled with the same or
with matte or external source. Matte means internally generated BG with choice of
colors from the vision mixer itself.
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CHAPTER 10
TELEVISION TRANSMISSION
.
Fig 10.1
10.2 DESIGN
All the TV transmitters have the same basic design. They consist of an exciter fol-
lowed by power amplifiers which boost the exciter power to the required level.
10.3 EXCITER
The exciter stage determines the quality of a transmitter. It contains pre-corrector
units both at base band as well as at IF stage, so that after passing through all sub-
sequent transmitter stages, an acceptable signal is available. Since the number and
type of amplifier stages, may differ according to the required output power, the char-
acteristics of the pre-correction circuits can be varied over a wide range.
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10.4 VISION AND SOUND SIGNAL AMPLIFICATION
In HPTs the vision and sound carriers can be generated, modulated and amplified
separately and then combined in the diplexer at the transmitter output.
In LPTs, on the other hand, sound and vision are modulated separately but amplified
jointly. This is common vision and aural amplification.
A special group delay equalization circuit is needed in the first case because of er-
rors caused by TV diplexer. In the second case the intermodulation products are
more prominent and special filters for suppressing them is required.
As it is difficult to meet the intermodulation requirements particularly at higher
power ratings, separate amplification is used in HPTs though combined amplifi-
cation requires fewer amplifier stages.
10.5 IF MODULATION
In BEL mark I & II transmitters three valve stages (BEL 450 CX, BEL 4500 CX and
BEL 15000 CX) are used in vision transmitter chain and two valves (BEL 450 CX
and BEL 4500 CX) in aural transmitter chain. In BEL mark III transmitter only two
valve stages (BEL 4500 CX and BEL 15000CX) are used in vision transmitter chain.
Aural transmitter chain is fully solid state in Mark III transmitter.
The block diagram of the TCU (Transmitter control unit) indicates the connectivity of
TCU with control console and the control elements of the transmitter. Commands are
inputs through the key board. The control elements are controlled in accordance
with the programme fused in the EPROMS.
Only while operating from the MCS (Main Control System), the interaction with TCU is
supported through a LCD display unit. The LED bar display board showing the status
information, is used by both the MCS and BCS (Back up Control Unit).
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CHAPTER 11
OUTDOOR BROADCASTING VAN
OB van is used for live broadcasting like any match or any event. It consist all the
equipment’s that is present in the studio for telecasting. It also referring as mini stu-
dio. It has mainly 3 parts:
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CHAPTER 12
EARTH STATION
Intelsat-I (nick named as Early Bird) was launched on 2 April 1965. This was parked
in geosynchronous orbit in Atlantic ocean and provided telecommunication or televi-
sion service between USA and Europe. It had capacity for 240 one way telephone
channels or one television channel. Subsequently Intelsat-II generation satellites were
launched and parked in Atlantic ocean and Pacific Ocean. During Intelsat III genera-
tion, not only Atlantic and Pacific ocean got satellites but also Indian Ocean got
satellite for the first time. Now Arthur C.Clarke‟s vision of providing global
communication using three Satellites with about 120 degrees apart became a reality.
So far Intelsat has launched 7 generations of geosynchronous satellites in all the three
regions namely Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean.
For national as well as neighbouring countries coverage, some of the following satel-
lites are used: ANIK : Canadian satellite system INSAT : Indian Satellites
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12.2.2 THE GROUND SEGMENT
The ground segment consists of all the earth stations ; these are most often connected
to the end- user‟s equipment by a terrestrial network or, in the case of small stations
(Very Small Aperture Terminal, VSAT), directly connected to the end-user‟s
equipment. Stations are distinguished by their size which varies according to the
volume of traffic to be carried on the space link and the type of traffic (telephone, tel-
evision or data). The largest are equipped with antenna of 30 m diameter (Standard A
of the INTELSAT network). The smallest have 0.6 m antenna (direct television
receiving stations). Fixed, transportable and mobile stations can also be distin-
guished. Some stations are both transmitters and receivers.
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12.6 CIRCULAR ORBITS
The most popular is the geo stationary satellite orbits ; the satellite orbits around the
earth at an altitude of 35786 km, and in the same direction as the earth. The period is
equal to that of the rotation of the earth and in the same direction. The satellite thus
appears as a point fixed in the sky and ensures continuous operation as a radio relay in
real time for the area of visibility of the satellite (43% of the earth‟s surface).
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CHAPTER 13
TVRO SYSTEM
28
vation of a particular satellite from our place. The azimuth and elevation are angles
which specify the direction of a satellite from a point on the earth's surface. In layman
terms the azimuth is the east west movement and the elevation can be defined as the
north south movement of the dish.
Both the azimuth and elevation of a dish can be affected by three factors for geo-
stationary satellites.
They are
1. The longitude of the satellite.
2. The latitude of the place.
3. The longitude of the place.
Calculation of Azimuth
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CHAPTER 14
DIRECT-TO-HOME SATELLITE BROADCASTING (DTH)
14.1 INTRODUCTION
There was always a persistent quest to increase the coverage area of broadcast-
ing. Before the advent of the satellite broadcasting, the terrestrial broadcasting, which
is basically localized, was mainly providing audio and video services. The terrestrial
broadcasting has a major disadvantage of being localized and requires a large number
of transmitters to cover a big country like India. It is a gigantic task and expensive af-
fair to run and maintain the large number of transmitters. Satellite broadcasting, came
into existence in mid-sixties, was thought to provide the one-third global coverage
simply by up-link and down-link set-ups. In the beginning of the satellite broad-
casting, up-linking stations (or Earth Stations) and satellite receiving centers could
had only been afforded by the Governments organizations. The main physical con-
straint was the enormous size of the transmitting and receiving parabolic dish anten-
nas (PDA). In the late eighties the satellite broadcasting technology had undergone a
fair improvements resulting in the birth of cable TV. Cable TV operators set up
their cable networks to provide the services to individual homes in local areas. It rap-
idly grew in an unregulated manner and posed a threat to terrestrial broadcasting.
People are now mainly depending on cable TV operators. Since cable TV services are
unregulated and unreliable in countries like India now, the satellite broadcasting tech-
nology has ripened to a level where an individual can think of having direct access
to the satellite services, giving the opportunity to viewers to get rid of cable TV. Di-
rect-to-Home satellite broadcasting (DTH) or Direct Satellite Broadcasting (DBS) is
the distribution of television signals from high powered geo- stationary satellites to a
small dish antenna and satellite receivers in homes across the country. The cost of
DTH receiving equipment’s is now gradually declining and can be afforded by com-
mon man. Since DTH services are fully digital, it can offer value added services, vid-
eo-on-demand, Internet, e- mail and lot more in addition to entertainment. DTH re-
ception requires a small dish antenna (Dia60 cm), easily be mounted on the roof top,
feed along with Low Noise Block Converter (LNBC), Set-up Box (Integrated Re-
ceiver Decoder, IRD) with CAS (Conditional Access System). A bouquet of 40 to 50
video programs can simultaneously be received in DTH mode.
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CONCLUSION
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REFERENCES
1. Monochrome and Colour television by R R Gulati
2. www.ddlucknow.com
3. www.ddinews.gov.in
4. www.scribd.com
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