Dr.

Urvi Gupta 2017/Plant pathology

Importance of the Plant Diseases

Globally, enormous losses of the crops are caused by the plant diseases. Certain diseases have
had tremendous impacts on our society. The loss can occur from the time of seed sowing in the
field to harvesting and storage. Perhaps foremost among these is Phytophthora late blight
which caused the potato famine (1845) in Ireland. It is estimated that 1.5 million Irish died
from starvation and just as many immigrated to the United States. Other important historical
evidences of plant disease epidemics are Bengal famine due to brown spot of rice (India, 1942)
and Coffee rust (Sri Lanka, 1967). Such epidemics had left their effect on the economy of the
affected countries.

Objectives of Plant Pathology

Plant Pathology (Phytopathology) deals with the cause, etiology, resulting losses and control or
management of the plant diseases. The objectives of the Plant Pathology are the study on:

a) The living entities that cause diseases in plants; (Etiology)

b) The non-living entities and the environmental conditions that cause disorders in plants;
c) The mechanisms by which the disease causing agents produce diseases; (Pathogenesis)
d) The interactions between the disease causing agents and host plant in relation to overall
environment; (Epidemiology)
e) The method of preventing or management the diseases and reducing the losses/damages
caused by diseases. (Disease control and management)

Concept of Plant Disease

The normal physiological functions of plants are disturbed when they are affected by pathogenic
living organisms or by some environmental factors. Initially plants react to the disease causing
agents, particularly in the site of infection. Later, the reaction becomes more widespread and
histological changes take place. Such changes are expressed as different types of symptoms of the
disease which can be visualized macroscopically. As a result of the disease, plant growth in
reduced, deformed or even the plant dies.

Definition
When a plant is suffering, we call it diseased, i.e. it is at ‘dis-ease’. Disease is a condition that
occurs in consequence of abnormal changes in the form, physiology, integrity or behaviour of
the plant.

According to American Phytopathological Society (Phytopathology 30:361-368, 1940), disease is

a deviation from normal functioning of physiological processes of sufficient duration or intensity
to cause disturbance or cessation of vital activities.

The British Mycological Society (Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 33:154-160, 1950) defined the disease as
a harmful deviation from the normal functioning of process.

Recently, Encyclopedia Britannica (2002) forwarded a simplified definition of plant disease. A

plant is diseased when it is continuously disturbed by some causal agent that results in
abnormal physiological process that disrupts the plants normal structure, growth, function or
other activities.
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Horsfall & Diamond (1957): Disease can be defined as a physiological disorder or structural
abnormality that is deleterious or harmful to the plant or its part or product that reduces its
economic value.

Disease Triangle:

Disease occurrence is an interactive All sides must favour disease for the
event disease process to take place

Factors affecting the Pathogen:

1. Virulence
2. Population present
3. Life-stage of propagule
4. Vectors present

Factors affecting the Host:

1. Level of resistance
2. Growth stage of plant
3. Genetic uniformity of neighboring plants
4. Plant Vigor
5. Plant Density
6. Structure of Plant

Factors affecting the Environment:

1. Conditions that favor disease
2. Conditions that promote plant growth
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3. Conditions that affect dispersal

Includes levels of humidity, temperature, wind speed, and periods of rain.

Interpretation of the triangle:

‐ Length of each side is proportional to the sum total Amount of the
characteristics of each component that favours disease
‐If one side is zero, no disease
‐If one side is very large, disease potential is large

Quantification of the triangle’s area would represent the amount of disease

Plant Disease Development

Diseases are a series of distinct events that occur in succession leading to the
perpetuation of the disease and pathogen
This chain of events is called the disease cycle. It is closely related to the
lifecycle of the pathogen.

Plant Disease Development:

Disease Primary Events:

1. Inoculation
2. Penetration
3. Establishment of Infection
4. Invasion
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5. Growth and reproduction of the pathogen (Colonization)

6. Dissemination of the Pathogen
7. Survival in the absence of the host

1. Inoculation
Initial contact of pathogen with a susceptible plant site
Innoculum: pathogen brought into infection
May be spores, sclerotia, mycelial fragments, bacteria and viruses
Primary inoculums: primary infection
Secondary inoculums: Secondary infection

Inoculum Sources: Survival in perennial plants, weeds, contaminated

soil, soil debris, seeds, transplant and vectors.

Arrival inoculums:
1. Passively (i.e. wind)
2. Chemotaxis – organisms within the soil are attracted to plant roots
3. Vector‐transmitted (i.e. insects)

2. Penetration
2.1 Attachment to host ‐ Fungi and bacteria produce gelatinous
substances to help them stick to leaf surface
2.2 Spore germination - Mainly Fungi – spore germinates forming
germ tube and moves along host to find opening/weak point
2.3 Appressorium Formation - Fungi only – Formation of
appressorium and “softening enzymes” and prepares for
penetration into the plant.
2.4 Recognition between host and pathogen: Triggers plant resistance
genes – if present –promotes /prevents infection
2.5 Penetration
Direct: Formation of appresorium and penetration peg
Indirect‐wounds ‐wind/growth cracks, windblown sand, lesions
caused by other pathogens, vectors
Natural openings ‐Stomata, hydrathodes, lenticels
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3. Establishment of Infection
‐ Infection: Process by which pathogens establish contact with susceptible cells
and procure nutrients
‐ Successful infections result in symptoms – visibly detectable changes in the
Plant.
‐ Obligate fungal parasites form haustoria ‐ intracellular “vampires”
‐ Pathogen releases enzymes, toxins, and growth regulators
‐ Plant reacts with defense mechanisms

4. Invasion
Pathogens spread through plant Fungi and bacteria: Spread by intracellular and
intercellular growth by using enzymes and hormones, localized
Nematodes: Move intercellularly, localized
Viruses, Viroids, and xylem/phloem limited bacteria: Move cell to cell
intracellularly, systemic.

5. Growth and reproduction of the pathogen (Colonization)

‐ Pathogens continue to spread until the infection is stopped or the plant is
dead
‐ Only fungi and nematodes can actively move
‐ All other pathogens rely rapid reproduction and being passively moved
Reproduction:
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‐ Fungi – spores, inter‐ and intra‐, surface and interior

‐ Bacteria – cell division, inter and intra‐, surface and interior
‐ Viruses – intra‐, inside cells only
‐ Nematodes – inter‐ and intra‐, surface and interior
‐ Parasitic Plants – seeds, exterior of plant only
Rate varies on pathogen present, environment, and host

6. Dissemination of pathogen

7. Survival of pathogen without a host (Overwintering stage)

Fungi: mycelium in cankers bud scales, seeds, tubers, and plant debris; spores;
and sclerotia
‐ Soil inhabitants– survive in soil indefinitely (saprophytes)
‐ Soil transients – survive in soil for short period of time (parasites)

Parasitic Plants: Seeds and vegetative from on host

Bacteria: same way as fungi infected plants, seeds, tubers, and plant debris; in
the bodies of insect vectors. Survive better in large slimy colonies than as small
groups.

Viruses: survive only in living plant tissues; roots of perennial plants, seeds of
some hosts, and insect vectors.
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Nematodes: Survive as eggs in the soil; or life stages that are dormant in seeds
and bulbs.

Disease Epidemics:
Monocyclic: completes 1 disease cycle in a year
‐ Disease increases year to year as inoculum build Over‐seasoning Stage

Polycyclic: 2or more disease cycles in a year

‐ Most pathogens disseminated by air and airborne vectors
‐ create explosive epidemics – Late Blight, Powdery Mildew, and Rusts

Polyetic – requiring two or more years to complete lifecycle (considered

monocyclic)
‐ Typical of many vascular wilt pathogens – Dutch Elm Disease

Host-Parasite Relationship
Parasitism is an association or a situation in which two organisms of different
taxonomic positions live together where one enjoys all sorts of benefits (like
derivation of nourishment, reproduction etc. which are basic requirements for
existence) at the expense of the other. The benefited organism is called the
parasite and the organism harbouring the parasite is called the host.

Classification of Parasite:
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Host Specificity of Parasites:

It is broadly divided into two parts:

(a) Ecological specificity:

The parasites are capable of making room in a foreign host but normally never
reach another host due to ecological barriers. Such parasites are able to
develop in more host-species under laboratory conditions than in nature.

(b) Physiological specificity:

The parasites are physiologically incapable of surviving and reproducing in a

host.

Effects of Parasites on Hosts:

The effects of parasitism on the hosts are intimately associated to the effect of
host on the parasites. These effects depend on several factors, such as—age,
genetic factors, susceptibility of the hosts, the size, number and virulence of
the parasites, their mortality, migration, and method of feeding.

A. Destruction of Host’s Tissues:

1. Time of injury:
2. Types of cell damage:
3. Tissue damage

B. Competition for host’s nutrients:

i. Endoparasites with a great density causes nutritional deficiency in host by

absorbing sugars, vitamins, amino-acids etc.

ii. Mal-nourished hosts are more proned to disease and infection.

C. Utilisation of host’s non-nutritional materials:

Parasites in some cases also feed on host- substances, other than stored or
recently acquired nutrients.

Effects of toxins, poisons and secretions:

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Specific poisons or toxins egested, secreted or excreted by parasites cause

irritation and damage to hosts, e.g.

Host reaction:

1. Cellular (or cell mediated) reactions:

Where specialised cells become mobilised to arrest and eventually destroy the
parasite as usual.

2. Humoral reactions:

Where specialised molecules in the body system (hormones, secondary

metabolites) interact with the parasite, usually resulting in its immobilization
and destruction.