Lesson 1.

CONNECTED DISCOURSE
Discourse
Discourse is the use of words to exchange thoughts and ideas in an orderly and organized
manner. It deals not only with the grammar aspect of a language but also with the features of the text
and the relationship of words to one another. Discourse markers—or conjunctions, connectives, and
linking devices—help connect ideas to form a logical text. Text is the “data” in which ideas are
presented in print form. Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines it as “the original words of a piece of
writing or a speech.” But before you can even create a logical text through discourse, you have to be
guided by writing—its rules and processes.
Writing
Writing, in its literal sense, is the formation of visible letters or characters as you express your
thoughts. The act of writing is similar to the act of weaving threads to create cloth; ideas are woven
together by connecting one idea to another to create an organized text. When you write, keep in mind
that it is important for readers to grasp what you want to convey. Therefore, it is important that your
thoughts are connected to one another. To link ideas, make sure that you use proper discourse
markers.

Example:
How to Cook Chicken Adobo
Ingredients:
4 to 5 pounds chicken thighs
1/2 cup soy sauce
1/2 cup white vinegar
4 cloves of crushed garlic
1 teaspoon black peppercorns
3 bay leaves
Directions:
1. First, combine the vinegar, soy sauce, peppercorns, garlic, bay leaves, and chicken thighs
in a large pot. Cover and let the chicken marinate in the refrigerator for around one to three
hours.
2. Next, bring the chicken to a boil over high heat.
3. Afterward, lower the heat, cover, and let the chicken simmer for half an hour. Stir
occasionally.
4. Remove the lid and simmer for around 20 minutes or until the sauce thickens and the
chicken becomes tender.
5. Finally, turn off the heat and serve the adobo with rice.

Explanation:
Upon reading the text, you most likely immediately noticed that it is a recipe. But what makes it a
recipe? Notice the features of the text. The title starts with the words “how to cook,” and the headings
are “ingredients” and “directions.” From these features alone, you would already be able to tell that
the text is a recipe. Other features of this text include the use of discourse markers that express
chronological order and the use of the imperative mood in the directions.

Keypoints
 It is important that ideas in a text are connected to one another. This is so that they may be
clearly understood by readers and not cause confusion.
 Discourse is the use of words to exchange thoughts and ideas in an orderly and organized
manner. It deals not only with the grammar aspect of a language but also with the features of
the text and the relationship of words to one another.
 Discourse markers—or conjunctions, connectives, and linking devices—help connect ideas
to form a logical text.
Activity:
Target Language Use Setting : Welcoming the guests and bringing them to historical sites in
the country.
Target Language Use Task: Writing a script that details the descriptions and significance of
historical sites to be visited.
The Tourist Guide Script
You are a newly-hired tourist guide in Sojourners” Travels and Tours. Your first assignment is
to welcome the 20 delegates from Chinju University in Korea. These tourists are on an educational
tour. You need to take them to the different historical sites in the Philippines. Your task is to write a
script that gives the details of your welcoming them as well as the descriptions and historical
significance of each place to be visited. Your effectiveness as a tourist guide based on the script will
be judged using a rubric.

LESSON 2. BRAINSTORMING
 Organizing information is necessary in the prewriting stage. It helps you narrow down the
topics for your paper. You can use several techniques for selecting and organizing information.
Making a brainstorming list is one of those techniques.
Brainstorming helps you generate topics and narrow them down to one. It improves your creative
thinking skills and deepens your understanding of a possible topic. On a brainstorming list you simply
jot down all the words or ideas that come to mind about a topic. You can make the list when you have
many ideas; you can cross out some of them as you limit the topic. Also, you can refer to the list later
on when your mind goes blank as you write.
Below are the benefits of making or having a brainstorming list.
It allows you to generate ideas quickly.
It helps you recall information about a topic.

To make a brainstorming list, start by writing down a general topic. Then, write all the words or
phrases that you can think of in relation to the topic. You can mark these by using bullet points. Do
not feel pressured to come up with a coherent piece of writing yet. Simply allow yourself to generate
as many ideas as you can about the topic.
Example:
General Topic: College Course
 my interests  course requirements
 my skills  financial status
 long-term plan  practicality
 school prestige  demand
 cost of schooling  parents' approval

Explanation:
All the items listed are ideas related to the general topic. These ideas can help you come up with an
interesting and specific topic.

You can also make a brainstorming list based on a thesis statement. The thesis statement is the
main idea, argument, or purpose of your paper. After writing your thesis statement, list any word,
phrase, or statement that you c
an think of that is related to the topic. Do not restrict yourself to the sequence of ideas.
Example 1:
Your teacher asked you to write a persuasive essay about this issue: Should parents choose the
course or career for their children, or should their children make the choice themselves?
Thesis statement: Children and not their parents should choose their course or career.
 They know themselves best.  They are more likely to succeed if they Ex
pla
 They know their strengths and pursue their dream.
nati
weaknesses.  They will look forward to their daily
on:
 They will be more willing to learn if they classes or work.
Th
are doing what they want to do.  Gain more confidence
ese
 Personal happiness
rela
ted
ideas generated through brainstorming can serve as guide in developing the body of your paper.

Example 2:
In a college entrance exam, you are asked to respond to this quote:
"Your work is going to fill a large part of your life, and the only way to be truly satisfied is to do what
you believe is great work. And the only way to do great work is to love what you do."
-Steve Jobs
Thesis statement: Love whatever you choose to do.
Explanation:
These related ideas generated through brainstorming can serve as your guide in developing the body
of
 Know your strengths and weaknesses.  Respect your work. you
 Pursue a dream.  Practice, practice, practice. r
 Do what you are good at.  Always find new ways of loving your pap
 Choose a job wherein you can use your work. er.
skills.  Love your work even if it is not your first In
 Give it your best shot. choice. Ex
am
ples 1 and 2, the ideas that come to mind in relation to the given thesis statements are listed in no
particular order. These ideas can be used as supporting details to develop the thesis statement.

Summary
Making a brainstorming list is a technique for selecting and organizing information. On this list you
put any word or phrase you can think of that is related to your topic. Keep in mind that you need not
write in complete sentences. Simply generate as many ideas as you can about the topic.

ACTIVITY:

I. DIRECTIONS: Choose a topic. Construct an idea map. Write only 6 ideas on it.

1. Effects of Unemployment
2. Causes of Air Pollution
3. Causes of Human Violence
4. Benefits of Education
5. Effects of Over-population

LESSON 3. GRAPHIC ORGANIZER

Organizing information is especially helpful in taking notes, solving problems, summarizing
information, and writing compositions. One way to do this is through a graphic organizer, a tool that
uses visual displays to express relationships between or among ideas. In this lesson, you will learn
about the following graphic organizers and their uses:

 mind map
 Venn diagram
 Flowchart

Mind Map

A mind map is used to represent knowledge of a concept or idea.

To create it, you begin with an image or a word that represents the central idea. Then you add
branches of major ideas related to the central idea. You can further expand those ideas by adding
more branches.
Example:

Explanation:
The example shows a mind map that brings together major ideas and sub-ideas associated with a
central idea, that is, “Ideas for a Dance Presentation.” This graphic organizer is useful in
brainstorming and exploring topics or ideas.

Venn Diagram

A Venn diagram is used to show the similarities and differences between two or more objects or
ideas. It uses overlapping circles to represent different objects or ideas that share similar
characteristics in some way. The intersection or the area where the circles overlap shows the
characteristic that is common between or among the objects or ideas.

Explanation:
The example is a Venn diagram that illustrates the traits of three characters from a story named
Magda, Jon, and Alana. The overlapping circles show the features that two or more characters share
with “good heart” describing all of them. This is useful in presenting your analysis of similarities and
differences between the individuals.

Flowchart

A flowchart is used to show the different steps in a process. It contains information on stages of a
process that must be completed in order.

Explanation:
The example is a flowchart showing how to use a software application. The first box illustrates the
first step of the process, while the last box signals its completion. The steps in between should be
followed in sequential order to accomplish the task successfully.

Tips
There are different graphic organizers that you can use to illustrate ideas, classify information, and
summarize details. Use a graphic organizer that best fits your purpose.

 A mind map is used to represent knowledge of a concept or idea.

 A Venn diagram is used to present similarities and differences between two or more ideas.
 A flowchart is used to show the steps in a process.
PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT (DESCRIPTIVE)
I. DEFINITION OF A DESCRIPTIVE PARAGAPH
A descriptive paragraph is a focused and detail-rich account of a specific topic. Paragraphs in this
style often have a concrete focus—the sound of a waterfall, the stench of a skunk's spray—but can
also convey something abstract, such as an emotion or a memory. Some descriptive paragraphs do
both. These paragraphs help readers feel and sense the details that the writer wants to convey.
II. CHARACTERISTICS OF A DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPH
It has a subject worthy of description .
It has an emphasis , either direct or indirect , on the five senses .
It uses figures of speech to enrich the description and spark reader interest .
It has one of three patterns of organization: chronological, spatial , or an order of importance .
III. HOW TO CONSTRUCT A DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPH
Read other writers' descriptions. This will help you recognize what works in descriptive writing and
what doesn't.
Plan your description. Think about the subject. Close your eyes and immerse yourself in it. If
describing a place, imagine you are actually there. Notice all the sights, smells and noises around
you. If describing a character, imagine he is standing in front of you and look at him closely,
visualizing all the details of his appearance. Imagine he is talking to you.
Make notes. Never attempt to write something until you have done this. Make notes based on all the
thinking you imagined in the previous step. Write down notes relating to all five senses. Think about
and jot down any strong adjectives and adverbs you could use in your description. Write down any
ideas for metaphors, similes and personification.
Make a draft. Try out different sentences, words, adjectives and see if they work. If not, try new ones.
Use a thesaurus to help you find alternative words if your writing is too repetitive or if you want a word
that is more dramatic or descriptive. Try writing a sentence to describe each of the five senses.
Attempt different ways of ordering your sentences to see which is the most effective How
Write your paragraph once you are pleased with your draft. Use your notes and your draft to help
you. Make sure you include all the relevant information and that you use a variety of different kinds of
sentences to make your paragraph interesting. Check that your sentences are grammatically correct
and that you have used the right punctuation.
Read through your finished paragraph. Try reading it out loud so you can really hear how the
vocabulary you have chosen creates a mood and brings your description alive. Have a friend or
classmate read your paragraph to see if she can picture what it is you are trying to describe. Don't be
frightened to change anything you are not satisfied with.
Example:
My Room
The door is white, with some scratches at the bottom from my pug scraping it with her claws. My
pug scratches the door when she wants to come into my room. The door handle is brown and metal.
At the complete bottom of the door is a rubber flap, which I do not know the reason why it is there.
The room is about three lengths of my arm span, including the closet.
The floor in my room is wooden, and it creaks when stepped on. However, I do have one white,
plush carpet approximately in the middle of the floor. It is rather clean-looking, considering it is white
and that it is not washed regularly.
To the left of the door is a leather chair, of which is of no particular use, besides hanging half-used
clothes on it. Past the chair is my electronic station, where I charge my phone at night, and charge my
shaver during the day. Also, center-left is a rectangular window overlooking our backyard garden and
swimming pool. It is a pleasant view for a cold room.
Center-left and far-left is my queen-size bed, with white and grey covers, and white and other
colors for the blanket. The blanket in particular has a floral design and is heavy. My pillow has a white
case and nothing else to it. The frame of the bed is wooden and beige in color.
 Above, to the right of the bed, is a narrow, elongated window, which allows one to view the sky
and neighbor’s fence. On the sill, there is a candle lamp, of which I never use. I can often find dead
insects on the sill as well, such as flies.
Below that window is my meditation altar to the right, and a small table to the left of the altar,
which houses books and random papers. It is barely big enough to hold these books and papers in an
organized fashion. My meditation altar is covered in a red cotton cloth and features a picture of my
meditation teacher. There is a candle in front of the picture of my teacher.
To the right of the altar is my closet, which contains a rack of sweaters, a suit, scarfs, and belts.
There is also a brown, lean dresser, which has the rest of my clothes in it. On the floor, below the
rack, there are miscellaneous items, such as an extra blanket, shoes, and hair oil. Right before the
closet on the left of it, and before the altar, is my tabla drums, replete with a hammer and a small
bottle of talcum powder.
The walls are all white, except the back room, which is covered with a blue, mosaic-patterned
cloth. The curtains over the large window are also white and see-through, which almost defeat the
purpose of having them. The ceiling is white, but with black blotches above the meditation altar
because of candle and incense smoke.
It is one of the coldest rooms in our house, as the windows are quite old and thin, and lack
insulation. During autumn and winter, sometimes a heater is brought in to feel comfortable. However,
with enough heavy blankets, sleep is manageable.
It is a simple room without much purpose other than sleeping, meditating, and playing percussion.
But I am a down-to-earth person, and it matches what I need.
LESSON 9. EXEMPLIFICATION/CLASSIFICATION

Exemplification
Exemplification is one of the most common and effective ways to show or explain an idea or point
(e.g., observation, opinion, belief). In this pattern of development, the main idea is explained by giving
an extended example or a series of detailed examples.

Many writing assignments in various disciplines require the use of exemplification. Argumentative and
exemplification essays, feature articles, reviews, reports, and case studies often use examples to
prove a point.

Example:
Today, men and women of all ages undergo surgery to feel good about themselves. Three of the
most popular surgical procedures are liposuction, facelifts, and hair transplants. First, liposuction is a
quick fix for those who find good diet and exercise ineffective and time consuming. Next, surgical
facelifts promise men and women a younger and fresher look. Lastly, hair transplants are now
possible, especially for balding men. Thanks to medical advances, men can now avoid the harsh
reality of losing their hair by undergoing a long-lasting hair transplant procedure.

Source: Adapted from link (accessed on April 2, 2016)

Explanation:
This paragraph expounds on the main idea, which is stated in the first sentence, through specific
examples. The examples, which are the surgical procedures and their purpose, support the main
idea.

Classification
Classification refers to sorting or arranging subjects (e.g., persons, places, things, ideas) into groups
or categories according to their common or shared characteristic. The subjects can be grouped in
many different ways depending on your purpose. With a purpose in mind, you can determine how to
group the subjects in your list. The group or category should have a single basis of classification.

Classification is commonly done in various disciplines. Classifying historical events by year, popular
TV shows by genre, diseases based on mode of transmission, cleaning products based on
manufacturer, and animals based on habitat are some examples of topics in different disciplines.

Example:
The Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) are composed of the Philippine Army, the Philippine Air
Force, the Philippine Navy, and the Philippine Marine Corps. The Philippine Army, the main and
largest branch, is responsible for ground warfare. It was established on December 21, 1935, and it
has 86,000 active personnel. The Philippine Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch. It has
15,000 active personnel and a total of 126 aircraft. It has been active since July 1, 1947. The
Philippine Navy is the naval service branch. It was founded on May 20, 1898 and has a total of 101
ships and 24,000 active personnel. The Philippine Marine Corps conducts amphibious and
expeditionary warfare as well as special operation missions. It was established on November 2, 1950,
and it has 8,300 active personnel.

Explanation:
This paragraph presents the four branches of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. It provides details
about each branch, such as function, date of establishment, and number of active personnel.

Using Exemplification and Classification

You can use both exemplification and classification in developing a paragraph. You can begin by
classifying some ideas and then explain each idea by giving examples.
Example:

Pollution of air, land, and water affects people’s health. Toxic gases, particulate matter (e.g., smoke,
soot, dust), and other hazardous air pollutants can contaminate the air. If breathed, the air causes or
exacerbates serious respiratory problems, such as asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, and lung
disease. Toxic wastes like chemicals, garbage, pesticides, and heavy metals make the land toxic. If
people are exposed to such land, they can develop skin problems, deformities, and certain types of
cancer. Chemicals, sewage, fertilizers, and other harmful substances can contaminate primary water
sources like the oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, and streams. Water from affected sources can cause
stomach illness, liver damage, certain types of cancer, and neurological problems in people.

Explanation:
The first sentence of the paragraph states the main idea, and the three types of pollution are its
subject. The sentences that follow provide support. They give examples of pollutants and the health
problems that those pollutants cause.

Key Points
 Exemplification shows, proves, or explains a general idea or point by using examples.
 Classification refers to sorting or arranging subjects into groups or categories according to
their common or shared characteristic.
 The group or category should have a single basis of classification, and the grouping or
categorization must suit the purpose.
 You can use both exemplification and classification in developing a paragraph.

ACTIVITY. Write one paragraph for each of the given patterns of development- exemplification
and classification. Choose one topic from the topics listed under each.
Exemplification Classification -
- Online trends - Ways of studying
- Dangerous habits - Music genres
- Types of friends
LESSON 10. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
Comparison
To compare persons, things, places, events, situations, or ideas is to show how they are alike. You
need to identify the points of comparison and make a list of similar characteristics or qualities for
each point of comparison.

The following are words that signal similarities:

 also  similarly
 like  in the same way
 both  equally important
 as... as  likewise

Example:
The old formulation of the drug (MAC) and the new formulation (MAC-II) have similar effects on the
test mice. Within 7 days, both mice lost weight. The mouse treated with MAC, mouse A, lost 2.2
grams (g), while the mouse given with MAC-II, mouse B, lost 2.4 g. Also, there was no increase in
hair growth on both subjects. Lastly, the mice similarly exhibited low energy levels. Mouse A started
to become lethargic on day 4, while mouse B became lethargic on day 5.

Explanation:
In the text, two mice are compared. Each point of comparison (i.e., weight loss, hair growth, and
energy level) is drawn. Also, the words both and similarly are used to signal comparison.

Contrast
To contrast persons, things, places, events, situations, or ideas is to show how they are different. To
do so, you need to make a list of the characteristics or qualities of the subjects and then identify the
differences between them.

The following are some words that signal contrast:

 but
 however
 though
 on the other hand
 in contrast

Example:
In the venture capital industry, a start-up company can either be a “unicorn” or a “bust.” Unicorns
have a valuation of over $1 billion, a high market interest, and a novel product. On the other hand,
busts fail to reach their minimum funding goal, have a low market interest, and have a mediocre
product.

Explanation:
In the text, two types of start-up companies are contrasted. Their different characteristics are stated in
two separate sentences connected by the phrase on the other hand, which signals a contrast
between the two subjects.

Comparison and Contrast

Comparison and contrast paragraphs are common in writing in many academic disciplines like the
humanities, sciences, and business. Such paragraphs can be found in character analyses; various
kinds of essays; political science, sociology, and historical papers; lab reports; progress reports; book
and film reviews; and marketing campaigns.

A paragraph developed by comparison and contrast has a unifying idea or purpose. Also, it must be
balanced in such a way that there is an equal amount of information for each subject to avoid bias.

Example:
Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo are regarded as two of the greatest artists from the
Renaissance. Both were geniuses; they mastered techniques that made them superior to their
contemporaries. Also, they were similarly interested in anatomy, which helped them produce highly
realistic works. However, they each had a distinct style. Da Vinci developed a style that was feminine
and full of light. On the other hand, Michelangelo preferred his works to be masculine and dark.

Explanation:
In the text, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo are compared and contrasted for the purpose of
showing both their greatness and individuality as artists. Their similarities were mentioned first and
then their differences.

Key Points
 To compare subjects is to show the similarities between them, while to contrast them is to
point out their differences.
 Comparison and contrast can both be used in the development of a text or paragraph
depending on your purpose.

ACTIVITY . Write a paragraph using the comparison-contrast pattern of development from any
topic that you want, or from the suggested topics listed:
 Living in the province and in the city
 Lifestyle of the poor and rich
 World before and now