Chapter1 Notes Malik Discrete

Chapter 1:
Foundations: Sets, Logic, and Algorithms
Discrete Mathematics:
Theory and Applications (Revised Edition)
Learning Objectives
Learn about sets
Explore various operations on sets
Become familiar with Venn diagrams
Learn how to represent sets in computer

memory
Learn about statements (propositions)
Discrete Mathematics: Theory and Applications (Revised Edition) 2

Learning Objectives
Learn how to use logical connectives to combine

statements
Explore how to draw conclusions using various

argument forms
Become familiar with quantifiers and predicates
Learn various proof techniques
Explore what an algorithm is

Sets
Definition: Well-defined collection of distinct
objects
Members or Elements: part of the collection
Roster Method: Description of a set by listing the
elements, enclosed with braces
Examples:
Vowels = {a,e,i,o,u}
Primary colors = {red, blue, yellow}
Membership examples
“a belongs to the set of Vowels” is written as: a 
Vowels
“j does not belong to the set of Vowels: j  Vowels
Sets
Set-builder method
A = { x | x  S, P(x) } or A = { x  S | P(x) }
 A is the set of all elements x of S, such that x

satisfies the property P
Example:
If X = {2,4,6,8,10}, then in set-builder notation, X

can be described as
X = {n  Z | n is even and 2  n  10}

Sets
Standard Symbols which denote sets of numbers

Sets
Subsets
“X is a subset of Y” is written as X  Y
“X is not a subset of Y” is written as X Y
Example:
 X = {a,e,i,o,u}, Y = {a, i, u} and z = {b,c,d,f,g}
Y  X, since every element of Y is an element of X
Y Z, since a  Y, but a  Z

Sets
Superset
X and Y are sets. If X  Y, then “X is contained in
Y” or “Y contains X” or Y is a superset of X,
written Y  X
Proper Subset
X and Y are sets. X is a proper subset of Y if X 
Y and there exists at least one element in Y that is
not in X. This is written X  Y.
Example:
 X = {a,e,i,o,u}, Y = {a,e,i,o,u,y}
X  Y , since y  Y, but y  X

Sets
Set Equality
X and Y are sets. They are said to be equal if every
element of X is an element of Y and every element
of Y is an element of X, i.e. X  Y and Y  X
Examples:
{1,2,3} = {2,3,1}
X = {red, blue, yellow} and Y = {c | c is a primary
color} Therefore, X=Y
Empty (Null) Set
A Set is Empty (Null) if it contains no elements.
The Empty Set is written as 
The Empty Set is a subset of every set
Sets
Finite and Infinite Sets
X is a set. If there exists a nonnegative integer n
such that X has n elements, then X is called a
finite set with n elements.
If a set is not finite, then it is an infinite set.
Examples:
 Y = {1,2,3} is a finite set
 P = {red, blue, yellow} is a finite set
 E the set of all even integers, is an infinite set
  , the Empty Set, is a finite set with 0 elements

Sets
Cardinality of Sets
Let S be a finite set with n distinct elements,
where n ≥ 0. Then |S| = n , where the cardinality
(number of elements) of S is n
Example:
If P = {red, blue, yellow}, then |P| = 3
Singleton
 A set with only one element is a singleton
Example:
H = { 4 }, |H| = 1, H is a singleton

Sets
Power Set
For any set X ,the power set of X ,written P(X),is
the set of all subsets of X
Example:
If X = {red, blue, yellow}, then P(X) = {  , {red},
{blue}, {yellow}, {red,blue}, {red, yellow}, {blue,
yellow}, {red, blue, yellow} }
Universal Set
An arbitrarily chosen, but fixed set

Sets
Venn Diagrams
Abstract visualization
of a Universal set, U
as a rectangle, with all
subsets of U shown as
circles.
Shaded portion
represents the
corresponding set
Example:
In Figure 1.1, Set X,
shaded, is a subset of
the Universal set, U

Sets
Union of Sets
Example:
If X = {1,2,3,4,5} and Y = {5,6,7,8,9}, then
X∪Y = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}
Sets
Intersection of Sets
Example:
If X = {1,2,3,4,5} and Y = {5,6,7,8,9}, then X ∩ Y = {5}

Sets
Disjoint Sets
Example:
If X = {1,2,3,4,} and Y = {6,7,8,9}, then X ∩ Y = 

Sets

Sets

Sets
 The union and intersection of three, four, or even

infinitely many sets can be considered
 For a finite collection of n sets, X1, X2, … Xn where n
≥2:

Sets
Index Set

Sets
Example:
If A = {a,b,c}, B = {x, y, z} and C = {1,2,3}

then A ∩ B =  and B ∩ C =  and A ∩ C
= . Therefore, A,B,C are pairwise disjoint

Sets
• Example:
If X = {a,b,c,d} and Y =
{c,d,e,f}, then X – Y =
{a,b} and Y – X = {e,f}

Sets
Example:
If U = {a,b,c,d,e,f} and X = {c,d,e,f}, then X’ = {a,b}
Sets

Sets

Sets
Example:
X = {a,b}, Y = {c,d}
X × Y = {(a,c), (a,d), (b,c), (b,d)}
Y × X = {(c,a), (d,a), (c,b), (d,b)}
Sets

Sets
Computer Representation of Sets
A Set may be stored in a computer in an array as
an unordered list
Problem: Difficult to perform operations on the set.
 Solution: use Bit Strings
 A Bit String is a sequence of 0s and 1s
 Length of a Bit String is the number of digits in the string
 Elements appear in order in the bit string
 A 0 indicates an element is absent, a 1 indicates that
the element is present

Mathematical Logic
Definition: Methods of reasoning, provides rules

and techniques to determine whether an
argument is valid
Theorem: a statement that can be shown to be
true (under certain conditions)
Example: If x is an even integer, then x + 1 is an
odd integer
This statement is true under the condition that x is
an integer is true

Mathematical Logic

Mathematical Logic

Mathematical Logic
 Truth value
 One of the values “truth” or “falsity” assigned to a
statement
 True is abbreviated to T or 1
 False is abbreviated to F or 0
 Negation
 The negation of p, written ∼p, is the statement obtained by
negating statement p
Truth values of p and ∼p are opposite
Symbol ~ is called “not” ~p is read as as “not p”
Example:
p: A is a consonant
~p: it is the case that A is not a consonant
q: Are you in charge?

Mathematical Logic
 Truth Table
 Conjunction
 Let p and q be statements.The conjunction of p and q,
written p ^ q , is the statement formed by joining statements p
and q using the word “and”
The statement p∧q is true if both p and q are true;
otherwise p∧q is false

Mathematical Logic
Conjunction
Truth Table for
Conjunction:

Mathematical Logic
Disjunction
Let p and q be statements. The disjunction of p

and q, written p ∨ q , is the statement formed by
joining statements p and q using the word “or”
The statement p∨q is true if at least one of the

statements p and q is true; otherwise p∨q is
false
The symbol ∨ is read “or”

Mathematical Logic
Disjunction
Truth Table for
Disjunction:

Mathematical Logic
Implication
Let p and q be statements.The statement “if p
then q” is called an implication or condition.
The implication “if p then q” is written p  q
p  q is read:
“If p, then q”
“p is sufficient for q”
q if p
q whenever p

Mathematical Logic
Implication
Truth Table for Implication:
p is called the hypothesis, q is called the

conclusion

Mathematical Logic
Implication
Let p: Today is Sunday and q: I will wash the car.
The conjunction p  q is the statement:
p  q : If today is Sunday, then I will wash the car
The converse of this implication is written q  p
If I wash the car, then today is Sunday
The inverse of this implication is ~p  ~q
If today is not Sunday, then I will not wash the car
The contrapositive of this implication is ~q  ~p
If I do not wash the car, then today is not Sunday

Mathematical Logic
Biimplication
Let p and q be statements. The statement “p if
and only if q” is called the biimplication or
biconditional of p and q
The biconditional “p if and only if q” is written p 
q
p  q is read:
“p if and only if q”
“p is necessary and sufficient for q”
“q if and only if p”
“q when and only when p”

Mathematical Logic
Biconditional
Truth Table for the Biconditional:

Mathematical Logic
 Statement Formulas
 Definitions
 Symbols p ,q ,r ,...,called statement variables
 Symbols ~, ∧, ∨, →,and ↔ are called logical
connectives
1) A statement variable is a statement formula
2) If A and B are statement formulas, then the
expressions (~A ), (A ∧ B) , (A ∨ B ), (A → B )
and (A ↔ B ) are statement formulas
 Expressions are statement formulas that are
constructed only by using 1) and 2) above

Mathematical Logic
Precedence of logical connectives is:
~ highest
∧ second highest
∨ third highest
→ fourth highest
↔ fifth highest

Mathematical Logic
Example:
Let A be the statement formula
Truth Table for A is:

Mathematical Logic
Tautology
A statement formula A is said to be a tautology if
the truth value of A is T for any assignment of the
truth values T and F to the statement variables
occurring in A
Contradiction
A statement formula A is said to be a
contradiction if the truth value of A is F for any
assignment of the truth values T and F to the
statement variables occurring in A

Mathematical Logic
Logically Implies
A statement formula A is said to logically imply a
statement formula B if the statement formula A →
B is a tautology. If A logically implies B, then
symbolically we write A → B
Logically Equivalent
A statement formula A is said to be logically
equivalent to a statement formula B if the
statement formula A ↔ B is a tautology. If A is
logically equivalent to B , then symbolically we
write A ≡ B (or A ⇔ B)
Mathematical Logic

Mathematical Logic
 Proof of (~p ∧q ) → (~(q →p ))

Mathematical Logic
 Proof of (~p ∧q ) → (~(q →p )) [Continued]

Validity of Arguments
Proof: an argument or a proof of a theorem
consists of a finite sequence of statements
ending in a conclusion A1 , A2 , A3 , ..., An1 , An
Argument: a finite sequence
of statements.
The final statement, An , is the conclusion, and
the statements A1 , A2 , A3 , ..., An1 are the
premises of the argument.
An argument is logically valid if the statement
formula A1 , A2 , A3 , ..., An 1  An is a tautology.

Valid Argument Forms
Modus Ponens (Method of Affirming)
Modus Tollens (Method of Denying)

Disjunctive Syllogisms
Disjunctive Syllogisms

 Valid Argument Forms
 Hypothetical Syllogism
 Dilemma

Conjunctive Simplification
Conjunctive Simplification

Valid Argument
Forms
Disjunctive Addition
Disjunctive Addition


Conjunctive Addition

Quantifiers and First Order Logic
Predicate or Propositional Function

Let x be a variable and D be a set; P(x) is a
sentence
Then P(x) is called a predicate or propositional
function with respect to the set D if for each
value of x in D, P(x) is a statement; i.e., P(x) is
true or false
Moreover, D is called the domain of the
discourse and x is called the free variable

Predicate or Propositional Function
Example:
 Q(x,y) : x > y, where the Domain is the set of
integers
 Q is a 2-place predicate
 Q is T for Q(4,3) and Q is F for Q (3,4)
Universal Quantifier
Let P(x) be a predicate and let D be the domain
of the discourse. The universal quantification of
P(x) is the statement:
For all x, P(x) or
For every x, P(x)
The symbol  is read as “for all and every”
 x P ( x)
 Two-place predicate: xy P ( x, y )

Existential Quantifier
Let P(x) be a predicate and let D be the domain
of the discourse. The existential quantification of
P(x) is the statement:
There exists x, P(x)
The symbol  is read as “there exists”
 x P ( x)
 Bound Variable
The variable appearing in: x P ( x) or x P ( x)

Negation of Predicates (DeMorgan’s Laws)

 ~ x P( x)  x ~ P( x)
Example:
 If P(x) is the statement “x has won a race” where
the domain of discourse is all runners, then the
universal quantification of P(x) is x P ( x) , i.e.,
every runner has won a race. The negation of this
statement is “it is not the case that every runner
has won a race. Therefore there exists at least one
runner who has not won a race. Therefore: x ~ P ( x )
and so,
~ x P( x)  x ~ P( x)
Negation of Predicates (DeMorgan’s

Laws)
 ~ x P ( x)  x ~ P ( x)

Formulas in Predicate Logic
All statement formulas are considered formulas
Each n, n =1,2,...,n-place predicate P( x1 , x2 , ... , xn )
containing the variables x1 , x2 , ... , xn is a formula.
If A and B are formulas, then the expressions , A,
(A∧B), (A∨B) , A →B and A↔B are statement
formulas, where , ∧, ∨, → and ↔ are logical
connectives
If A is a formula and x is a variable, then ∀x A(x) and
∃x A(x) are formulas
All formulas constructed using only above rules are
considered formulas in predicate logic

Additional Rules of Inference
If the statement ∀x P(x) is assumed to be true, then
P(a) is also true,where a is an arbitrary member of the
domain of the discourse. This rule is called the
universal specification (US)
If P(a) is true, where a is an arbitrary member of the
domain of the discourse, then ∀x P(x) is true. This
rule is called the universal generalization (UG)
If the statement ∃x P (x) is true, then P(a) is true, for
some member of the domain of the discourse. This
rule is called the existential specification (ES)
If P(a) is true for some member a of the domain of the
discourse, then ∃x P(x) is also true. This rule is
called the existential generalization (EG)
Counterexample
An argument has the form ∀x (P(x ) → Q(x )), where
the domain of discourse is D
To show that this implication is not true in the domain D,
it must be shown that there exists some x in D such that
(P(x ) → Q(x )) is not true
This means that there exists some x in D such that P(x)
is true but Q(x) is not true. Such an x is called a
counterexample of the above implication
To show that ∀x (P(x) → Q(x)) is false by finding an x
in D such that P(x) → Q(x) is false is called the
disproof of the given statement by counterexample

Proof Techniques
Theorem
Statement that can be shown to be true (under

certain conditions)
Typically Stated in one of three ways
As Facts
As Implications
As Biimplications

Proof Techniques
Direct Proof or Proof by Direct Method
Proof of those theorems that can be expressed in
the form ∀x (P(x) → Q(x)), D is the domain of
discourse
Select a particular, but arbitrarily chosen, member
a of the domain D
Show that the statement P(a) → Q(a) is true.
(Assume that P(a) is true
Show that Q(a) is true
By the rule of Universal Generalization (UG),
∀x (P(x) → Q(x)) is true
Proof Techniques
Indirect Proof
The implication p → q is equivalent to the
implication (∼q → ∼p)
Therefore, in order to show that p → q is true,
one can also show that the implication
(∼q → ∼p) is true
To show that (∼q → ∼p) is true, assume that the
negation of q is true and prove that the negation
of p is true

Proof Techniques
Proof by Contradiction
Assume that the conclusion is not true and then
arrive at a contradiction
Example: Prove that there are infinitely many prime
numbers
Proof:
Assume there are not infinitely many prime numbers,
therefore they are listable, i.e. p1,p2,…,pn
Consider the number q = p1p2…pn+1. q is not
divisible by any of the listed primes
Therefore, q is a prime. However, it was not listed.
Contradiction! Therefore, there are infinitely many
primes
Proof Techniques

Proof Techniques
Proof of Biimplications
To prove a theorem of the form ∀x (P(x) ↔
Q(x )), where D is the domain of the
discourse, consider an arbitrary but fixed
element a from D. For this a, prove that the
biimplication P(a) ↔ Q(a) is true
The biimplication p ↔ q is equivalent to
(p → q) ∧ (q → p)
Prove that the implications p → q and q → p
are true
Assume that p is true and show that q is true
Assume that q is true and show that p is true
Proof Techniques
Proof of Equivalent Statements

Consider the theorem that says that statements
p,q and r are equivalent
Show that p → q, q → r and r → p
Assume p and prove q. Then assume q and prove
r Finally, assume r and prove p
Or, prove that p if and only if q, and then q if and
only if r
Other methods are possible

Algorithms
 Definition: step-by-step problem-solving process in which a
solution is arrived at in a finite amount of time
 All algorithms have the following properties:
Input : For example, a set of numbers to find the sum of
the numbers
Output : For example, the sum of the numbers
Precision : Each step of the algorithm is precisely defined
Uniqueness : Results of each step are unique and depend
on the input and results of previous step
Finiteness : Algorithm must terminate after executing a
finite number of steps
Generality : Algorithm is general in that it applies to a set
of inputs
Algorithms
 Pseudocode Conventions
 The symbol := is called the assignment operator
Example: The statement x := a is read as “assign the value a
to x” or “x gets the value a” or “copy the value of a into x”
x := a is also known as an assignment statement
 Control Structures
One way-selection
if booleanExpression then statement
If booleanExpression evaluates to true, statement is
evaluated
Two way-selection
if booleanExpression then statement1
else statement2
If booleanExpression evaluates to true , statement1
executes,
otherwise statement2 executes
Algorithms
 Control Structures
The while loop takes the form:
while booleanExpression do loopBody
The booleanExpression is evaluated. If it evaluates
to true, loopBody executes. Thereafter loopBody
continues to execute as long as booleanExpression
is true
The for loop takes the form:
for var := start to limit do loopBody
var is an integer variable. The variable var is set to
the value specified by start. If var limit, loopBody

executes. After executing the loopBody , var is
incremented by 1. The statement continues to
execute until var > limit
Algorithms
Pseudocode Conventions
Control Structures
The do/while loop takes the form:
do loopBody while booleanExpression
The loopBody is executed first and then the

booleanExpression is evaluated. The loopBody
continues to execute as long as the
booleanExpression is true

Algorithms
Block of Statement
To consider a set of statements a single
statement, the statements are written between the
words begin and end
begin
statement1
statement2
...
statementn;
end

Algorithms
Return Statement
The return statement is used to return the value
computed by the algorithm and it takes the following
form:
return expression;
The value specified by expression is returned. In an
algorithm, the execution of a return statement also
terminates the algorithm
Read and Print Statements
read x;
Read the next value and store it in the variable x
print x;
Output the value of x
Algorithms
Arrays (List)
A list is a set of elements of the same type
The length of the list is the number of elements in the list
L[1...n ]. L is an array of n components, indexed 1 to n . L[i ]
denotes the ith element of L
For data in tabular form, a two-dimensional array is used:
M[1...m,1...n ] M is a two-dimensional array of m rows
and n columns
The rows are indexed 1 to m and the columns are
indexed 1 to n
M[i,j] denotes the (i,j)th element of M, that is, the element
at the ith row and jth column position

Algorithms
 Subprograms (Procedures)
In a programming language,an algorithm is implemented in
the form of a subprogram, a.k.a. a subroutine or a module
Two types of subprograms
Functions
Returns a unique value
Procedure
Other types of subprograms
body of the function or procedure is enclosed between the
words begin and end
the execution of a return statement in a function terminates
the function

Algorithms
 Comments
In describing the steps of an algorithm, comments are
included wherever necessary to clarify the steps
Two types of comments: single-line and multi-line
Single-line comments start anywhere in the line
with the pair of symbols //
Multi-line comments are enclosed between the pair
of symbols /* and */
Specifies what the algorithm does, as well as the input
and output

Algorithms
Polynomial Operations
 Polynomial in one variable is
 ai are real (or complex) and n is a non-negative integer

 If p(x) = a0 then p(x) is a constant polynomial
 If p(x) is a nonzero constant polynomial, then the degree of p(x) is
defined to be 0
 If p(x) is not constant and an  0, then n is called the degree of p(x);
that is, the degree of a non-constant polynomial is defined to be the
exponent of the highest power of x
 The basic operations performed on polynomials are to add, subtract,
multiply, and divide polynomials, and to evaluate a polynomial at a
given point

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Chapter 1:

Foundations: Sets, Logic, and Algorithms

Explore various operations on sets

Become familiar with Venn diagrams

Learn how to represent sets in computer

Learn about statements (propositions)

Discrete Mathematics: Theory and Applications (Revised Edition) 2

Learn how to use logical connectives to combine

Explore how to draw conclusions using various

Become familiar with quantifiers and predicates

Learn various proof techniques

Explore what an algorithm is

 A is the set of all elements x of S, such that x

If X = {2,4,6,8,10}, then in set-builder notation, X

X = {n  Z | n is even and 2  n  10}

Discrete Mathematics: Theory and Applications (Revised Edition) 5

Discrete Mathematics: Theory and Applications (Revised Edition) 6

“X is a subset of Y” is written as X  Y

“X is not a subset of Y” is written as X Y

Y  X, since every element of Y is an element of X

Discrete Mathematics: Theory and Applications (Revised Edition) 7

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 The union and intersection of three, four, or even

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If A = {a,b,c}, B = {x, y, z} and C = {1,2,3}

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Definition: Methods of reasoning, provides rules

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Let p and q be statements. The disjunction of p

The statement p∨q is true if at least one of the

The symbol ∨ is read “or”

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p is called the hypothesis, q is called the

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