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Archaeology - February 2020 USA PDF
Archaeology - February 2020 USA PDF
Archaeology - February 2020 USA PDF
This 4,300-year-old
Egyptian tomb is
one of the
TOP 10
DISCOVERIES
OF 2019
The End of the
Inca Empire
Japan’s
Sacred Island
A Notorious
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PLUS:
Viking Identity Crisis
Assyrian Astronomers
Herodotus’ Nile Cruise
Bringing up Bronze Age Baby
Manuel Antonio National Park
Capuchin Monkey
Morpho
Keel-billed Toucan Butterfly Three-toed Sloth Birdwatching at Caño Negro
It’s Caravan’s Costa Rica! 2020 Is Your Year to Go. Call Now for Choice Dates.
CONTENTS
FEATURES
archaeology.org 1
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archaeology.org 3
EDITOR’S LETTER
Editor in Chief
Eric A. Powell
Senior Editors
Benjamin Leonard
Daniel Weiss
I
Associate Editor
n this issue, longtime readers of ARCHAEOLOGY PD\QRWLFHVXEWOHEXWZHIHHOVLJQL¿FDQW Marley Brown
changes to two of our most popular sections. Rest assured that the depth and diversity Editorial Assistant
Malin Grunberg Banyasz
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formerly known as From the Trenches, under the title Digs & Discoveries. And readers who Creative Director
HQMR\RXUJOREDOPDSSLQSRLQWLQJUHFHQW¿QGVFDQQRZORFDWH:RUOG5RXQGXSXQGHUWKH Richard Bleiweiss
QDPH$URXQGWKH:RUOG Maps
Since we introduced maps in many of our articles a little less than Ken Feisel
a year ago, dozens of readers have shared with us how much this
Contributing Editors
has enriched their experience of the magazine, and we believe Roger Atwood, Paul Bahn,
UHIHUULQJWRWKLVVHFWLRQDV$URXQGWKH:RUOGH[SUHVVHVWKLVFDUĥ Bob Brier, Karen Coates,
tographic emphasis. The impetus behind Digs & Discoveries, on Andrew Curry, Blake Edgar,
WKHRWKHUKDQGZDVPRWLYDWHGE\VHLVPLFFKDQJHVLQWKH¿HOGRI Brian Fagan, David Freidel,
archaeology itself. So many exciting discoveries are now made not Tom Gidwitz, Andrew Lawler,
Stephen H. Lekson,
only in excavation trenches, but also by researchers studying satelĥ
Jerald T. Milanich, Heather Pringle,
lite and drone images, by scholars working in museums where they Kate Ravilious, Neil Asher
reexamine artifacts from previous excavations and arrive at entirely new Silberman, Julian Smith,
conclusions, and by scientists in laboratories uncovering new details about the past without Nikhil Swaminathan,
ever moving an inch of soil. Jason Urbanus, Claudia Valentino,
$QRWKHULPSRUWDQWGHYHORSPHQWLQWKH¿HOGLVWKHIRFXVPDQ\DUFKDHRORJLVWVQRZSODFH Zach Zorich
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0DQLQ3UDJXH&DVWOH´DQG³)ULHQG"5RPDQ"&RXQWU\PDQ"´\RXZLOOUHDGDERXWVFKRODUVZKR Kevin Quinlan
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IHDWXUHGRQWKHFRYHU:HNQRZ\RXZLOODJUHHWKDW2019 was an amazing year for archaeology
Editorial Advisory Board
and for ARCHAEOLOGY.
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ARC17
FROM THE PRESIDENT Archaeological
Institute of America
DEAR READER,
OFFICERS
President
A
s a longtime ARCHAEOLOGY subscriber, I am delighted to introduce myself Jodi Magness
to you as the incoming president of the Archaeological Institute of America First Vice President
/DHWLWLDLa Follette
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chaeologists and lay enthusiasts who belong to more than 100DɷOLDWHGORFDOVRFLHWLHV Vice President for Research and Academic Affairs
Thomas Tartaron
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7KHUH\RXFDQPHHWDUFKDHRORJLVWVDQGKHDUWKHPWDONDERXWWKHLUZRUNWKURXJKWKH Elizabeth S. Greene
AIA’s lecture program, which sponsors more than 200HYHQWVHYHU\\HDU2QHRIP\ Vice President for Societies
Connie Rodriguez
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Past President
Andrew Moore
Trustees Emeriti
Brian Heidtke
Norma Kershaw
Charles S. La Follette
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LETTERS
I
n the aftermath of World Warrior burial, Prague Castle
War I, as a result of the
FROODSVH RI WKH $XVWURĥ
Hungarian Empire, several
new countries were created
in Central Europe. In a
TXHVWWRGH¿QHWKHPVHOYHV
they sought new national
stories. However, such
narratives are often not
new at all. Instead, they
hark back to a past that is
sometimes part mythology,
SDUW KLVWRU\ħEXW DOZD\V
potent. At the heart of
Czechoslovakia’s national
story was a 1,000ĥ\HDUĥ
old skeleton of a warrior
buried with his weapons
deep within the oldest
part of Prague Castle.
For almost a century, the
shifting interpretations of
WKLVPDQ¶VLGHQWLW\KDYHUHÀHFWHGWKHFDWDFO\VPLFSROLWLFDO VZRUG D OHDWKHU SRXFK FRQWDLQLQJ D GHFRUDWHG ¿UHĥVWULNHU
XSKHDYDOV RI WKH WZHQWLHWK FHQWXU\ħIURP WKH 1D]L DQGDVPDOOÀLQWDQGRWKHUDVVRUWHGPHWDOREMHFWV7KHPDQ
RFFXSDWLRQ WR WKH HUD RI 6RYLHW GRPLQDWLRQ DQG ¿QDOO\ D ZDVWHQWDWLYHO\LGHQWL¿HGDV%RɟLYRM,RUKLVVRQ6S\WLKQY
return to independent statehood. ,PHPEHUVRIWKH6ODYLF3ɟHP\VOLG'\QDVW\WKDWUXOHGWKH
5HFHQWO\ D WHDP RI DUFKDHRORJLVWV LQFOXGLQJ 1LFKRODV region around Prague from the ninth to early fourteenth
Saunders of the University of Bristol, Jan Frolik of the Czech centuries, explains Frolik.
Academy of Sciences, and Volker Heyd of the University of -XVW RYHU D GHFDGH DIWHU WKLV LGHQWL¿FDWLRQ WKH 1D]LV
Helsinki reengaged this topic. “Physical remains stay the LQYDGHG&]HFKRVORYDNLD1D]LVFLHQWLVWVDFFXVHGWKHRULJLQDO
VDPHEXWRXULQWHUSUHWDWLRQVRIWKHPUHÀHFWDQGUHLQIRUFH excavator of hiding the man’s true identity and declared, on
views and attitudes of the time in which we make them,” the basis of the artifacts, that the man had actually been a
Saunders says. “We wanted to explore issues of contested 9LNLQJQRWD6ODY,Q1D]LLGHRORJ\VD\V6DXQGHUV9LNLQJ
LGHQWLW\DFURVVWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\DQGWKHUROHRIFRQÀLFW 1RUGLF DQG *HUPDQLF LGHQWLW\ ZDV FRQÀDWHG WR MXVWLI\
and political ideologies in the manipulation and creation of *HUPDQRFFXSDWLRQDQGFRQWURORI(DVWHUQ(XURSHDVZHOODV
the past in the present.” The Prague Castle skeleton provided WKH1D]LH[WHUPLQDWLRQRI6ODYV-HZVDQGRWKHUSRSXODWLRQV
them with the perfect case study. they deemed inferior.
An excavation was begun in 1925 to pinpoint the earliest $IWHUWKH*HUPDQVZHUHGHIHDWHGWKH&RPPXQLVW3DUW\
remains of Prague Castle, which had become the seat of came to power in Czechoslovakia and the nation became a
JRYHUQPHQWRIWKHQHZSRVWĦ:RUOG:DU,VWDWH7KHERG\ satellite state of the U.S.S.R. Seen through the eyes of the
was found on the edge of a graveyard within the castle country’s new Slavic Soviet masters, the warrior buried in
grounds dated, at the time, to between A.D. 800 and 1000. Prague Castle was once again deemed a Slav. He was also
Along with the body were an ax, two knives, a badly corroded RQFHDJDLQLGHQWL¿HGDVDPHPEHURIWKH3ɟHP\VOLG'\QDVW\
archaeology.org 9
DIGS DISCOVERIES
For decades the skeleton remained HDUO\ 3ɟHP\VOLG SULQFH %ROHVODY , DQG
Prague Castle
in storage. After the breakup of the another interred next to him that may
Soviet Union in 1991, the new state of EHKLVZLIH+RZHYHU'1$DQGLVRWRSH
Czechoslovakia reinvented itself. Yet studies, as well as CT scans, on the
again the warrior was placed at the core warrior have not yet been completed.
RI WKH QDWLRQ ERWK OLWHUDOO\ħLQ 2004 In any case, explains Saunders, biological
his remains were put on display in the UHDOLW\LVQRWWKHRQO\UHDOLW\³6FLHQWL¿F
FDVWOHħDQGSV\FKRORJLFDOO\³7KHJUDYH analyses can tell, often in fascinating
is clearly that of an important person detail, one kind of truth about an
from the beginning of Prague Castle,” individual, such as where he grew up, but
says Frolik, “and therefore indirectly they cannot tell us how he was perceived
also the beginnings of the Czech state.” at the time,” says Saunders. “Perhaps we
)UROLN KDV FRPSOHWHG '1$ VWXGLHV DUHDVNLQJWZHQW\ĥ¿UVWĥFHQWXU\TXHVWLRQV
in an attempt to establish the identities RIDWKRXVDQGĥ\HDUĥROGERG\WKDWGRQRW
of several other medieval skeletons DFFXUDWHO\ UHÀHFW KRZ KH VDZ KLPVHOI
excavated in the castle, including one and was regarded by others.”
he suggests may be the son of the ħ-$55(77$/2%(//
The town of Malinalco, just over two hours southwest of Mexico City by car, is home to two historic sites that may seem to represent distinct
worlds. The first is a complex built by the Aztecs between 1476, when they conquered the region, and 1519, when the Spanish arrived. The
complex’s main temple, named Cuauhcalli, or “House of the Eagles,” was built directly into a hillside. It is the only example of such rock-cut
architecture in the Aztec world, and one of only a handful in the Americas.
The other site is the Augustinian monastery of San Cristobál, now called Divino Salvador, which was built in 1540 and is still in use today.
The monastery features vivid murals of biblical scenes that were painted by subjugated Aztecs shortly after its founding. Art historian
Manuel Aguilar-Moreno of California State University, Los Angeles, says that native people wove traditional Aztec religious and cosmologi-
cal beliefs into this artwork. “Many aspects of Aztec religion have parallels in Christianity,” he says, “and one such parallel is expressed at
both the monastery and Cuauhcalli.” Iconography at the temple suggests that it was dedicated to the Aztec sun god, Huitzilopochtli, who
is often depicted as an eagle and was said to have been born to a virgin mother.
Our award-winning
Digital
archaeological tours bring
rendering of
Ship 17 the past to life. This is down to
expert lecturers, chosen for their
vhbѴѴbmr-bmঞm]bb7rb1|u;vo=
Their boats with which they carry cargoes are made of the acacia, of which the form is most like
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that of the Cyrenean lotus, and its sap is gum. From this acacia, then, they cut planks two cubits
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long and arrange them like bricks, building their ships in the following way: on the strong and bঞm;u-ub;v1;Ѵ;0u-|;|_;];mbv
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Herodotus, Histories, Book 2, Chapter 96
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SRUWFLW\RI7KRQLVĥ+HUDFOHLRQKDYHLGHQWL¿HGDYHVVHOSUHFLVHO\PDWFKLQJWKH
¿UVWKDQGGHVFULSWLRQJLYHQE\WKH¿IWKĥFHQWXU\%&*UHHNKLVWRULDQ+HURGRWXV Contact us:
of a common type of Egyptian cargo ship known as a baris. “It’s a very rare case 1-800-988-6168
when a written source and archaeological material make such a perfect match,” says l-uঞmu-m7-ѴѴ1ol
archaeologist Alexander Belov of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The short, thick
planks of local acacia wood that form the hull of what is known as Ship 17 are arranged ATOL 3622 | ABTA Y6050 | AITO 5085
LQWKHVWDJJHUHGEULFNĥOLNHSDWWHUQGHVFULEHGE\+HURGRWXVDQGLWVNHHOFRQWDLQVD
shaft that the historian notes held a rudder.
'R]HQVRIRWKHUVLPLODUbarides that remain submerged at the site appear to have
EHHQGLVFDUGHGDIWHU\HDUVRIWUDQVSRUWLQJJRRGVRQWKH1LOH%HORYH[SODLQV6KLS17,
ZKLFKZDVVXQNEHIRUHWKHPLGĥIRXUWKFHQWXU\ %& and pinned to the seabed with
wooden poles, seems to have been used to increase the length of a nearby pier.
ħ%(1-$0,1/(21$5'
archaeology.org 11
DIGS DISCOVERIES
W
hile excavating a mound in southeastern
%XOJDULDDUFKDHRORJLVWVXQFRYHUHGWKHWKLUGĥ
century A.D. brick grave of a man aged 35
to 40$PRQJWKHREMHFWVEXULHGZLWKKLPZHUHDWRRO
used to scrape oil from the skin known as a strigil and
D¿QHO\FUDIWHGFRSSHUDOOR\YHVVHOFDOOHGDbalsamarium.
7KLVFRQWDLQHULVWKRXJKWWRKDYHKHOGVNLQĥFOHDQVLQJ
oils or balms used after exercise and during bathing,
H[SODLQVDUFKDHRORJLVW'DQLHOD$JUHRIWKH%XOJDULDQ
Academy of Sciences. Balsamaria were especially trendy
in the eastern Roman provinces of Thrace, Moesia,
and Pannonia, though they were not produced locally.
The vessel was fashioned in the shape of a man’s head
FRYHUHGLQDWLJKWVSRWWHGIHOLQHĥVNLQFDSWKDWPD\KDYH
EHHQLQWHQGHGWRHYRNHWKH1HPHDQOLRQVODLQE\+HUFXOHV
“We believe the balsamarium was brought to Thrace either
by the deceased himself, or by a close relative,” says Agre.
She notes that the popularity of such vessels was due to the
spread of Roman bathing and hygiene practices throughout
the empire’s eastern provinces.
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Copper alloy
strigil
Copper alloy
balsamarium
(two views)
A
cache of artifacts found beneath the central
ax
plaza at the site of Paso del Macho in the
northern part of Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula
PD\KDYHEHHQDQRɱHULQJPDGHZKHQWKHVHWWOHPHQW
was founded between 900 and 800 %& It contains
some of the earliest evidence of Maya fertility rituals.
Archaeologist Evan Parker of Tulane University, a
leader of the ongoing excavation, which is conducted
in cooperation with Millsaps College, says that more
than 30 artifacts made of greenstone, including
small stones that symbolize maize sprouting from
the underworld, represent events in the story of
the maize god’s birth. This myth was a central
part of Maya fertility and rainmaking rituals. The
cache also contains several pots painted with
images associated with fertility, along with spoons,
Jade spoons and pendants, clamshell pendants, and a large plaque.
Paso del Macho, Mexico ħ=$&+=25,&+
archaeology.org 13
DIGS DISCOVERIES
CRETAN
COASTAL RITES
A
monumental Minoan building surroundĥ Aerial view, Sissi, Crete
ing a 110ĥIRRWĥORQJFRXUW\DUGKDVEHHQ
uncovered at Sissi on the northern coast
of Crete. Built around 1700 %& and featuring
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in size and grandeur to a number of palaces on
the island dating to the same period. However,
it lacks many typical features of these complexes,
including storage rooms, administrative materials,
and industrial areas. Archaeologists with the Belgian
School at Athens, in collaboration with the Ephorate
RI $QWLTXLWLHV RI /DVVLWKL GLG ¿QG D UDQJH RI ULWXDO
SDUDSKHUQDOLDDWWKHVLWHRɱHULQJDFOXHWRZKDWLWZDV
used for. “This building was really focused on its central
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University of Louvain. “It’s quite clear that religious ceremonies
took place there.”
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to around 1400 %& that is typical of the Mycenaeans, who Gold necklace
FDPHIURPPDLQODQG*UHHFHDURXQGWKHWLPHVKHGLHG7KH
ZRPDQZDVEXULHGZLWKDQLYRU\ĥKDQGOHGEURQ]HPLUURUDQG SODFH +HUV LV WKH ¿UVW 0\FHQDHDQĥVW\OH JUDYH WR KDYH EHHQ
a necklace of gold beads. Bone and bronze pins resting on her found so far east on the island.
skeleton appear to have once held the woman’s clothing in ħ'$1,(/:(,66
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PLG WKH UXLQV RI WZR HLJKWHHQWKĥZKLVNH\ī 7KH EXLOGLQJV VXUYLYH DORQJVLGH Terrestrial laser-scan images
century farmsteads in a forest near the remnants of kilns for drying corn, which of farmsteads
Scotland’s Loch Ard, archaeologists may have been used in the distilled spirits.
KDYHLGHQWL¿HGEXLOGLQJVWKDWDSSHDUWREHWKH
A number of factors, including the site’s
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secluded location, its relative proximity to
in Scotland, be sure to leave out the “e” in *ODVJRZURXJKO\25 miles south, and its easy
access to the loch’s waters, would
have made it attractive to illegal
whisky producers, says archaeologist
Matt Ritchie of Forest and Land
Scotland. In the late eighteenth and
early nineteenth centuries, felonious
distilling became common in the
Scottish Highlands as stills making
less than 100 gallons of whisky
were banned, and high taxes were
imposed on the malted grains used
Ruined farmstead, Loch Ard Forest, Scotland to produce the spirit.
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DEERLY DEPARTED
W
hile exploring a group of tombs in
Haman in southeastern South Korea,
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A.D. ceremonial earthenware vessel depicting a
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the form of a house and a boat, and other goods.
Researchers believe the deer vessel was used as
part of a funeral ritual and then buried along with Earthenware vessel,
Haman, South Korea
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vessels, a bone spindle whorl, and a fragment of
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a dwelling of a chieftain or earl, says archaeologist himself raised a cup here.
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figurine
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limestone thrown in with the bone could
be evidence of the production of lime,
which was often used to process hides to
make leather. This, along with butchery
marks on some bones that resulted from
removing the hides, may indicate that
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reveal that residents adopted at least
old city called En Esur that would have been one of the region’s largest some Roman dining and culinary pracĥ
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of volunteers overseen by Israel Antiquities Authority archaeologists have worked roundhouses similar to those from the
for more than two years to uncover 10 acres of the city and a wide array of artifacts. settlement’s earliest occupation in the
Archaeologist Yitzhak Paz estimates that only about a tenth of the city has thus far Iron Age, centuries before. Says Ripĥ
been excavated. En Esur may have been home to about 6,000 people living in a highly pon, “It was as if they were picking and
organized community with densely packed residences, grain silos, public buildings, choosing which aspects of being Roman
burial caves, and a network of streets. they liked.”
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5th Dynasty Egyptian Tomb
ARCHAEOLOGY magazine reveals the
year’s most exciting finds
TOP 10
DISCOVERIES
OF 2019
OLD KINGDOM TOMB
Saqqara, Egypt
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archaeology.org
DENISOVANS AT ALTITUDE
Xiahe, China
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two lavish tombs built for nobles of the Xiongnu
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viduals, all of which were found in southern Siberia’s Denisova Eurasian steppes from the third century B.CWRWKH¿UVW
Cave, which is just 2,300 feet above sea level and almost 1,750 century $'WKH;LRQJQXIUHTXHQWO\ZDJHGZDUDJDLQVW
miles northwest of Baishiya Karst Cave. “This mandible reveals &KLQD¶V +DQ '\QDVW\ Ī206 B.C.Ħ
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archaeology.org 31
T
HE SHEER CLIFFS OF the small island of The island of Okinoshima is home
to three goddesses worshipped
Okinoshima rise abruptly out of the sea
by followers of Shintoism, and
some 40PLOHVRɱWKHFRDVWRIWKH-DSDQHVH was a destination for religious
island of Kyushu. Okinoshima’s sole resident pilgrims in the first millennium
LVD6KLQWRSULHVWZKRVHUYHVDVWKHFDUHWDNHU A.D. Two gilt-bronze dragon
of small wooden shrines built among huge heads (below) are among the
80,000 offerings archaeologists
boulders on its southern half. For followers of Shintoism,
recovered from the island.
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the island of Oshima and in the nearby Munakata region
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to the deities known as the Munakata goddesses before setĥ
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JAPAN’S
SACRED
ISLAND
For centuries, rituals performed on
an isolated island played a key role
in the emergence of Japan
By Eric A. Powell
archaeology.org 33
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archaeology.org 35
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the most prominent states on the peninsula, and that 40VXFK ÀDWDUHDRIODQGVRPHGLVWDQFHIURPWKHURFNV+RZHYHUWKRVH
missions followed. It is possible that the horse trappings and leaving goods on Okinoshima still seem to have felt that only
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development of a seasonal Shinto wind deity festival during GUDJRQ KHDGV 9LVLWRUV DOVR OHIW PLQLDWXUH REMHFWV PDGH LQ
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built in the Munakata region to hold the honored dead of the that tie the Three Goddesses of Munakata to Amaterasu, the
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A Korean gold ring (right) and gilt-bronze horse Peninsula, and enthusiasm for mainland Asian
fittings (below), all found on Okinoshima, are
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evidence of the island’s role in fostering connections
between Japan and the Asian mainland. $JDLQVW WKH EDFNGURS RI WKHVH HYHQWV DURXQG
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in the open air, away from the imposing boulders. Although
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Around A.D. 870, Korean pirates began to pose a serious
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WKHFDSLWDORI.\RWRZHUHGLVSDWFKHGWRSUD\WRWKH0XQDNDWD Shinto priests and a small group of devotees, but, in the 1960s,
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WKH FRXQWU\ EHJDQ WR ORRN PRUH LQZDUG´ ,QVWHDG RI OHDYĥ he swung the pole and parted the sea. An enemy army
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priests of this period began to worship inside wooden shrines Minagate again, and the seas swallowed the army. The old man
RQ2NLQRVKLPDDQG2VKLPDDVZHOODVLQVLGHWKH+HWVXĥPL\D then took the Minagate to Okinoshima in triumph, where
Shrine, an arrangement that has persisted to the present day. he set it up as a marker on the spot where the goddesses
DUHVDLGWRGHVFHQGWR(DUWK(YHU\2FWREHUDÀHHWRIERDWV
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HE WORSHIP OF THE Three Goddesses of Munakata EHGHFNHGZLWKFRORUIXOEDQQHUVDFFRPSDQLHVWKH0LQDJDWHDV
LVVWLOOZLGHVSUHDGWKURXJKRXW-DSDQEXWULWXDOVGHGLĥ it is taken from Okinoshima to the shrine on Kyushu, where
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the people who live within sight of Okinoshima. The largest WKHFKDQJLQJULWHVRQFHSUDFWLFHGRQ2NLQRVKLPDWKLVQHZ
and most important of these rituals is the Miare festival, IHVWLYDOFRPELQHVULWXDOVWKDWDUHERXQGWRDWUDGLWLRQWKDW
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ORFDODXWKRULW\WKH0XQDNDWD*UDQG6KULQHVRXJKWWRUHYLWDOL]H Eric A. Powell is deputy editor at Archaeology.
archaeology.org 37
Temple of the White
Thunderbird
Excavators in southern Iraq have uncovered the long-lost
home of the powerful Sumerian warrior god
By Daniel Weiss
38 ARCHAEOLOGY • January/February 2020
At the site of ancient Girsu,
archaeologists have uncovered a
temple called the Eninnu, built for the
god Ningirsu by Girsu’s ruler, Gudea.
A stone mace head (left) found at the
site depicts Ningirsu in the form of his
avatar, the thunderbird.
M
ORE THAN 4,000 8QVXUHZKDWWRPDNHRIKLVYLVLRQ*XGHD
years ago, Gudea, the WUDYHOHGE\FDQDOWRWKHWHPSOHRI1DQVKHD
ruler of the Sumeĥ JRGGHVVNQRZQWRLQWHUSUHWGUHDPVIRURWKHU
rian city of Girsu, had JRGV6KHH[SODLQHGLWWRKLPWKXV7KHPDQ
a dream. Before him, ÀDQNHGE\OLRQVZDV1LQJLUVXWKHFKLHIJRGRI
ÀDQNHGE\OLRQVDSSHDUHG *LUVXDQGKHZDQWHG*XGHDWREXLOGKLVWHPSOH
a man as large as the heavens and the earth, with FDOOHGWKH(QLQQX7KHZRPDQZLWKWKHWDEOHWZDV
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DZD\DQGDVWDOOLRQSDZHGDWWKHJURXQG ,QDVHFRQGGUHDP1LQJLUVXZDVPRUHGLUHFW³/D\LQJWKH
archaeology.org 39
Tig
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demons and maintaining the cosmic order.
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ph
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ancient river path
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50 100 miles
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had thrived in the third millennium B.C. In their excavations of Girsu, de Sarĥ
0DQ\RIWKHVWDWXHVGHSLFWHG*XGHDĪU ]HFDQGKLVVXFFHVVRUVXQFRYHUHGDVHULHV
ca. 2150Ħ2125 B.C.īW\SLFDOO\ZLWKKDQGV RI (QLQQX WHPSOHV GDWLQJ IURP DURXQG
LQWHUORFNHGLQDSRVLWLRQRIGHYRXWSUD\HU 2700 to 2200 B.C. in an area of the site
7KHLQVFULSWLRQVZULWWHQLQZHGJHĥVKDSHG they called the Mound of the Maison
characters called cuneiform, turned out to GHV )UXLWV ³7KHVH QLQHWHHQWKĥ DQG HDUO\
EHHYLGHQFHRIWKHROGHVWĥNQRZQZULWWHQ WZHQWLHWKĥFHQWXU\H[FDYDWLRQVZHUHSRRUO\
ODQJXDJH6XPHULDQZKLFKZDVGHYHORSHG UHFRUGHG´ VD\V 5H\ ³EXW EDVHG RQ ZKDW
at least as early as 3200 B.C. Girsu, along we can say from reconstructing the straĥ
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(ULGXKDVFRPHWREHUHFRJQL]HGDVRQHRI (QLQQXWHPSOHVEXLOWULJKWRQWRSRIHDFK
WKHZRUOG¶VHDUOLHVWFLWLHVGDWLQJWRDURXQG RWKHUħDOOWKHZD\WRMXVWEHIRUHWKHWLPH
WKHVDPHWLPH³,QWKH1870s, the Sumerian RI *XGHD´ 7KH )UHQFK DUFKDHRORJLVWV
FLYLOL]DWLRQ KDG EHHQ FRPSOHWHO\ IRUJRWĥ GLGQ¶W UHDFK WKH ERWWRP RI WKLV GHSRVLW
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Girsu since 2015³7KLVLVUHDOO\WKHFUDGOH IRXQG *XGHD¶V (QLQQX ZKLFK ZRXOG
RI FLYLOL]DWLRQ VR LWV UHGLVFRYHU\ ZDV D EHFRPH RQH RI WKH PRVW VRXJKWĥDIWHU
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6XPHUFRQVLVWHGRIDQXPEHURILQGHSHQĥ
GHQWFLW\ĥVWDWHVWKDWDPDVVHGWUHPHQGRXV One of a pair of clay cylinders discovered
DJULFXOWXUDOZHDOWKE\FKDQQHOLQJWKHZDWHUV at Girsu in the late 19th century. Together,
they are inscribed with a lengthy poem
RI WKH 7LJULV DQG (XSKUDWHV 5LYHUV LQWR recounting Gudea’s inspiration to build the
irrigation canals that they used to cultivate Eninnu and the great efforts he undertook
the countryside. Each city was seen as the to complete the project.
archaeology.org 41
80 YEARSDIWHUWKH)UHQFKH[FDĥ
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OR MORE THAN This carved-shell amulet, which may depict the Sumerian
demon Pazuzu, was discovered during excavations of the
vations ended in 1933 WKH ORFDWLRQ RI *XGHD¶V
Eninnu. Pazuzu was a “good” demon who safeguarded
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archaeology.org 43
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plan (in blue) overlays the current excavation. This demonstrates that the ancient statue’s plan accurately portrays the temple’s layout.
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archaeology.org 45
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A rare Iron Age burial in southern England
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archaeology.org 47
INCA POWER
POLITICS
Ruins of a half-built Andean capital are evidence of how the
Inca controlled their vast empire—until the Spanish arrived
by Roger Atwood
T
HE ABANDONED INCA CITY of Huanuco Inca settlement in Peru, the Spaniards built their churches and
Pampa sprawls across a bleak plateau in the UHGĥWLOHGKRXVHVRQWRSRI,QFDIRXQGDWLRQVEXWWKH\IRXQG
Andes some 12,000 feet above sea level. Its +XDQXFR3DPSDWRRFROGDQGWRRUHPRWHDQGDIWHUDKDOIĥ
miles of stone ruins, remains of structures hearted attempt at occupation, abandoned the city in 1541. It
built by the Inca at the height of their empire, has stood almost completely uninhabited ever since.
rise above waves of overgrown golden ichu Few sites demonstrate so vividly how the Inca used urban
grass. Huanuco Pampa is “the most completely preserved of planning, public ritual, and even storage of massive amounts
the cities built by the Inca,” wrote the late Craig Morris of the RI IRRG WR ZLQ WKH DOOHJLDQFH RI FRQTXHUHG VXEMHFWV $W
American Museum of Natural History, who excavated the site +XDQXFR3DPSDSHRSOHRIQRZĥIRUJRWWHQFXOWXUHVVXFKDVWKH
for more than 20 years beginning in 1964. It may lack the subĥ Chupaychu and the Huamalíes, who had been either crushed
lime setting of Machu Picchu or the imperial grandeur of the RUFRĥRSWHGE\WKH,QFDZHUHPDGHWRIHHOSDUWRIWKH,QFD
Inca capital at Cuzco, but Huanuco Pampa bears witness like system, which was based on a complex mix of obedience to
no other site to the twin conquests that convulsed the central the lords of Cuzco, worship of the Inca sun god, Inti, and
$QGHVZLWKLQOHVVWKDQDFHQWXU\ħWKH,QFDVWDWH¶VVXEMXJDWLRQ strict social hierarchy.
RIWKHUHJLRQ¶VZDUULQJWULEHVLQWKHPLGĥ1400s, and the invasion Perhaps as many as 30,000 people lived in Huanuco Pampa
of the Spanish conquistadores in the 1530s. and its surrounding areas at the time of the Spanish conquest,
7KH,QFDZHUHWKHODVWRIDORQJVXFFHVVLRQRISUHĥ+LVSDQLF wrote the conquistador and author Pedro Cieza de León in
civilizations that extended their power and their culture a 1553 book called Chronicles of Peru. According to Morris,
WKURXJKRXW WKH$QGHV DQG DORQJ 3HUX¶V 3DFL¿F FRDVW7KH\ in its heyday, 15,000 people may have lived in the city itself.
left no written records of their history. Thus, to tell the %XW0RUULVDOVRQRWHGWKDWPDQ\EXLOGLQJVZHUHXQ¿QLVKHG
story of their rise from a pastoral tribe based near Cuzco to and that a few stone carvings of animals that adorned some
a formidable people who established the largest empire in VWUXFWXUHVZHUHRQO\KDOIĥFRPSOHWHG7KH,QFDKHEHOLHYHG
WKH SUHĥ&ROXPELDQ$PHULFDV KLVWRULDQV KDYH UHOLHG ODUJHO\ were still expanding Huanuco Pampa when their society
RQ6SDQLDUGV¶DFFRXQWVRIWHVWLPRQLHVJLYHQWRWKHPE\,QFD collapsed in the face of the Spanish onslaught. Many sites in
elders in the sixteenth century. These texts are secondhand and 3HUXKDYHKDOIĥ¿QLVKHG,QFDEXLOGLQJVSRLQWVRXW/XLV)HOLSH
FRORUHGE\WKH6SDQLDUGV¶RZQDVVXPSWLRQVDERXWWKH,QGLDQV 0HMtD KHDG RI DUFKDHRORJ\ DW WKH 3HUXYLDQ JRYHUQPHQW¶V
They nevertheless reveal how the Inca folded the inhabitants Ministry of Culture. Yet only Huanuco Pampa shows the
of conquered regions into their empire through a combination collision of the rapidly expanding Inca Empire with the
of military aggression, reciprocal trading relationships, and Spanish invasion so clearly, and on such a large scale. “What
marriages between their own elite and the leaders of other PDNHV+XDQXFR3DPSDGLɱHUHQWLVWKDWLWZDVDQLPSRUWDQW
ethnic groups. Civilizations across the Andes fell under Inca administrative center with monumental architecture at the
rule, and while some accepted the new order, others chafed. LQWHUVHFWLRQRIPDMRU,QFDURDGV´VD\V0HMtD³,WZDVDPDMRU
In the rugged highlands around Huanuco Pampa, the Inca site that crashed, and nothing replaced it.”
strove to bring local peoples under their dominion, but never
H
completely subdued them. UANUCO PAMPA IS BISECTED by the main Inca Road,
+XDQXFR3DPSDIHDWXUHVRIWHQLQWKHSUROL¿FFKURQLFOHV WKHVRXUFHDQGVXVWHQDQFHRIWKHFLW\¶VLPSRUWDQFH
of conquest left by the Spaniards, who seem to have been The Inca built this winding 15,000ĥPLOHQRUWKĥVRXWK
fascinated by the site, even as they found it inhospitable and URDGZKLFKDQFKRUHGWKHLUIDUĥÀXQJWUDQVSRUWDWLRQQHWZRUN
GLGQRWVHWWOHWKHUHSHUPDQHQWO\$WQHDUO\HYHU\RWKHUPDMRU DORQJWKHVSLQHRIWKH$QGHVIURPPRGHUQĥGD\(FXDGRUWR
W
ITH ITS TRANSPLANTS from Cuzco and visits from
imperial elites, Huanuco Pampa operated as an
outpost of Inca culture and pageantry centered on
the extravagantly large plaza. “A plaza like the one at Huanuco
Pampa would have been vacant for most of the year,” says
archaeologist Alan Covey, an expert on Inca urban planning
at the University of Texas who surveyed the site in 2015. “But
then it was activated during the imperial festive cycle when
the Inca would bring tens of thousands of provincial people
A carved animal, believed to be a puma, decorates the ritual
to the site for feast days.” These cycles were associated with
platform at Huanuco Pampa. The artists did not finish their important astronomical dates, such as the equinoxes and solĥ
work, evidence, perhaps, of the city’s sudden collapse. stices, which marked the beginning or end of planting cycles.
archaeology.org 51
was an important part of that,” says
Kolar. “The plaza operated as this
dynamic, experiential space, and
the platform was an ideal setting
for the imperial elite to stage and
disseminate state messages through
sound and spectacle,” an essential
task as the Inca consolidated their
control over restive locals.
The Inca had another very
HɱHFWLYH WRRO IRU H[HUWLQJ SRZHU
They were experts at food
conservation, and built nearly 500
VWRQH IRRGĥVWRUDJH WRZHUV FDOOHG
colcas on the hillside south of the
city. Local Inca governors could
JLYHħRU GHQ\ħIRRG WR VXEMHFWV One of two lodges known as kallankas, which are thought to have been where the Inca held
during times of drought. Morris, banquets, including one feting a band of conquering Spaniards on the eve of the city’s demise
along with Donald Thompson of
the University of Wisconsin, excavated 95 of these structures KDQGKROGV ZRXOG KDYH EHHQ ¿OHG Rɱ WR FUHDWH WKH ¿QLVKHG
in the 1970s and found remains of potatoes, maize, and lima look a structure of its importance and elegance warranted.
beans, as well as underground ventilation ducts designed to 7KHWHPSOH¶VIURQWGRRUVWLOOERDVWVWKHGRXEOHMDPEWKDWWKH
keep them fresh. The potatoes were lying between layers of ,QFDUHVHUYHGIRUKLJKĥVWDWXVVWUXFWXUHV$WVRPHSRLQWSUREĥ
straw that had absorbed moisture and preserved them for ably soon after the Spaniards arrived in 1532, construction on
centuries. Morris and Thompson believed the Inca built more
storehouses than a city the size of Huanuco Pampa would
ever have needed, suggesting they may have been built to feed
the masses at festivals and to impress local people with their
control over food supplies.
A
CROSS THE SITE FROM WKHIRRGĥVWRUDJHXQLWVVWDQGVDQ
XQ¿QLVKHG WHPSOH WR WKH ,QFD VXQ JRG DQ HORTXHQW
testimonial to the sudden death of this city of great
ambitions. To one side of the building, carefully quarried and
SROLVKHGVWRQHEORFNVOLHLQDMXPEOHRQWKHJUDVV6RPHVWLOO
have the protrusions quarry workers used to grasp and carry
WKHP2QFHWKHEORFNVKDGEHHQ¿WWHGLQWRWKHEXLOGLQJWKRVH
This stone bath was reserved for Inca royalty, including the
emperor Atahualpa on his visit to Huanuco Pampa.
WKHEXLOGLQJDEUXSWO\VWRSSHG7KHVWRQHZRUNHUVHLWKHUÀHG
or died in the ensuing epidemic of European germs to which
they had no immunity. Their world would soon be eradicated.
In 1533, several dozen Spaniards under the command
RI +HUQDQGR 3L]DUUR PDUFKHG IURP WKH 3DFL¿F FRDVW
WR WKH LQWHULRU FLW\ RI -DXMD ZKHUH WKH\ NQHZ WKH ,QFD
commander Chalcuchima was garrisoned with his troops.
Vastly outnumbered, Pizarro talked the commander into
DFFRPSDQ\LQJ KLP DQG KLV PHQ WR WKH IDUĥQRUWKHUQ FLW\ RI
&DMDPDUFD ZKHUH XQEHNQRZQVW WR &KDOFXFKLPD WKH ,QFD
HPSHURU $WDKXDOSD KDG EHHQ WDNHQ KRVWDJH E\ 3L]DUUR¶V
brother. Heading north along the Inca Road, the Spaniards,
ZKRZHUHULGLQJKRUVHVWKDW&KDOFXFKLPD¶VRZQPHQKDGVKRG
ZLWK VLOYHU DQG FRSSHU ZRXOG KDYH VHHQ +XDQXFR 3DPSD¶V
A stone block retains the protrusions used to move it. PDMHVWLF SRLQWHG URRIV IURP PLOHV DZD\ 7KH\ GHVFHQGHG
Stonemasons would normally have chiseled off these WKH VDPH ÀDJVWRQH SDWK ZKHUH WRGD\ VKHSKHUGV WHQG WKHLU
protrusions, but the wall was never completed. livestock and entered the city. “This town was big, and…there
the people received well the captain and the Christians, and ,QFD´ 3DUHGHV EHOLHYHV WKH FLW\¶V GHFOLQH PD\ DFWXDOO\ KDYH
for two days they made many festivities,” wrote the Spanish begun before the Spanish conquest, during a civil war between
chronicler Francisco de Xérez. Chalcuchima likely feted the rival Inca leaders Atahualpa and Huascar that ended with the
Spaniards inside two lodges known as kallankas, a Quechua ODWWHU¶VFDSWXUHDQGPXUGHULQ1532. The following year it was
word meaning “hall” where Inca authorities held banquets and $WDKXDOSD¶VWXUQħKHZDVSXWWRWKHGHDWKE\WKH6SDQLDUGVRQ
received distinguished visitors. Each of these two buildings
was more than 200 IHHW ORQJ DQG KDG QLQH VWRQHĥERUGHUHG
SRVWKROHVLQWRZKLFKZHUH¿[HGHQRUPRXVWLPEHUVWKDWRQFH
supported 40ĥIRRWĥKLJKWKDWFKHGURRIVWRZHULQJDERYHWKH
city. Nearby, through gates decorated with carved images of
animals, perhaps pumas, the Spaniards would have seen the
room where Atahualpa himself stayed when he visited and
the skillfully carved stone bath reserved for his exclusive use.
Although the original walls of that small room still stand, in
other places workers have been reerecting fallen walls as part
RIDPXOWL\HDUFRQVHUYDWLRQDQGUHVWRUDWLRQSURMHFWXQGHUWKH
supervision of archaeologist and site director Luis Enrique
Paredes. Often Paredes has had to use recently quarried stones
The ruins of an unfinished temple on the edge of Huanuco Pampa
to replace Inca blocks taken by local people to build their are evidence of the rapid abandonment of this once-great city.
KRXVHV+HKDVIRXQGLWFKDOOHQJLQJWRUHĥFUHDWHWKH,QFDVW\OH
using modern metal tools. “The Inca used only stone tools to July 26, 1533. By then, smallpox was already making its death
work stone,” Paredes says. “They had copper, of course, but march down the Andes. “The calamities that ended the life of
WKDW¶VXVHOHVVIRUFXWWLQJDQGSROLVKLQJVWRQH´,QVRPHORFDĥ Huanuco Pampa came in a chain,” Paredes says.
WLRQVUHVHDUFKHUVKDYHVKRYHOHGRXWOD\HUVRISRVWĥ,QFDVRLO $IHZ\HDUVDIWHU3L]DUUR¶VYLVLWWR+XDQXFR3DPSD6SDQĥ
DQGFDUULHGRXWVSRWH[FDYDWLRQVUHYHDOLQJÀRRUVDQGEDVLF ish settlers arrived and built crude stone houses in the plaza
infrastructure such as drainage culverts, a small hint of the and turned the kallankas into horse stables. European animals
RQFHĥJUDQGFLW\¶VLQIUDVWUXFWXUH grazed in the plaza where, only a few years earlier, the Inca
7KH6SDQLDUGV¶DUULYDOWKDWGD\LQ1533 marked the beginĥ KDG SUHVLGHG RYHU WKRXVDQGV RI KLV VXEMHFWV %\ 1541, the
ning of the end of Huanuco Pampa, as the city would soon go Spaniards had tired of the city. They built their regional capiĥ
from proud outpost of Inca power to ruin. One man told the tal, the modern city of Huanuco, in a valley about 120 miles
chronicler Ortiz de Zúñiga that he watched the population in east and several thousand feet closer to sea level. Thereafter,
his district fall from 4,000 to 800 as “everyone” died from only shepherds and a few descendants of the inhabitants of
European disease. Others described to him their shock at how the old Inca Kingdom occupied the site of Huanuco Pampa.
the Spaniards ignored Inca class distinctions and put all their Some may even have remembered this grand city and the
QHZVXEMHFWVWRZRUNLQFOXGLQJWKHHOGHUO\FKLOGUHQDQGORFDO fallen world it represented. Q
chieftains, “who were required to pay tribute like the rest of
the Indians, which they had not had to do in the time of the Roger Atwood is a contributing editor at Archaeology.
archaeology.org 53
Introducing
the future of personal
transportation.
Zinger is not intended for medical purposes to provide mobility to persons restricted to a sitting position. It is not covered by Medicare nor Medicaid.
© 2019 firstSTREET for Boomers and Beyond, Inc.
Spike Island sits in the middle of Cork
Harbor. The British built a series of
forts on the island beginning in the
late 18th century, but during the mid-
19th century, the island was used to
house thousands of Irish prisoners.
THE SORROWS
OF SPIKE ISLAND
Millions were forced to flee during the Great Famine—some of those left
behind were condemned to Ireland’s most notorious prison
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archaeology.org 55
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archaeology.org 57
LETTER FROM IRELAND
The fort’s original soldiers’ barracks were transformed into a cellblock for inmate housing. Each room was intended to hold 13
British soldiers, but authorities forced as many as 50 Irish prisoners into each cell.
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Presenting the
Interactive Map of Troy
The AIA wishes to thank Richard C. MacDonald for his support of the Year of Troy project.
LETTER FROM IRELAND
2020 VISION?
Commons; 23—(clockwise from top left) V.V.
Kondrashin and V.A. Tsybin/Nature Communications,
Apsara National Authority, Oshan Wedage et al., Abu
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Blue Creek, Belize 25—Courtesy Mohamed Megahed; 26—Karla
needs YOU! Keel-billed Toucan Ortega/Mexico’s National Institute of Anthropology
(2); 27—Photograph by Henry Chapman, Scala/
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65
D ISP A T C H ES
FROM THE AIA
EXCAVATE EDUCATE ADVOCATE
66
Travel • Support • Learn with the AIA
Travel AIATours.org
Decorated Caves of the Human Origins in South Africa Prehistoric Cave Art of
Pyrenees & the Rhone Valley August 30-September 13, 2020 (15 days) Spain & France
May 21-31, 2020 (11 days) with paleoanthropologist September 30-October 12, 2020 (13 days)
with paleoanthropologist Ian Tattersall William Harcourt-Smith with prehistorian Paul Bahn
Ireland’s Ancient East Hiking Scotland’s Orkney & Hiking Scotland’s North Highlands
May 26-June 8, 2020 (14 days) Shetland Isles & Isle of Lewis
with geoarchaeologist Stephen Mandal June 27-July 7, 2020 (11 days) July 13-23, 2020 (11 days)
with archaeologist Val Turner with archaeologist Mary MacLeod Rivett
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September 21-October 1, 2020 (11 days) Art, Architecture & Cuisine Latium, Umbria & Tuscany
with archaeologist Gerry Schaus October 2-13, 2020 (12 days) October 9-20, 2020 (12 days)
with archaeologist Albert Leonard, Jr. with archaeologist Lisa Pieraccini
F
eeding babies is a universal human practice, so it may be surprising that WHAT ARE THEY
Drinking vessels
archaeologists know very little about what infants and young children in prehistoric CULTURE
European Bronze and
societies consumed apart from their mothers’ milk. “Ancient children have been Iron Ages
overlooked,” says biomolecular archaeologist Julie Dunne of the University of DATE
1200–450 B.C.
Bristol. “We do not have any direct evidence of how and what babies were fed.” Because MATERIAL
Ceramic
prehistoric children’s graves are uncommon, there are relatively few remains to test to FOUND
determine what they ate. In order to supplement the meager skeletal evidence, Dunne and
her team sampled residues from three spouted vessels found in infants’ graves at two sites in
Berlin
Germany dating to between 1200 and 450 B.C. Some scholars had hypothesized that these GERMANY
vessels were buried with the children because they were the prehistoric equivalent of baby Dietfurt
ERWWOHV'XQQHZDVDEOHIRUWKH¿UVWWLPHWRVKRZFRQFOXVLYHO\WKDWWKH\ZHUHLQIDFWXVHGWR
Augsburg-Haunstetten
wean babies with the milk of ruminants such as goats or cows. DIMENSIONS
From 2 to 4 inches
Dunne’s research has important implications beyond the detection of the animal milk wide
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VLPLODUSUHKLVWRULFH[DPSOHV7KHWUDQVLWLRQIURPDKXQWHUĥJDWKHUHUWRDSDVWRUDOOLIHVW\OH
resulted in improved nutrition from animal milk and
freed up time to nurture more children, resulting in a
massive population explosion. “You can make a direct
connection from these bottles to the growth of cities
and the way we live today,” says Dunne. For her, the
study also went beyond science. “This project gave
me a real sense of love,” she says.
“I felt such a connection to the
people who used these bottles to
feed their children.”
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