DEFINITION

Caste is so complex a phenomenon which is difficult to define; therefore caste is defined

differently by many sociologist and writers.

I. Sir Herbert Risely: Caste is a “collection of families, bearing a common name, claiming
a common descent, from a mythical ancestor, human and divine, professing to follow the
same hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as
forming a single homogeneous community.”1
II. Maclver and Page: “When status is wholly predetermined so that men are born to their
lot without any hope of changing it, then the class takes the extreme form of caste.”2
III. Ketkar: “A caste is a group having two characteristics; (i) membership is confined to
those who are born of members and includes all persons so born, (ii) the members are
forbidden by an inexorable social law to marry outside the group.”3
IV. R.N.Sharma : “Caste is a hereditary, endogamous group which decides the individual’s
status in the social stratification and his profession.”4
V. E. Blunt - "Caste is an endogamous group bearing a common name, membership of
which is hereditary, imposing on its members certain restrictions in the matter of social
intercourse, either following a common traditional occupation a claiming a common
origin & generally regarded as forming a single homogenous community.5
VI. Kroeber AC: Castes are a special form of social classes, which in tendency at least
present in every society. Further he says that, Castes have emerged into social
consciousness to the point that custom and law attempt their rigid and permanent
separation from one another.6

1
C.N. Shankar Rao, Sociology Principles of sociology with an introduction to social thought, revised edition
2
Ibid
3
Ibid.
4
Dr. Satya Pal Ruhela, Indian Society, first edition.
5
http://www.shareyouressays.com/knowledge/meaning-and-definitions-of-caste-system-in-india-
explained/112544 visited on 05/11/2018.
6
https://www.jstor.org/stable/2292848?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents visited on 05/11/2018.
 CHARACTERSTICS OF CASTE SYSTEMS

The following are the characteristics of caste systems:-

1. Caste is based on the hierarchical division of society. It is divided into several small caste
groups and subcaste. It is based on superiority and inferiority like ‘Brahmins are placed at
top of the caste systems division and ‘Harijans’ at lowest in caste system.
2. Caste is endogamous. This means, one must marry within his owns caste only to ensure
the purity of blood of his caste. In some caste one could marry according to anuloma
(Hypergamy) system, i.e. a man can marry a girl of a caste or sub-caste lower than his,
but pratiloma (the opposite of anuloma) was not permitted. The caste of a woman on her
marriage is changed to the caste of her husband.7
3. There are restrictions regarding eating of food with or given by low shudra castes.
However, fruits, milk, ghee, butter, pakki, (food cooked in ghee) given by a low caste
could be accepted, but not kacchi rasoi (food cooked in water).8
4. Lower caste (shudra caste) not allowed drawing water from the wells of upper caste.9
5. Caste as a segmental division of society. The Hindu society is a caste-ridden society. It is
divided into a number of segments called ‘caste’. It is not a homogeneous society. Castes
are groups with defined boundary of their own. The status of an individual is determined
by his birth and not by selection nor by accomplishments. No amount of power, prestige
and pelf can change the position of man. The memberships of the caste are hence
unchangeable, unacquirable, inalienable, unattainable and nontransferable. Further, each
caste in a way has its own way of life. Each caste has its own customs, traditions,
practices and rituals. It has its own informal rules, regulstions and procedures. There were
caste councils or ‘caste panchayats’ to regulate the conduct of member also. The caste
used to help its members when they were found in distress. Indeed, ‘the caste was its own
ruler’.10
6. Lower castes were considered to be untouchables. The belief was that one became impure
or polluted by touching or coming in contract with, or even by coming under shadow of

7
Dr. Satya Pal Ruhela, Indian Society, first edition.
8
Ibid
9
Ibid
10
C.N. Shankar Rao, Sociology Principles of Sociology with an Introduction to Sociological Thought, revised edition.
 the untouchable shudra caste person. In south india, the Namboodiri Brahmins considered
themselves to have become impure if even the shadow of low caste persons like Thiya
and Pulayan happened to fall on them even from 6 feet and 96 feet respectively.11

THE ORIGIN OF CASTE SYSTEM

Theories about the origin of caste in sociology may be classified as Political theory, Tradition
theory, Economic or Occupation theory, Ethical theory, Ethic theory, Theory of Manu. The
explanation concerning caste theories is as follows:-

1. Political theory: According to political theory of caste system, it is the Brahmin progeny
of Indo-Aryan culture which developed in Gangetic plain and spread from there
throughout the country. According to G.S. Ghurye, this theory was invented due to the
political interests of the Brahmins. In his own words: “I may conclude that caste in India
is a Brahminic child of the Indo-Aryan culture, cradled in the land of the Ganges
country”. Political theory was propounded first of all by the French pontiff Abbe Dubois
in twelfth century A.D. In his work on the Brahmins, Denzil Ibbetson has supported
Abbe Dubois in pointing out that in caste system the occupations held by the Brahmins
and Kshatriyas have been considered as the best and the highest. Against the political
theory, as an explanation of the origin of caste system in India, D.N Majumdar has given
the following arguments in his famous work Races and Cultures in India:
 This theory has neglected the racial distinctions found among various
social classes in India.
 Looking at the complex Hindu social structure based upon castes it
appears impossible that the aim of caste system would have been to
maintain the dominance of the Brahmin priests over Hindu society.
2. Traditional theory: According to traditional theory, the caste system was created by
creator Brahma himself. According to Rig Veda, Brahmins are like mouth, Kshatriyas are
like the arms, Vaishyas like the stomach and the Sudras like the feet of the social body.
This explanation of the origin of caste may be suitable as an explanation of the origin of a
Varna system. It cannot explain the origin of thousands of caste in Hindu society.

11
Dr.Satya Pal Ruhela, Indian Society, first edition.
3. Economic or Occupational theory: Explaining the origin of caste system in India,
Nestield has said, “The function and function alone is responsible for the origin of caste
system.” The ancient tradition of the Hindus supports this theory. In Bhagwadgita, Shri
Krishna has pointed out that the fourfold varna system has been created by God himself.
The words Lohar, Sonar, Chamar, Julaha etc. signify the economic occupation of these
castes.
4. Ethical theory: S.C. Roy has propounded ethical theory about the origin of caste system
in india, in the class system of Indo-Aryans, the tribal system of Pre-Dravidians and
conflicts among various occupations. This theory, while emphasizing the philosophical
aspects of caste system in India, reflects actual facts.
5. Ethnic theory: Some scholars have propounded ethnic theory about the origin of caste
system. According to this theory, caste place to Dravidians in society. This was because
the social index of the Dravidians was different from that of Aryans. The groups
resembling the nasal structures of the former were therefore labelled as lower castas.
According to G.S. Ghurye, the caste system was a claver scheme of the Aryans to
maintain their hold on Indian society. According to D.N. Majumdar, the aim of caste
system was to maintain the purity of blood. To quote his words, “Nesfield said that
superiority or inferiority of occupation is represented in the hierarchy of the castes. We
should think that the status of the caste depends upon the degree of purity of blood and
the extent of isolation maintained by the social groups”.
6. Theory of Manu: according to J.H. Huttton, the caste system was originated in the
religious customs and rituals of the non-Aryan group, particularly the theory of Manu.
Manu is a mystic power. According to Hutton, the traditions of endogamy, untouchability
etc. has their roots in Manu.
 Some other scholars have given their views, According to D.N.Majumdar, caste
system was developed to save Aryan Race and culture from intermixing with
other races.
 According to Slater, caste system originated in order to safeguard the professional
and occupational secrets.
 The Emergence of the Jati Pratha (Caste system)

In each varna, many groups of communities developed due to many reasons like –
occupations adopted, prestige or honor bestowed by the Brahmins and rulers, residence in certain
areas, customs followed in different areas, segregation of isolation of certain people from their
varna brethren due to war, natural calamities, migration to other places, different beliefs, and
social boycott or punishment imposed upon them due to their deviant, immoral or criminal
behavior. Mainly, on the ground of the community’s occupation most of the groups or
communities or sub-varnas or vertical divisions within each one of the varnas developed in the
Aryan society.

Thus among the same Varna, many upper and lower categories of Brahmins were formed
gradually, in course of time. Thus for instance, Chaturvedi Brahmins (whose some ancestor or
ancestors might have been experts on all the four Vedas), started claiming themselves to be
superior to the Trivedi (those whose ancestor or some ancestors in the remote past might have
been expert in three out of the four Vedas), the Trivedi Brahmins in turn, started claiming their
superiority over the Dwivedi Brahmins (whose some ancestor or ancestors) were experts on only
two out of the four Vedas. The Chintavan Brahmins and the Joshi Brahmins are supposed to be
higher than other sub-varnas or up-jatis of Brahmins. Similarly, the Suryavanshi Kshatriyas of
the race of Lord Rama were considered the superior- most Kshatriyas, the Chandra-vanish
Rajputs were considered lower than them. Thus many high and lower castes developed. The
Yadav caste of Krishna, although a backward caste was then considered to be Kshatriya caste,
but now the same Yadav caste is officially recognized as a OBCs. There are now so many socio-
cultural differences or considerations of superiority and inferiority among the castes and sub
castes of Kshatriyas, and is not a new, recent or modern social phenomenon, but hundreds and
even thousands of years old. The same t `hings are true for the Vaishya and Shudra varna
sub-divisions or castes and their further sub-divisions. Those who live in villages and those who
have done sociological and social anthropological studies in the field in rural India are acutely
aware of the highly sensitive and fine traditional differences, divisions or stratifications carrying
the strong notions and practices of superiority and inferiority even among the Shudra castes and
sub castes. Thus, for instance, in Rjasthan Lohar, Kasai, Chamar, Balai, Bhangi, Teli, Madari,
Nai, Kalal, Bhil and such other Shudra castes have been observing lots of socio-cultural
differences and prejudices in their mutual inter-caste and socio-cultural relationships till recently
and some of them are still observing them in independent India.

Main Theories of the Origin of Jati(caste) system in India

1. Divine theory (Manu Maharaj): The Brahmins emerged were from the mouth,
Kshatriyas from the shoulders, Vaishyas from the thighs and the Shudras from the
feet of Lord Brahma, the Creator of mankind.
2. Racial theory (Rislay): The various castes were created by the inter-mixing of
the different races and communities of Indian Aryans, aborigines tribes of India
and foreign invaders of different races and due to the anuloma (Hypergamy)
system in India, i.e. the practice of allowing males marrying girls belonging to
lower strata of families, sub-varna or sub-caste into their community or group.
3. Occupational theory (Nesfield): The various castes were formed due to different
occupations adopted by each one of the communities or social groups of people in
India.
4. Anthropological theory: Totem theory (Rice): Many castes originated after the
different totems (totem could be an animal, bird, plant, or object of nature like a
particular tree, place venerated by a group) the member of that particular totem
could not marry among themselves.
5. Intergration theory: Integrated theory (Hutton): Indian caste system is the
“natural result of the interaction of a number of geographical, social, political,
religious and economic factored not elsewhere found in conjunction”.
6. Theory of migration and settlement (Gilbert): People migrated to different
places and settled there and thus some new castes developed.
7. Theory of rituals being the root cause for the origin of caste.
 Functions and Advantages of Caste System

1. It was meant to ensure proper social stratification ( social division) of the Hindu society.
2. It’s one important function was ‘to integrate Indian society to hold into one community’.
3. The caste provided emotional, social, cultural and also economic security to its members.
4. The castes ensured the educational development of its members by opening their own
separate caste schools, caste hostels etc. for their own boys and girls. Caste schools like
Brahmin schools, Kayastha Schools, Ahir schools, Yadav schools, Rajput schools,
Agarwal Vaish schools etc. provided education to millions of boys and girls during the
last 200 years when the government had not started government schools.
5. The caste provided security and safety and ensured the welfare of orphans, poor helpless
unmarried girls, handicapped children, divorced women of their caste by running
anathalaya, vidhwa-ashram, bal-kalyan-sansthas etc. The lives of countless children, girls
and women have been saved by such caste welfare institions.
6. In modern times political power depends on votes. A caste having more members in its
population has thus more number of voters and thus it has more political power. Thus,
today we find that the large population of certain castes like Jats, Yadavs, have captured
political power and all sorts of political positions and exploited all sources of making
money. Those castes which had less number of members and which do not have unity
among its members, are powerless and completely alienated ( removed or deprived) from
the political and economical benefits.

Demerits or harms of the Caste System

The caste system has caused and is still causing the following harms to the country:
1. It created untouchability in the Hindu system.
A number of lowest caste were given the status of achoot (untouchable) and were made
to do the dirtiest occupations like carrying human excreta in baskets on their heads.
They had to lead a life of indignity, poverty, backwardness and social isolation or
cultural boycott and untold misery for thousands of years till the practice of
 untouchability was declared a crime by the provisions enshrined in the Constitution of
India.
2. It creates feeling of differences, mutual jealousies and mutual hatred.
It did not let real unity or national integration emerge in India. When foreigners like
Alexander, Mohammad Ghauri, Mahmud Gazni, Changhiz Khan, Babar, Taimur etc
attacked India, many Hindu caste people failed to unite and prevent them from looting,
harming and enslaving India. Many men said “it is the duty of the Rajput castes to fight
in war and defend the country, not that of the Brahmins and business castes of Vaishyas
or our castes to fight and to defend.”
3. It promoted jativat or casteism.
Casteism means favouring people of one’s own caste only, right or wrong. This is, in
the words of a famous social leader of India, Kaka Kalekar “blind and limited group
loyalty which abhors the desirability of the general social norms of justice, morality and
universal brotherhood.” This attitude or mentality does not respect the principle that
one should make sincere and right efforts to get the desired benefits, it instead makes
people to become habitual to it and get the desired benefits through unfair
recommendation or favouritis

Conditions Favouring the Caste System

Among the conditions that have favoured the continued existence of the caste system, the
following are the most important:

1. Geographical isolation: Geographical isolation has a large part to play in rendering a

society static and powerless. The absence of adequate means of transport leads to the
geographical isolation from the others, of people who inhabit distantly situated areas and
this fosters old customs, mores, tradition and superstitions all of which encourage the
caste system.
2. Static society: Hindu society is not sufficiently dynamic. There has never been any
stupendous change in its political circumstances and economic conditions. Its social
mores, customs and tradition have failed to change over the ages as times have marched
along. But this does not mean that Hindu society has not changed at all. To say that it is
static or changeless is only to indicate to extremely slow rate at which changes and
modification are instituted in it. As a general rule, the caste system was most acceptable
 in India in those days when the dynamic elements were at low ebb in the society. Thus,
the comparatively static nature of society is a condition favourable to the continued
existence of the caste system.
3. Foreign aggression: A further contribution to the disability and utility of the caste
system was made by the foreign aggression. Many scholar hold that the caste system was
born in India when the Aryan invaded the country. The Aryans were fair skinned and
victors. The native of Indian were black skinned and the victims. Hence, the society was
divided into two classes, the member of the victorious class considered themselves
superior to the victimized class and thought it below their dignity to associate themselves
with it and to marry into it. Therefore, strict laws regarding conduct, diet, marriage, etc.
were formulated. These were the fundamental constituents of the caste.
4. Rural social structure: As compared with the urban social structure the rural social
structure is usually unchanging and static. Old traditions are more respected in it. As the
rural structure weakens, or, as urbanization in the country increases, the caste also
becomes progressively weaker.
5. Influence of religion: The influence of religion is the most important factor contribution
of the caste system. The Hindu caste system is looked upon as a divine ordained
institution. People who violate it are considered sinners and it is believed that God will
punish them. Due to this reason, people do not have the courage to violate the laws of the
caste system.
6. Difference of races: The existence of many races in the country led to the formulation of
many strict laws concerning discrimination. Since each race savoured to maintain its
purity. In the medieval period of Indian History stringent laws concerning caste were laid
down to protect Hindu society from Muslim.
7. Lack of education: Lack of education occupies an important position among the factors
which have encouraged the existence of caste system in Hindu society. An illiterate
community it usually static and orthodox. Superstitions, tradition and mores play an
important role among uneducated people. In this way, lack of education is a condition
which particularly favours the caste system.

Conditions Unfavorable to Caste

The following elements have tended to weaken the caste system in the present age:

1. Modern education: The major part in the weakening of the caste system is played by the
existing system of education. Modern education is negative as regards religion. It
emphasizes democratic value such as liberty, equality and fraternity. Modern education
bears the stamp of the scientific and independent thinking in the west. It has laid much
stress upon the importance of man. Thus, the progress of modern education is
proportionately demolishing the ties of caste, etc. Education has encouraged inter-caste
 marriage. The feeling of superiority and untouchability are being gradually eliminated
from the minds of younger generation as children of all caste study in the same school.
2. Industrialization: Industrialization also has led to a decrease in the intensity of caste
favour because person from all castes sought and obtained employment in factories.
According to A.W. Green although the Brahmin has to take a prolonged religious bath in
order to purify himself against the defilement caused by the mere shadow of a Sudra, yet
it is not possible to avoid the shadow of Sudras in the crowded lanes of city and the busy
offices. As a result of industrialization individuals of all castes came into mutual contact
in factories, hotels, markets, trains, trams and buses, etc, and the observance of laws
concerning touch ability became impossible.
3. Increase in the importance of wealth: In the modern age, wealth is replacing caste as
the basis of social prestige. Now a day, a person adopts that occupation which appears to
him to be the most profitable. The consideration in the choice of a profession is no longer
caste but individual capability and the facility in earning wealth. A wealthy Sudra is more
respected than a poor Brahmin. For this reason, the ties of the caste are being loosened in
the frantic race after wealth.
4. Movement of social emancipation: As a result of the influence of modern education
there has been a veritable flood of movements for social emancipation.
5. Means of communication: Along with the progress of industrialization in India means
of communication also developed. This put an end to geographical isolation and thoughts,
customs, etc. of different places that influenced each other. It became difficult to maintain
the rigidity of caste in the whirlwind of communication set into motion by
industrialization through such means buses, trains, trams, cars, etc. In this connection
Risley has righty pointed out that it is not possible to enquire the caste of the seller while
purchasing something from him.
6. Political agitation: An important part of the aims of the national agitation for a political
awakening of the people in India was to end the discriminatory pratices on the basis of
the caste system. The objective of this national movement was the establishment of a
democratic pattern of society in India. For this reason, it made efforts towards weakening
the caste consciousness in this people.
7. New legal machinery: In this new legal machinery of the British government the
members of all caste were similarly punished for the same offences. The establishment of
judicial courts deprived the caste panchayats of their power and they no longer retained
the authority to punish a criminal. In this way, the restrictions upon the opponents of the
caste system were removed and gradually its laws also lost their meaning and
significance.
8. Appearance of new social classes: At present new classes are appearing in Indian
society. These social classes are replacing the castes. The organization of castes is
vertical while that of classes is horizontal. Therefore, as the class consciousness is
increasing, caste consciousness is decreasing.
9. Free democracy in India: The most sever shock to the caste system was the
establishment of a free democracy in India Para 15 (2) of the constitution of Indian
Republic declared all citizens to be equal. The fortress of the caste system collapsed
when foreign rule came to an end. According to the Untouchability Crime Act of 1995, it
is a crime to prevent anyone from using a public place. The respect once accorded to the
caste system dwindled through the influence of the means of transport, education
facilities, industrialization, the democratic method of government, etc.