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F= TKN] = oy ne 225[MPa = N/mm? x5 Os Jann High’s diagram ‘amplitude ‘The factor of safety: *) : ee ‘The working stress: Repeated stress line ABE working stress: a (0x oy) ee eer eee eee Eee S ™ 2A, 2 8-40 640 | (=o Mean oe ase stress The fictitious limit: 6p. ~ 2oy, = 1500 [MPa] o| Sy Oe ‘Ous Gm (this simple relation holds for structural steels ) 14.6.1 Gp Np ey _ 300-092 - 0.84 8 2.037 The endurace limit: %, = = 1133 200 |DESIGN FOR FATIGUE STRENGTH ‘The parameters applied: (though older but instructive diagrams are used) .84 (Fig. 14.6.3) ‘The surface finish (for the given material oyy= 750 MPa and fine grinding): hp = 0.92 (Fig.14.6.4) The size effect (for the given dimension 5 = 40 mm): &y Ga, Om [MPa] Smith’s diagram 1000 00 800 700 For the material given eo (6u.= 750 MPa), 500 ‘1 980 we read: “1759 “0 3 $50 oy = 450 MPa; 71 530) i oo= 300 MPa ‘a 50 200 7a 310 L Tension - compression | ‘00 0 Fig. 14.6.2 i [MPa] Size effect , ey Tension - compression ® o | Surface factor dott vey Fine pochin rert wy ot co testing Specimen " t : 1 & toe grhateg 1,carbon steel Po 7 rene srinding [| [| 2 atoy steet ” “to houghacknig PROT | eet ree a5. a =e a7 mS i surface wits scales ++ - + a Md << 08 | L. } at FSP water corrsion ii 4 Loy Lo sate water corrosion [ | 05. L | | a ‘ 7 eee es 300 500 700 990 1100 1309 1500 Gy . #0 fen) . Fig.14.6.3 Fig.14.6.4 The fatigue stress-concentration factor depends on the _@=2.28 (sce Fig.14.6.5) and the material notch sensitivity q = 0.82, which are found in Fig, 14.6.6 based on the given material oy,= 750 MPa.DESIGN FOR FATIGUE STRENGTH ‘Theoretical stress concentr: tension or bending When comparing the bar given (Fig.14.6.5) with the model shape, we have: 40.125. 40 After conecting these ‘two positions, we obtain: 2.28 Influence of the notch radius on 'q_ the notch sensitivity factor Gye i202 Mea [Sy /ui= 0.95 FS 1 n factor a for flat bars with a bilateral notch subjected to Fig. 14.6.6 p [mm] 202DESIGN FOR FATIGUE STRENGTH ‘The allowable load F, Using the expression *) , derived from the Haight’s diagram (Fig.14.6.1), we obtain FoF Sn = 640. 5 640 = 1477-105 > Orig ‘113.8 1500 eyes 33848[N] = 33.848[kN] ROR ‘The stress amplitude: ‘Anotch “3-40 321 ‘The allowable load amplitude Fy; ou OH ete re 113.8 - 320 _ 18.2[kN ] Conclusion: Comparing all the three cyclic modes, we can see that the stress changing is for technical materials quite adverse process, especially when tension altemates compression (cf. the completely reversed stress) 203| ‘THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS 15. Thin-walled shells [Membrane stress] 15.1 Introduction NG Shells are structure elements of a planary character, ie., one dimension - thickness - of which is much smaller (pending suess_] Fig.1S.1.1 (< 10x) than the other two dimensions. Generally, there are all the types of stresses (studied so far) exerted in the shell walls (tension- compression, shear, torsion and bending), from which two types (tension = membrane stress and bending stress) are shown in Fig. 15.1.1 15.2 Membranes In this chapter we will discuss only thin shells (membranes) of revolution (undergoing axi- symmetric deformation), the analysis of which is based on the consideration of axi-symmetric normal sttesses uniformly distributed across the thickness of the shell wall. Consequently, such shells are not able to withstand loads producing bending, and both the loading forces and the reaction forces of their supports must obey this condition, We will discuss thin-walled pressure vessels, such as cylindrical, spherical, conical, and toroidal shells subjected to internal or external pressure from a gas ora liquid, _-Axis of symmetry The shell of revolution shown in Fig.15.2,1 is formed by rotating a plane curve (the meridian) about an axis lying in the plane of the curve. We cut an element of the membrane bounded by two closely adjacent parallel circles whose planes are Shel element \\ Parallel circle shell and two closely adjacent generators, or normal to the vertical axis of symmetry of the pais meridians, of the shell. We use ry to denote the Fig.15.2.1 radius of curvature of the meridian (which varies along the length of the meridian), and r; to denote the radius of curvature of the shell surface in a direction perpendicular to the meridian (Fig.15.2.2a). The centre of curvature corresponding to ry ‘must lie on the axis of symmetry, although the centre for r; does not (in general) lie there, An internal pressure p acting normal to the curved surface of the shell gives rise to meridional stresses oj and hoop (circumferential) stresses 6 as indicated in the figure. These stresses are orthogonal to one 204‘THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS another and act in the plane of the shell wall. Since no shearing stresses are produced, the stresses 0 and @ are principal stresses. Axisofsymmetyy dB ag oy-.rz.dB + higher-order terms 6; + higher-order ee — o 627 p dpi2 \- ~~ Axis of symmetry ontn.dat ap » Fig.15,2.2 .) 15.2.2b shows the hoop forces more clearly, as seen by looking along the axis of symmetry. It is evident that cach of the hoop stresses @} is exerted on the area 1.(r;.da) and produces the force vector G}.t.(ry.da) which makes an angle df /2 with the tangent to the element. The component of these hoop forces, 2-Gy-t-r -da.-sin , since df /2 is small, 6 -t +1, -dot-dB , is acting normal to the shell. Analogously, the meridional forces appear in Fig.15.2.2c and have a component 6, -t-1,-dB-do. acting normal to the shell. Pressure p acts over an area (r;.d@) . (r2.d) , so that the equation of equilibrium in the normal direction becomes 6, :t-ty dB-da+o,-t-1, -da-dB—p-1, dor -dB=0 ‘After dividing this equation by 1. .dat.r2.dB, we obtain Laplace's formula S192 =P 52.1) renee This fundamental equation, called the Laplace theorem, applies to axi-symmetric deformations of all thin shells (membranes) of revolution. A second equation (since there are two unknowns ¢;,0;) is yielded by consideration of the vertical equilibrium of the entire shell with respect to some convenient parallel circle of arbitrary position y from which we obtain the meridional stress 0; (Fig.15.2.3) — Y*V+?Rs 61 -2-m-r-t-cos.—Q, -Qr -Q3=0 > = (45.2.2) 2-m-r-t- cose 205‘THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS tothe area of the circular ring (with y\y radius r) obtained by the section of a Y plane (at an arbitrary ordinate y) Qa Z Yy perpendicular to the axis of the shell; Up Fig. 15.23 ed by the pressurizing medium (liquid, or gas) above section y; =; Qr_... the load produ Q;__... the weight of the liquid beneath section y (for gas Q: Q; ... the weight of the shell material beneath section y. Note: How to support a membrane? To ensure the membrane stress state a ‘bandage is needed or to use a tangent conical support * Such a vertical cylindrical support itself ‘would destroy the membrane stress state 15.3 Pressure vessels. Basic components of pressure vessels are thin-walled shells, i.c., membranes. Such a pressure vessel often consists of a cylindrical body closed with lids (in this case hemispherical ones), see Fig DetA__4 0.1 MPa=0 ri] mer 1 opp | APA = 0-0 P When studying the Laplace formulas, (15.1) and (15.2), itis clear that this problem is SD and thus the items of the general solving flow diagram, to be applied, are those of 6 = 10. ‘The items 6 and 7 are substituted just with the Laplace formulas: 206 dy‘THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS 2 ~ cylinder; St hob 2 (15.2.1), where 0) = 04, 2 = 64, = 0.5 t which yields. o , = 6, = VQ *W 15.9) where o1= 04, Q1= HPP, = Q=0, = 4, = EE; 2em-r t-cose 2 - hemisphere ~ lid: ©1492 =P, where 6 = 02= 0, which yields 6 =P eennmt 2 Items imensioning (when comparing the vessel parts, the maximum stress state is that in the cylindrical one). Using Tresca's Strength Criterion: Seq = 1-9; = 6 ans t or tay) =P, depending on the given parameters. ral Ca na al 6, we can assess either Pay) S Items 9: For numerical computation only. Items 10: We can assess the change in radii 2 ~ cylinder: [o, —H-Oq] => Ary =P fap] (when separated) 2E-t a pr «lids: An, = [1-11] (when separated) Important remark: 2 The diference assessed between thse two displacements is: 8= Ar, — An, = HEE 2E-t This can ony be rected by the introduction of shear forces and moments as shown in Fig(15.3.1), where = shearing force and M=hending moment, both per unit ength. When dealing witha static load, this disproportion arisen is compensated with both elastic and plastic deformations ofthe two pats, Buta great problem could eppear witha eysic loading, which can lead evento 2 low-cvolic fatigue fracture 15.4 Centrifuge Another interesting problem is to assess the allowable wall thickness fay of a centrifuge (Fig.15.4.1) having dimensions: r >> 1, material: E, can ps (specific mass), and rotating with the angular velocity of wfrad/s]. The centrifuge contains a liquid of specific mass p, Solution; The centrifuge is stressed with the tangent stress 0; = die + dip, Where: if Gy =PsV*, ic. the tangent stress caused by the centrifuge shell revolution (ef. See.2.11.1, revolving ring), when neglecting a reinforcing influence of the centrifuge lids. 207‘THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS iif Sp Siatic liquid level | = Hiydrosatc J paradox Gu Simplified dynamic | % liquid level Fig.15.4.1 Note: How assess the force action of the rotating liquid? ‘The originally horizontal level of the liquid is gradually changed, by the rotation, into a paraboloid, which, at a high angular velocity «, can be app. considered as a hollow cylinder (Fig. 15.4.1). The centrifugal force of the liquid cylinder loads the centrifuge shell with a pressure p .The pressure p can be computed by utilizing the so called hydrostatic paradox: Using the liquid elementary parallelepiped of a unit base (AV = 1 - 1+ dx), computing its centrifugal ‘Sorce, summing by integration, we obiain the liquid pressure: 5 p= fo?-x-p,-1-1-dx ‘The Tresea’s strength criterion: 6,, Suis The allowable membrane thickness fay is then: u-w ol (4 vty ae m? ta = a a a —es-(-ay] | _N ms That checking of the units is recommendable, since it helps te prove the result correctness. 208REFERENCES References 1) Michalec, J. et al: Strength of Materials I, [In Czech: Pruznost a pevnost I], Textbook of CTU in Prague, 1995. 2) Nash, W. A.: Strength of Materials, Schaum’s Outline Series, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994. 3) Beer, F. P. - Johnston, E, R.: Mechanics of Materials, McGraw-Hill, Ine., 1992. 4) Heam, B. J.: Mechanics of Materials 1, Butterworth-Heinemann, Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8 DP, A division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd, 1997. 5) Gere, J. M, - Timoshenko, S. P.: Mechanics of Materials, PWS Publishing Company, Boston, 1997. 209REFERENCES References 1) Michalee, J. et al.: Strength of Materials I, [In Czech: Pruénost a pevnost I], Textbook of CTU in Prague, 1995. 2)Nash, W. A.: Strength of Materials, Schaum’s Outline Series, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994, 3) Beer, F. P. - Johnston, E. R.: Mechanics of Materials, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1992. 4) Hear, E. J.; Mechanics of Materials 1, Butterworth-Heinemann, Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8 DP, A division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd, 1997. 5) Gere, J. M, - Timoshenko, S. P.: Mechanics of Materials, PWS Publishing Company, Boston, 1997. 209Doc. Ing. Miroslav Sochor, CSc. ‘STRENGTH OF MATERIALS | Vydalo Ceské wysoké uden’technické v Praze, Ceska technika ~ nakladatelsti CVUT, Thakurova 1, 160 41 Praha 6 v roce 2011 jako svou 11 479. publikaci, Vytiskla Cesk technika ~ nakladatelstvi CVUT, vjroba, Zikova 4, 166 36 Praha 6 209 stran 3. prepracované wydan\. Naklad 100 vftiskil. Rozsah 16,54 AA, 16,87 VA.