ECE 511/L

introducing

Transmission Lines
and Antenna
METALLIC CABLE TRANSMISSION
MEDIA
THREE MAIN ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM

TRANSMITTER CHANNEL RECIEVER

Human Message Message for

Input
NOISE Human application

The MEDIUM by which electronic signal is sent from one

place to another.
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA

UNBOUNDED BOUNDED
Earth’s atmosphere
Ocean
Metallic Non-metallic
Outer space
Fiber cable

Parallel-wire line Coaxial line

 Transmitter Receiver

Transmitter Receiver
Bounded/Guided Transmission Media

• Are those with some form

of conductor that provides
a CONDUIT in which
electromagnetic signals are
contained
• Only devices physically
connected to the medium
can receive the signals
Unguided Transmission Media

• Are wireless systems; those without a physical

connection
• The direction of propagation depends on the
direction in which the signal was emitted, and,
on any obstacles, the signal may encounter
while propagating
• Signals are available to everyone who has a
device capable of receiving them.
GUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Metallic Transmission Lines

• It is considered a bounded medium that only

transverse electromagnetic TEM wave can
propagate
• A metallic material or structure that forms all
or part of the path from one point to another
for directing the transmission of energy.
• Consisting of at least two conductors either in
parallel or concentric (coaxial) between which
a voltage can exists.
Electromagnetic Wave
BALANCED AND UNBALANCED
TRANSMISSION LINES
Types of Transmission Lines

• Balanced, Parallel-Wire Transmission Line

– Both conductor carry current, one carries
the signal, the other is the return path
(opposite direction)
– Advantage: cancels common mode signal
(noise); this cancellation is called common
mode rejection
– Common ratios are 40dB to 70dB
Types of Transmission Lines

• Unbalanced
– Are those which transport electromagnetic
waves without using a physical conductor.
– Examples: Earth’s atmosphere (free space),
ocean, outer space.
BALUN
A balun is a device for
coupling balanced and
unbalanced configuration. It’s a
type of electrical transformer
that can convert electrical
signals that are balanced about
ground (differential) to signals
that are unbalanced (single- built A 75-to-300-ohm balun
into the antenna plug
ended), and reverse.
They are also often used to connect lines of
differing impedance.
BALANCED, PARALLEL-WIRE
TRANSMISSION LINE
Balanced, Parallel-Wire Transmission Line

• Balanced means that the impedance to

ground from each of the two wires is equal.
• Impedance varies from 150Ω to around 600Ω
with 300Ω as the most common impedance
• Normally useful at lower frequencies for
radiation losses become higher at higher
frequencies.
• Equal current flows on each conductor but
opposite (180O out of phase) direction.
Characteristic Impedance (Balanced Parallel-
wire lines)
𝟐𝟕𝟔 𝟐𝑺
𝒁𝒐 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝝐 𝒅
Where:
𝝐 = dielectric constant
𝒅 = diameter of the wire
𝑺 = distance between two wires
Examples of Balanced Parallel-wire lines

• Open-wire Transmission
Lines
– Consist of two wires
running parallel to each
other and are separated by Dielectric: Air
air (2-6 inches)
– Typically, the separation is between 0.635cm to 15.24
cm
– Advantage: simple construction
– Disadvantage: radiation losses are high, produces
crosstalk
– Primary use: standard voice-grade telephone
applications
Examples of Balanced Parallel-wire lines

• Twin-lead
– The same with open-
spaced, but the spacers
are replaced by a
continuous dielectric
(Teflon and polyethylene) Dielectric: Teflon
Polyethylene
– A flat brown cable
– Primary use: connect televisions to rooftop and
antennas
– Typical Impedance: 300Ω
Examples of Balanced Parallel-wire lines

• Twisted-Pair
– Formed by twisting two
insulated conductors
around each other
– The numbering system used in twisted-pair is
AWG
– Twisting reduces EMI and RFI
– Sizes vary from 16AWG to 26 gauge
– Primary use: telephone networks, cabling
systems, LAN
– Specs(586 standard): 100Ω and 150Ω
Twisted Pair

• Unshielded Twisted Pair

– Consists of two copper wires separately
encapsulated in PVC insulation
– The number of twists may improve the bandwidth
of the cable rate
– Minimum number of twists is two/ft
– Flexible, inexpensive, and easy to install
– Most susceptible to EMI
Twisted Pair

• Shielded Twisted Pair

– Two copper conductors
separated by solid
dielectric material
– The wires and dielectric
are enclosed in a
conductive metal sleeve
called a foil.
- If the sleeve is woven into a mesh, it is called
braided
- The sleeve is connected to the ground and acts as a
shield; keeps EMI and RFI from reaching signal
conductors
Shielded Twisted Pair

• Advantages:
– Offers greater security
– Greater immunity to interference

• Disadvantages:
– Thicker and less flexible than UTP
– Difficult to install
– More expensive
– Requires additional grounding connector
UNBALANCE COAXIAL LINES
Unbalanced Coaxial Lines

• consists of a center conductor surrounded by a

dielectric material (insulation), a concentric
shielding, and a rubber environment protection
or jacket.
• They are applied at a higher frequencies up to
about 3 GHz.
• The impedances of these lines are somewhere in
between 40 to 150 ohms with 50 and 75 ohms as
common impedances
• RG numbering system is used with coaxial cables
 Coaxial line
Rigid Coaxial

Flexible Coaxial
Characteristic Impedance (Unbalanced Coaxial
Lines)
𝟏𝟑𝟖 𝑫
𝒁𝒐 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝝐 𝒅
Where:
𝝐 = dielectric constant
𝒅 = diameter of the wire
𝑫 = diameter of the outer conductor
Stripline and Microstripline

• Stripline Transmission Line

(balanced)

𝟔𝟎 4(𝐻1 + 𝐻2 )
𝒁𝑶 = ln
𝝐 0.67𝜋(0.8𝑊 + 𝑇)
Stripline and Microstripline

• Microstripline Transmission
Line
 Zo Vf mils
RG – 8/A-AU 52 0.66 0.585
RG – 8/U foam 50 0.80 0.405
RG – 58/A - AU 53 0.66 1.250
RG – 58 foam 50 0.79 1.000
RG – 59/A - AU 73 0.84 0.800
RG – 59 foam 75 0.79 0.880
Transmission Characteristics
Transmission Characteristics

• Primary Constants
– are the circuits’ distributed circuits coefficients.
R, ohms/meter – Total Resistance per unit length
L, Henries/meter – total Inductance per unit length
G, Siemens/meter – Shunt Conductance of the
transmission line per unit length
C, farads/meter – shunt capacitance of the
transmission line per unit length
Rs, Leakage Resistance of dielectric
Transmission Characteristics

1. Characteristic Impedance, Zo
– The impedance measured at the input of the
transmission line when its length is infinite or when it
is terminated with purely resistive load with
resistance equal to its own characteristic impedance.
Also called Surge Impedance.
– For maximum power transfer from source to load,
transmission line must be terminated in a purely
resistive load equal to the characteristic impedance
of the line.
– The characteristic impedance is a complex quantity
that is expressed in ohms, is ideally independent of
line length, and cannot be measured directly.
 𝑹+𝒋𝝎𝑳
• 𝒁𝒐 = General Equation
𝑮+𝒋𝝎𝑪

𝑹
• 𝒁𝒐 = At Low Frequencies
𝑮

𝑳
• 𝒁𝒐 = At High Frequencies
𝑪

• 𝒁𝒐 = 𝒁𝑶𝑪 × 𝒁𝑺𝑪 During Line Tests

Transmission Characteristics

1. Propagation Constants, 𝜸
– Expresses the attenuation (signal loss) and the
phase shift per unit length of a transmission line.
– used to determine the reduction in voltage or
current with distance as TEM wave propagates
down a transmission line.
– For an infinitely long line, all the incident power is
dissipated in the resistance of the wire as wave
propagates down the line.
 Propagation Constant

𝜸= (𝑹 + 𝒋𝝎𝑳)(𝑮 + 𝒋𝝎𝑪)

𝜸 = 𝜶 + 𝒋𝜷
Where:

𝜶 = attenuation constant 𝜷 = phase constant or coefficient

𝑅 𝜔
𝜶= , Neper/Length 𝜷 = ω 𝐿𝐶 =
2𝑍𝑜 𝑉𝑝
𝑅
𝜶= 4.343 , dB/Length =
2𝜋
, rad/Length
𝑍𝑂
λ
Example

• A parallel-wire line spaced at 1.27 cm has a

diameter of 0.21 cm. What is its characteristic
impedance?
Example

• What is the characteristic impedance of a

coaxial cable using solid polyethylene
dielectric, an inner conductor of 1mm in
diameter and an outer conductor 5mm in
diameter?
Seatwork

• Two wire 600-ohm characteristic impedance is to

be constructed out of a #12 wire (81 mils).
Determine the spacing between wire from center
to center.
• Find the inductance of a 5-meter length
transmission line if the characteristic impedance
is 52 ohms and the capacitance is 75pF/m.
• What is the characteristic impedance of an open-
line with conductors 4mm in diameter separated
by 15mm?
Fundamental Line Constants

Parallel Line Wire Coaxial Line

• Impedance (Ω) • Impedance (Ω)
𝟐𝟕𝟔 𝟐𝑺 𝟏𝟑𝟖 𝑫
𝒁𝒐 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒁𝒐 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝝐𝒓 𝒅 𝝐𝒓 𝒅
• Inductance (H/m) • Inductance (H/m)
𝝁 𝟐𝑺 𝝁 𝑫
𝑳 = 𝐥𝐧 𝑳= 𝒍𝒏
𝝅 𝒅 𝟐𝝅 𝒅
Fundamental Line Constants

Parallel Line Wire Coaxial Line

• Capacitance (F/m) • Capacitance (F/m)
𝝐 𝟐𝝅𝝐
𝑪= 𝑪=
𝟐𝑺 𝑫
𝐥𝐧 𝒍𝒏
𝒅 𝒅
• Conductance (S/m) • Conductance (S/m)
𝝈𝝅 𝟐𝝈𝝅
𝑮= 𝑪=
𝟐𝑺 𝑫
𝒍𝒏 𝒍𝒏
𝒅 𝒅
Fundamental Line Constants

Parallel Line Wire

• Resistance (Ω/m)
−𝟖
𝒇𝑯𝒛
𝑹 = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎
𝒅𝒎

Coaxial Line
• Resistance (Ω/m)
−𝟖
𝟏 𝟏
𝑹 = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎 𝒇𝑯𝒛 +
𝒅𝒎 𝑫𝒎
Fundamental Line Constants

Stripline (or microstripline)

• Inductance (uH/ft)
𝑳 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝒁𝒐 𝝐𝒓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝝁𝑯/𝒇𝒕

• Capacitance (uF/ft)
𝝐𝒓
𝑪 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟏𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝝁𝑭/𝒇𝒕
𝒁𝒐
Example

• Determine the conductance of a two-wire

open line with the following parameters:
• S = 4 in; d = 0.1 in; and
• ρ = 2.6 x 108 Ω-m
TRANSMISSION LINES BASICS
Primary Requirements
• The line should introduce minimum attenuation
and distortion to the signal
• The line should not radiate any of the signals as
radio energy
• The line should be at least 0.1λ long at the signal
frequency

Oliver Heaviside developed the

transmission line model as an infinite
series of two-port elementary
components, each representing an
infinitesimally short segment of the
transmission line
TRANSMISSION LINE LOSSES
Transmission Line Losses

• Conductor Loss
• Dielectric Heating Loss
• Radiation Loss
• Coupling Loss
• Corona
Transmission Line Losses

• Conductor Loss
– Directly proportional to the square of the line
length
– Inversely proportional to characteristic impedance
– Depends on frequency because of skin effect
(most current flows at the surface)
– To reduce conductor loss, shorten the
transmission line
Skin Effect
Is the tendency of the
current to avoid the
central portion of solid
conductors and to pass
or flow mostly through
the outer surface of the
conductors
Transmission Line Losses

• Dielectric Heating Loss

– a difference of potential between two conductors
of a metallic transmission line
– For air dielectric, heating loss is negligible
– For solid-core transmission lines, the dielectric
heating loss increases with frequency
Transmission Line Losses

• Radiation Loss
– Depends on the dielectric material, conductor
spacing, and length of transmission line
– Happens when the transmission line acts as an
antenna and transfer energy to any nearby
conductive material
– Directly proportional to frequency
– May be reduced by properly shielding the cable.
Transmission Line Losses

• Coupling Loss
– made when two sections of a transmission line are
connected together
– discontinuities heat up, radiate energy, and
dissipate power
 Transmission Line Losses

• Corona
– Luminous discharge
that occurs between
the conductors of a
transmission line
– When corona occurs,
transmission line is
destroyed
Seatwork

• A coaxial cable has a capacitance of 90 pF/m

and a characteristic impedance of 50Ω. Find
the inductance of a 1m length
• A cable has an inductance of 15nH/m and
85pF/m at a specified frequency. What is the
surge impedance of the line?
• What is the attenuation of a 50-Ω coaxial
cable if it has a resistance of 0.121 Ω/m.
WAVE PROPAGATION ON A
METALLIC TRANSMISSION LINE
Velocity Factor and Dielectric Constant

• Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of

light when propagating in space; but in
metallic transmission lines, EM waves travel
much more slowly.
Velocity factor
– Ratio of the actual velocity of propagation of an
electromagnetic wave through a given medium to
the velocity of propagation at free space (vacuum)
Velocity Factor and Dielectric Constant

Dielectric Constant
– Is the relative permittivity of a material
𝑽𝒑 𝟏 𝝐 𝟏
𝑽𝒇 = = ; 𝝐𝒓 = ; 𝑽𝒑 =
𝒄 𝝐𝒓 𝝐𝑶 𝑳𝑪

Where:
𝑽𝒇 = velocity factor 𝑽𝒑 = velocity of propagation
𝒄 = speed of light at vacuum = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
𝝐𝒓 = Relative permittivity or the dielectric constant
𝝐 = permittivity of material
𝝐𝑶 = permittivity of free space = 8.854 × 10−12 𝐹/𝑚
𝑳 = series inductance 𝑪 = Shunt capacitance
 Material Velocity Factor Dielectric Constant
Air 0.9997 1.0006
Teflon foam 0.8200 1.4872
Teflon 0.6901 2.1000
Polyethylene 0.6637 2.3000
Paper, paraffined 0.6325 2.5000
Polystyrene 0.6325 2.5000
Polyvinyl chloride 0.5505 3.3000
Rubber 0.5774 3.0000
Mica 0.4472 5.0000
Glass 0.3651 7.5000
Example

• Calculate the velocity factor and the

characteristic impedance of a transmission
line with capacitance 40 pF/m and an
inductance equal inductance equal to 50
uH/m.
Example

• What is the actual length in feet of one-half

wavelength of a coax with velocity factor of
0.63 at 28 MHz?
Incident and Reflected Waves

• Incident Voltage – voltage that propagates

from the source towards the load
• Reflected Voltage – voltage that propagates
from the load towards the source
• Incident Current – current that propagates
from the source towards the load
• Reflected Current – current that propagates
from the load towards the source
Incident and Reflected Waves

• Incident Power – power that is absorbed by

the load
• Reflected Power – power that is not absorbed
by the load or this is the power that is
reflected by the load towards the source. This
power can never exceed the incident power
Resonant and Non-resonant Line

• Non-resonant Line
– a transmission line that has no reflected power.
This line is either infinite or terminated with a
resistive load equal in ohmic value to the
characteristic impedance of the transmission line.
Resonant and Non-resonant Line

• Resonant Line
– a transmission line that has reflected power back
to the source. This line has a load which does not
match its characteristic impedance. If the load is
either short or an open circuit, all the incident
power is reflected back to its source. If the source
were replaced with an open or a short and the
line were lossless, energy present on the line
would reflect back and forth (oscillate) between
the capacitor and inductor in an LC tank circuit.
Reflection Coefficient (Γ)

– is a vector quantity that represents the ratio of the

reflected voltage to the incident voltage or the
reflected current to the incident current
𝑬𝒓 𝑰𝒓
Γ= = in dB, Γ𝒅𝑩 = 𝟐𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈Γ
𝑬𝒊 𝑰𝒊

Where:
𝐸𝑟 = reflected voltage
𝐸𝑖 = incident voltage
𝐼𝑟 = reflected current
𝐼𝑖 = incident current
• Reflected Power, Pref
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒇 = Γ 𝟐 𝑷𝒊𝒏𝒄
• Power absorbed by the Load, PL
𝑷𝑳 = 𝑷𝒊𝒏𝒄 − 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒇
• Return Loss, RL
𝟏
𝑹𝑳𝒅𝑩 = 𝟐𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈
Γ
Standing Waves

• Stationary patterns of voltage and current that

are produced on the line if the line is
mismatched
• Standing-Wave Ratio (SWR)
– Ratio of the maximum voltage to the minimum
voltage or the maximum current to the minimum
current of a standing wave on a transmission line.
𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑬𝒊 + 𝑬𝒓
𝑺𝑾𝑹 = =
𝑬𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝑬𝒊 − 𝑬𝒓
Standing-Wave Ratio (SWR)
𝟏+Γ 𝑺𝑾𝑹−𝟏
𝑺𝑾𝑹 = Γ=
𝟏−Γ 𝑺𝑾𝑹+𝟏
• For purely resistive load, SWR can also be
expressed as a ratio of the characteristic
impedance to the load or vice versa.
𝒁𝑶 𝒁𝑳
𝑺𝑾𝑹 = 𝒐𝒓
𝒁𝑳 𝒁𝑶
– Whichever gives an SWR greater than 1
In dB,
𝑺𝑾𝑹𝒅𝑩 = 𝟐𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝑺𝑾𝑹)
LINE CONDITIONS
 Loading Conditions
Is IR

Vs V(d) VR ZL

Source Transmission Line Load

 ZL + Zo tanh  
Zin = Zo  
 Zo + ZL tanh  
Surge Impedance can be:
- constant at infinite T’Lines
- or equal to the load resistance; otherwise; it is changing
Match Loading Condition
 ZL + Zo tanh  
Zin = Zo  
 Zo + ZL tanh  
With ZL = Zo
Then Zin = Zo
Mismatch Loading Conditions
With ZL  Zo
 ZL + Zo tanh  
Then Zin = Zo  
 Zo + ZL tanh  

For = (lossless line)
4
2
Zo
Zin =
ZL
Example

• What is the input impedance of a transmission

line if its characteristic impedance is 300 
and the load is 600 ? Assume a quarter
wavelength section only.
 Receiving & Sending End Quantities

IR = Is e -ℓ ; Is = IRe ℓ

VR = Vse -ℓ ; Vs= VRe ℓ

PR = Pse -2ℓ ; Ps= PRe 2ℓ

 Line Voltages & Currents
For lossless transmission lines

V ( d ) = V + e j  d + V − e − j d

I ( d) =
1
Zo
(
+ j d
V e −V e− − j d
)
For lossy transmission lines
V ( d) = V + e d + V −e−d

I ( d) =
1
Zo
(
V +e d − V −e−d )
Lossless transmission line cases:
Case 1: ZL = 0 (short circuit)
ZL − Zo
= = −1
ZL + Zo

Case 2: ZL =  (open circuit)

ZL − Zo
= =1
ZL + Zo
 Lossless transmission line cases:
Case 3: ZL = Zo (match load)
ZL − Zo
= =0
ZL + Zo
Case 4: ZL= jX (purely reactive)
Reactive impedance can be realized with transmission
lines terminated by a short or by an open circuit.

Z(d) = jZotan (d)

Reflection coefficient has a unitary magnitude, as in the

case of short and open circuit load.
 Incident Wave

Source Load

Reflected Wave

Source Load

Antinodes

Source Load

Nodes Standing Wave

Voltage and current standing waves on a transmission line
that is transmitted in an OPEN CIRCUIT
Voltage
Current

Source Far
end λ/4 λ/4 λ/4 λ/4 λ/4 λ/4 λ/4 end

Voltage and current standing waves on a transmission line

that is transmitted in a SHORT CIRCUIT
Current
Voltage

Source Far
end λ/4 λ/4 λ/4 λ/4 λ/4 λ/4 λ/4 end
Standing-Waves on an Open Line

The characteristics of a transmission line

terminated in an open line can be summarized as
follows:
• the voltage incident wave is reflected back just as
if it were to continue (no phase reversal)
• The current incident wave is reflected back 180O
from how it would have continued.
• The sum of incident and reflected current
waveforms is minimum at the open line.
• The sum of the incident and the reflected voltage
waveforms is maximum at the open line.
Standing-Waves on a Shorted Line

The characteristics of a transmission line

terminated in a shorted line can be summarized as
follows:
• the voltage incident wave is reflected back 180O
reversed from how it would have continued
• The current incident wave is reflected back the
same as it had continued.
• The sum of incident and reflected current
waveforms is maximum at the shorted line.
• The sum of the incident and the reflected voltage
waveforms is minimum at the shorted line.
Disadvantages of not having a matched (flat)
transmission line can be summarized as follows:
• 100% of the source incident power is not absorbed
by the load
• The dielectric separating the two conductors can
break down and cause corona as a result of high-
voltage standing-wave ratio
• Reflections and re-reflection cause more power
loss.
• Reflection causes ghost images
• Mismatches cause noise interference
Transmission-Line Input Impedance

• Impedance inversion happens every quarter of

a wavelength as the signal propagates down a
transmission line that is terminated in either
opened or shorted load. The input impedance
for a lossless transmission line that is
terminated in a short or open can be resistive,
inductive, or capacitive, depending on the
distance from the termination.
For Shorted Transmission Line

• less than quarter wave long: inductive circuit

• one quarter wave long: Parallel resonant
circuit (Resistive and Maximum)
• More than one quarter wave long: capacitive
circuit Current
Voltage

Source Far
end λ/4 λ/4 λ/4 λ/4 λ/4 λ/4 λ/4 end
For Open Transmission Line:

• less than quarter wave long: capacitive circuit

• one quarter wave long: Series resonant circuit
(Resistive and Minimum)
• More than one quarter wave long: inductive
circuit
Voltage
Current

Source Far
end λ/4 λ/4 λ/4 λ/4 λ/4 λ/4 λ/4 end
 Solutions to mismatch condition
1. QUARTERWAVE TRANSFORMER
MATCHING
276 2D
Zo ' = log for parallel wire line
Zo’ ZL r d'
Zo
138 D
Zo ' = log for coaxial line
/4 r d'

Z'o = Zo ZL
d - d'
%Re duction in diameter = x 100%
d
Example

A quarter wave transformer is connected to a

parallel wire line in order to match the line to a
load of 1000 . The transformer has a
characteristic impedance of 316.23 . The
distance between centers of the line is 4 inches.
a) Zo of the line. Ans. 100 ohms
b) Diameter of the line. Ans. 3.47 in.
c) Diameter of the transformer. Ans. 0.57 in.
d) What is the percentage reduction in the
diameter of the line? Ans. 84 %
 Solutions to mismatch condition:

2. STUB MATCHING
A stub is a short section of transmission line
either open ended or shorted designed to tune
out the reactance component of the load before
quarterwave transformer matching.

A shorted stub is preferable since open ended

stub is liable to radiate energy thereby adding losses.
 Transmission Line Input Impedance
Length Termination LC equivalent
l = /4 Shorted Parallel resonant
l = /4 Open ended Series resonant
l < /4 Shorted Pure inductor
l < /4 Open ended Pure capacitor
l > /4 Shorted Pure capacitor
l > /4 Open ended Pure inductor
Example

In an improper loaded transmission line with

reflection coefficient of 0.71, calculate the
following given that Pinc = 500W:
• VSWR
• Reflected Power
• Power absorbed by the load
• Return loss
Example

• What is the actual length in feet of one-half

wavelength of a coax with a velocity factor of
0.63 at 28 MHz.
• What is the attenuation, in dB/m, of a 50-ohm
coaxial cable if it has a resistance of 0.121
ohms/m?
• A radio frequency transmission line has a
capacitance of 46.8 pF/m and a phase
constant of 30 degrees per meter. Determine
the inductance of the line at a frequency of 30
MHz.
END
Questions?