Accepted Manuscript

Characteristics, classification and genesis of vertisols under seasonally contrasted

climate in the Lake Chad Basin, Central Africa

Temga Jean Pierre, Azinwi Tamfuh Primus, Basga Djakba Simon, Zo'o Zame
Philemon, Gouban Hamadjida, Abossolo Monique, Nguetnkam Jean Pierre, Bitom
Dieudonné Lucien
PII: S1464-343X(18)30344-3
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2018.11.003
Reference: AES 3358

To appear in: Journal of African Earth Sciences

Received Date: 3 March 2017

Revised Date: 12 October 2018
Accepted Date: 7 November 2018

Please cite this article as: Pierre, T.J., Primus, A.T., Simon, B.D., Philemon, Zo'.Zame., Hamadjida, G.,
Monique, A., Pierre, N.J., Lucien, Bitom.Dieudonné., Characteristics, classification and genesis of
vertisols under seasonally contrasted climate in the Lake Chad Basin, Central Africa, Journal of African
Earth Sciences (2018), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2018.11.003.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Characteristics, classification and genesis of Vertisols under seasonally contrasted climate

in the Lake Chad Basin, Central Africa

Temga Jean Pierre1,*, Azinwi Tamfuh Primus2, Basga Djakba Simon3, Zo’o Zame Philemon1,
Gouban Hamadjida1, Abossolo Monique1, Nguetnkam Jean Pierre4, Bitom Dieudonné Lucien2
1
Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé I, P.O. Box 812
Yaoundé, Cameroon

2
Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 222
Dschang, Cameroon
3
Institute of Agricultural Research for Development, P.O. Box 415 Garoua, Cameroon
4
Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Ngaoundéré, P.O. Box 454
Ngaoundéré, Cameroon

*Corresponding Author. E-mail address: temgajp@yahoo.fr (J. P. Temga)

Abstract

General properties of Vertisols are known world-wide, but these properties vary in
different areas due to specific environmental conditions. The mastery of the specific
characteristics of each Vertisols in a given area requires detailed site-scale investigation. This
work aims to study the properties of the Lake Chad Basin Vertisols, attempt to highlight their
genetic processes and classification. These Vertisols are dark, clayey and massive, very
compact, with deep wide-opened cracks and gilgaï micro-relief. They show neutral to slightly
alkaline pH, low organic matter content (0.7 to 2.73%) and high C/N ratio values (7.34 to
39.64). Ca2+ and Mg2+ are the most represented exchangeable cations (5.92 to 30.72% and 1.28
to 5.44%, respectively) on the absorption complex. Smectite is the main clay but small contents
of kaolinite, illite, quartz and feldspars are also present. The most
concentrated elements in the profile are silica (61.07 – 77.78 wt.% SiO2), aluminium (7.08 –
15.54 wt.% Al2O3) and iron (1.78 – 6.92 wt.% Fe2O3). The Si/Al ratio (> 2) and chemical index
of alteration (CIA) are moderate to high (56.76 to 88.39) and indicate a moderate to intense
weathering. Such properties reflect the pedogenic influence of the environmental factors like
contrasting climate, low topographic position and the alluvial parent material. The accumulation
of basic cations favours the neosynthesis of smectite minerals typical of a dominant
bisiallitisation process. The Vertisols profiles, due to the presence of a perched water table,
enable to classify these soils as Epiaquerts and Endoaquerts Vertisols (USDA soil taxonomy)
and Gleyics and Fulvics Vertisols (WRB). Their physical characteristics and notably their
difficult water management constitute a limitation to agricultural activities.

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Key words: Lake Chad Basin, Logone flooded plain, Vertisols, morphology, geochemistry,
mineralogy, genesis.

1. Introduction

Vertisols are churning heavy clay soils which contain high proportions of swelling clay
minerals such as smectites (Soil Survey Staff, 1999). They show high swell-shrink potential,
leading to the formation of surficial cracks that open and close periodically with soil moisture
variations, and wedge-shaped aggregates and/or slickensides at depth (Soil Survey Staff, 1999).
Eswaran and Cook (1988) defines Vertisols as heavy clayey soils, with a massive block
structure due to the presence of cracks when dry and a dark colour. Woldeab (1988) also defines

Vertisols as dark-coloured clays that develop cracks when contracting at very low moisture
contents. Grunwald (2003) refers to Vertisols as soils having a vertic horizon within 100 cm
depth. Vertisols are heavy clayey (30 – 95% clay fraction) soils that are very hard with deep wide-
opened cracks during the dry season.

Vertisols are known worldwide, especially in hot tropical and subtropical zones with a

contrasting climate (Dudal, 1965) and a well marked dry season (Duchaufour, 1977; Grunwald,

2003). They usually form on basic parent materials (Podwojewski, 1988; Blockuis, 1993;

Bùhmann and Schoeman, 1995; Aydinalp, 2001). However, alkali-earth elements might be

added to the soil profile by seepage action in case where the parent rock is not basic (Grunwald,

2003). The most common Vertisols parent materials are alluvial clayey sediments, sedimentary

rocks such as shales, mudstones and impure limestone and basic or alkaline igneous rocks

particularly basalts (Nalovic, 1969; Brabant and Gavaud, 1985; Grunwald, 2003). Typically,

Vertisols occur in areas with flat horizontal or gentle slopes (Coulombe et al., 1996). Among the

ten soil orders recognized in Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1993), Vertisols are well known

by their swell-shrink property under different moisture conditions.

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They are amongst the most fertile soils in the world although they present numerous

management problems that limit crop production (Nordt et al., 2004). Some of these limitations

are shrinking-swelling, low water conductivity, stickiness when wet, extreme hardness when

dry, surfacial cracks in the dry season and ponding in the rainy season (Ambassa-Kiki et al.,

1996; Moustakas, 2012; Kamgang et al., 2011; Azinwi Tamfuh et al., 2016). Thus, a detailed

site-specific investigation is indispensable to master their exact properties to permit a more

sustainable management. In the Lake Chad Basin region of North Cameroon, Vertisols occupy

more than 60% of the total land surface (Jones et al., 2013). Here, reconnaissance data on the

general characteristics and some pedogenetic aspects of Vertisols are insufficient to allow their

optimum exploitation. A number of questions remain unanswered: what are the detailed

characteristics of Vertisols formed on alluvial deposits in the Lake Chad Basin? What are the

pedogenetic processes responsible for the formation of these soils? To which taxonomic class

can they be referred? What are the best management practices related to their various properties

to enhance optimum crop production?

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This work therefore aims to study the properties of the Lake Chad Basin Vertisols and to

highlight their genesis, classification and best management strategies for an optimum

exploitation and protection/conservation. The results obtained will provide information to users

on the most appropriate management approach to be adopted when they are in contact with

these soils.

2. Geographical and geological setting

The studied site is located in northern Cameroon within the Lake Chad Basin, between

latitude 6°05’ and 13°50’ N, and longitude 14°00’ and 17°00’ E (Fig. 1). This Basin occupies a

total surface area of about 2,335,000 km2, between 200 and 500 m altitudinal range (Fig. 2). The

climate is the sudano-sahelian type, with two contrasting seasons: a rainy season from June to
September and a dry one from November to May (Suchel, 1987). The average annual rainfall

over all the basins is 671.6 mm yr-1. The average annual temperature is 31.1° C, with March and

April being the warmest months (28.6 and 28.7° C, respectively), whereas December and

January are the coldest months (27 – 26° C, respectively) (Table 1). Vegetation cover is the

sahelian savanna (steppe), which has been strongly degraded by human action and replaced by

crops like rice, corn, millet, onion and sorghum. Landscape is a flat extensive horizontal plain

(Fig. 2) whose average gradient is less than 2%.

The basement in the area is composed of Precambrian granite and gneiss, intruded by

volcanic formations and covered by various Quaternary sedimentary formations (old fluvio-

lacustrine series, recent fluvial series, and recent lacustrine series) (Pias, 1970; Schuster et al.,

2005) as shown in Figure 2. The parent materials of Vertisols are recent floodplain deposits

composed mainly of clays, sands and silts; they are rich in primary minerals (biotite, feldspars,

amphiboles, hornblende, etc.) and swelling clays (smectite) characteristic of authigenic process

(Pias, 1970; Brabant and Gavaud, 1985).

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According to Cratchley et al. (1984), Maurin and Guiraud (1990), Schuster et al. (2005) and

Moussa et al. (2016), the Chad Basin was formed during the opening of the South Atlantic. The

Quaternary Chad formations (more than 3.6 km thick layer of sedimentary rocks) mask the older

Precambrian basement rocks. Where the Yola branch of Benue Trough enters the Lake Chad,
Cretaceous marine sediments are present, indicating that parts of the basin were once under the

sea (Maurin and Guiraud, 1990). The sea seems to have retreated from the western part of the

basin in the Turonian. During the Maastrichtian, the western portion is non-marine (Cratchley et

al., 1984). During the Quartenary (2.8 Ma), there are numerous phases of climate variation,

generally alternating between drier and wetter periods. During the Quartenary, the basin evolved

many times from a well watered plain rich in vegetation and fauna to a dry desert. The last

wetter period is the African Humid Period (15 ka to 5.5 ka) (deMenocal et al., 2000), with the

7 climate optimum occurring at the beginning of the Holocene (11.7 ka), referred to as the Green

Sahara by Tierney et al. (2017). During this period, the forest might have reached its most

northern limit (Hély and Lézine, 2014) and Lake Chad may have covered an area of about

350,000 km2 (Mega-lake Chad) in the basin. Since the end of the African Humid Period (5.5

ka), the climatic conditions are becoming drier.

3. Materials and methods

3.1. Soils sampling

Based on several soil surveys conducted up to date, sustained by a reconnaissance survey

of the Lake Chad Basin area, 25 representative soil profiles were randomly studied on different

types of sedimentary materials using auger-boreholes. The six most representative profiles were

selected at different sites for detailed investigation based on depth above the water table, parent

material and horizon development. The investigated soil profiles occurred on three different

sedimentary formations from the Quaternary-old fluvio - lacustrine series (Profile DE and KE),

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to recent fluvial series (Profile LA and NA) and finally to recent lacustrine series (Profile MA

and ND).

The soil profiles were dug at the end of the rainy season (mid-November) to avoid rainy

season inundations that make Vertisols very sticky and excessive dry season that render the

Vertisols too hard to break. The soil description was done according to Soil Survey Staff

terminology (1993) and soil classification was based on the USDA Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey

Staff, 1999). The horizon delimitation was mainly done based on variations in colour, texture

and structure with depth. A total number of nineteen soil samples were collected and transferred

to the laboratory for further processing and analysis.

3.2. Methods of soil analysis

In the laboratory, the Vertisols samples were air-dried and hand-crushed to reduce the

size of the clods. The final sample was crushed using an agate mortar and sieved with a 2 mm
diameter-mesh sieve. The resulting fine soil samples were packed in air-tied plastic bags and

stored pending laboratory analysis. .

Three types of laboratory analyses were carried out: mineralogical, geochemical and

physico-chemical analyses. The mineralogical and geochemical analyses were done at the

“Unité de Recherche: Argiles, Géochimie et Environnements Sédimentaires (AGES)” of the

University of Liege in Belgium. The soil physico-chemical analyses were performed in the

laboratory of Soil Science of the Univerity of Yaoundé 1 (Cameroon). The soil mineralogy was

determined by X-ray diffraction on bulk sample powders and on oriented clay samples at room

temperature using a classical powder diffractometer (BRUKER type), equipped with a Ni-filter

and a Cu anode (quartz mono-chromator, K-alpha1 wavelength = 1.5418 ). The presence of the

mineral smectite was confirmed by the ethylene glycol test of Robert and Tessier (1974).

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For the physico-chemical analysis, particle size distribution analysis was done by the

Robinson´s pipette method (FAO, 2006). The pH(H2O) was measured in a soil/water suspension

of 1:2.5 using a glass pH-meter (FAO, 2006).

The bulk density was determined in reference to Archimedes’ principle, by water

immersion of soil samples that have been previously waterproofed with paraffin (FAO, 2006).

The Organic carbon (OC) content was analysed by the Walkley-Black method (Walkley

and Black, 1934). The organic matter (OM) was deduced from total carbon content by the

Sprengel factor (Walkley and Black, 1934). The total nitrogen (TN) was dosed by the Kjeldahl

method (Bremner and Mulvaney, 1982) meanwhile soil organic carbon stock (SOCS) was

calculated according to IPCC (2003):

SOCS (Mg.ha-1) = (SOC concentration x BD x d x (1 - δ2mm%) x 10) (1)

Where SOC is the organic carbon content (g kg-1), d is the thickness of the soil layer (m),

δ2mm is the fractional percentage (%) of mineral soil particles > 2mm diameter and BD is the soil

bulk density (mg cm-3). The total soil organic carbon stock (TSOCS) was finally calculated

according to IPCC (2003) as follows:

TSOCS (Mg.ha-1) = ∑horizon SOCS (2)

The available phosphorus was determined according to Olsen and Sommers (1982). The
exchangeable cations were extracted by ammonium acetate method (Thomas, 1982) and the

cation exchange capacity (CEC) was measured by sodium saturation method (Rhoades, 1982).

The chemical composition of the bulk soil samples was determined by X-ray

fluorescence spectrometry using a Philips XRFSPW1404 spectrometer. The chemical index of

alteration (CIA) of Che et al. (2012) was used to measure the degree of weathering based on the

equation below:

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CIA = [Al2O3/(Al2O3+CaO*+Na2O+K2O)] x 100 (3)

where, CaO* is the CaO incorporated in silicate minerals of the rock, while Na2O, K2O

and Al2O3 are base concentrations from the soil sample (Nesbitt and Young, 1982, 1984). Since

Al is less mobile than the alkaline elements (Na+ and K+) and Ca2+, changes in CIA reflect

changes in the proportions of feldspar and the various clay minerals developed in the profiles.

The CIA values can be directly plotted on the A – CN – K triangle. The CIA corresponds to the

horizontal projection on a vertical scale ranging from 0 (A – CN join) to 100 (A apex), where

the fresh feldspar line has a value of 50.

4. Results

4.1. Soil profile descriptions

Profile KE
Location: North of Dacheka
Geographic coordinates: 110°01’ N, 15°16’E

Altitude: 299.8 m

Climate: Sudano-Sahelian

Parent material: Sediment of an old fluvial-lacustrine series

Landform: Alluvial plain

Surface aspect: Gilgaï micro-relief and numerous desiccations cracks

Natural vegetation: Steppe

Drainage: poor

Slope gradient (%): < 2

Erosion marks: mild

Land use: Millet cultivation

Classification: Endoaquerts Vertisols (USDA) and Fulvics Vertisols (WRB)

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Description:

Depth
Horizon
(cm)
Ap 0 – 60 Brown-gray (10YR 6/2 and 2.5Y 4 - 6/2), or gray (5Y3-5/1);
clayey; massive; prismatic; compact; consistent; plastic;
porous; abundant plant roots; gradual transition, mark by
appearance of a yellowish green colour.
Bss 60 – 180 Yellowish to olive-green (10YR8/4-7/1); abundance of rusty
patches (7.5YR5/8); clayey; massive; blocky; calcareous
nodules; presence of slickensides; compact; very hard to dry,
plastic; gradual transition, mark by intensification of yellow
colour.
Bck 180 – 320 Yellowish (10YR8/4); sandy; presence of calcareous nodules;
massive; compact, plastic, slighthy sticky; limited at the base
by a perched water table.

Profile DE
Location: North of Double
Geographic coordinates: 11°20’ N, 14°27’E

Altitude: 300 m

Climate: Sudano-Sahelian
Parent material: Sediment of an old fluvial-lacustrine series

Landform: Alluvial plain

Surface aspect: Gilgaï micro-relief and numerous desiccations cracks

Natural vegetation: Steppe

Drainage: poor

Slope gradient (%): < 2

Erosion marks: mild

Land use: Millet cultivation

Classification: Endoaquerts Vertisols (USDA) and Fulvics Vertisols (WRB)

Description

Depth
Horizon
(cm)

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Ap 0 – 80 Grey-brown (10YR 4/1-2/1), clayey; massive; polyhedral;
firm, porous, slightly plastic; abundant plant roots lower
boundary is blurred and irregular.
Bss 80 – 180 Brown (10YR5/8); clayey; massive; prismatic; presence of
slickensides, firm, blurred and irregular lower boundary.
Bck 180 – 300 Yellow brown (10YR 5.5/4); clayey, massive, firm,
moderately porous; limited at the base by a perched water
table.

Profile LA

Location: North of Lai

Geographic coordinates: 9°26’ N, 16°18’E

Altitude: 299. 8 m

Climate: Sudano-Sahelian

Parent material: Sediments of recent fluvial sandy clay series

Landform: Alluvial plain

Surface aspect: middle of a flooded depression and desiccation cracks

Natural vegetation: Steppe

Drainage: poor

Slope gradient (%): < 2

Erosion marks: mild

Land use: Millet

Classification: Epiaquerts Vertisols (USDA) and Fulvics Vertisols (WRB)

Description

Depth
Horizon
(cm)
Ap 0 – 60 Grey-brown (10YR5/2, 10YR3.5/2), massive; clayey, polyhedral;
abundant plant roots; desiccation cracks, firm, very plastic, slightly
porous, diffuse and irregular lower boundary.
Bss 60 – 120 Brown (10YR5/5; 10YR4/5), with yellow brown patches (10YR

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8.1) and some black concretions, clayey, massive, firm, slightly
plastic, porous, diffuse and irregular lower boundary, marked by
brightening of brown colour.
Essck 120 – 250 Light brown (10YR7/4; 10YR5/4), massive, compact; clayey
with polyedric structure, massive and hard, slightly plastic,
distinct and abrupt lower boundary.
Bck 200 – 400 Light yellow brown, (10YR7/5; 10YR 6/6) with red yellow
patches (5YR 4/6) and spherical black concretions, clayey,

prismatic structure, presence of slikensides, massive; limited at

the base by a perched water table.

Profile NA

Location: Nahaina

Geographic coordinates: 10°10’ N, 15°35’E

Elevation: 299.4 m
Climate: Sudano-Sahelian

Parent material: Sediments of recent fluvial sandy clay series

Landform: Alluvial plain

Surface aspect: Middle of a flooded depression and desiccations cracks

Natural vegetation: Steppe

Drainage: poor

Slope (%): < 2

Erosion marks: mild

Land use: Pluvial or irrigated rice cultivation

Classification: Endoaquerts Vertisols (USDA) and Gleyics Vertisols (WRB)

Description

Depth
Horizon
(cm)
Ap 0 – 30 Dark-gray (10 YR 4/1 -2/1); massive; clayey; polyhedral;
moderately hard; averagely porous; slightly plastic; roots are
abundant, with fine roots common, irregularly distributed; regular
transition marked by colour brownification.
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Bss 30 – 80 Brown-gray (10YR4/1); massive; compact; clayey; polyhedral;
presence of slickensides; moderately hard; slightly plastic; slightly
porous; fine, rare roots; regular transition.
Bssck 80 – 160 Brown (2.5Y5/2); massive; clayey; prismatic; presence of
slickensides; hard; slightly porous; very plastic; regular transition
marked by the appearance of a gray colour;
Bck 160 – 250 Gray (10YR 5/1); massive; clayey; prismatic; very plastic; very
compact; perched water table at the base.

Profile MA

Location: Maga
Geographic coordinates: 10°50’ N, 14°57’E
Elevation: 299. 1 m

Climate: Sudano-Sahelian

Parent material: Lacustrine series

Landform: Alluvial plain

Surface aspect: Gilgaï micro-relief and numerous desiccations cracks

Natural vegetation: Steppe

Drainage: poor

Slope (%): < 2

Erosion marks: none

Land use: Millet cultivation

Classification: Epiaquerts Vertisols (USDA) and Gleyics Vertisols (WRB)

Description

Depth
Horizon
(cm)
Ap 0 – 30 Dark-gray (10YR4/1-2/1); massive; compact; clayey;
prismatic to polyhedral; abundance of plant roots; presence
of slickensides; plastic; very abundant roots; gradual
transition marked by slight brightening of colour.
Bss 30 – 180 Gray (10YR5/8); heavy clayey; prismatic; presence of
slickensides; compact; strong cohesion, very plastic; slightly

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porous; gradual transition marked by colour brownification. Bck 180 – 250 Brown
(10 YR 5.5/4); heavy clayey; plastic; presence of
slickensides; compact; plastic; presence of calcareous
nodules; perched water table at the base.

Profile ND

Location: North of Waza

Geographic coordinates: 11°49’ N, 14°06’E

Elevation: 299 m

Climate: Sudano-Sahelian

Parent material: Lacustrine series

Landform: Lowest point of the alluvial plain

Surface aspect: Numerous desiccations cracks

Natural vegetation: Steppe

Drainage: poor

Slope gradient (%): < 2

Erosion marks: non observed

Land use: Millet cultivation

Classification: Epiaquerts Vertisols (USDA) and Gleyics Vertisols (WRB)

Description

0 – 80 Dark-grey (10YR 4/1-2/1) with red (Munsell colour) patches; massive;

compact; clayey, polyedric to prismatic; presence of desiccation
cracks; hard, slightly porous; plastic; abundant plant roots,
blurred and irregular lower boundary.
Bss 80 – 160 Dark-brown (10YR5/8), clayey, prismatic structure, presence
of desiccation cracks and slickensides, hard, massive and very
firm, blurred and irregular lower boundary.
Bck 160 – 250 Brown yellow (10YR 5.5/4), clayey, massive, firm, porous;

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perched water table at the base.

4.2. Morphological characteristics of the studied Vertisols

The morphological properties of the Chad Basin Vertisols are presented in table 2.

Desiccation cracks and gilgaï microrelief are present at the surface, alongside slickensides at the
middle part of the profiles (Fig. 4 and 5). The colour varies with depth and from one soil profile

to another. It changes from yellowish brown to brown to yellowish brown for DE, KE and LA

and finally dark grey to dark brown to yellowish brown for NA, MA and ND. The different

horizons are very hard when dry but soft, plastic and sticky when wet. Plant roots are common

and moderate in size especially in the surface horizons but become less abundant and finer in the
sub-surface horizons.

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Figures and tables captions

Figure 1. Location of the studied area in Africa (a), in Central Africa (b) and in Chad trough (c)
and location of the prospected and studied sites.
Figure 2. Block diagram of the studied area showing the main geomorphological units.
Figure 3. Geological map of the studied zone (modified from Cratchly et al., 1984; Maurin and
Guiraud, 1990).

Figure 4. Surface (a) and bottom (b) view of desiccation cracks of the studied Vertisols.

Figure 5. Morphological properties of the Vertisols profiles.

Figure 6. Textural classes of the different Vertisols sampling according to the USDA, (2014)

instead (HC = Heavy clayey, C = Clayey, CS = Clayey sandy, CSi = Clayey silty, SiCS = Silty

clayey sandy, SiSC = Silty sandy clayey, SiC = Silty clayey, SC = Sandy clayey, S = Sandy, SSi

= Sandy silty, SiS = Silty sandy, Si = Silt).

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Figure 7. X-ray diffraction patterns of bulk samples: (a) DE, (b) LA and (c) ND (Kao =

Kaolinite, Sm = Smectite, Q = Quartz, Fe = Feldspar).

Figure 8. Representative X-ray diffraction patterns of clay fractions (< 2 µ m) of the profile (a)

DE, (b) LA and (c) ND: natural (N), treated with ethylene glycol (EG) and heated at 550°C

(Ka = kaolinite ; Sm = smectite ; Il = illite ; Q = quartz).

Figure 9. Location of the different horizon samples in the SiO2 – Al2O3 – Fe2O3 diagram.

Figure 10. Major elemental Al2O3 – (CaO + Na2O) – K2O (A – CN – K) ternary diagram of

Vertisols systems showing their weathering trends. UCC (upper continental crust) (Taylor and

McLennan, 1985) is plotted as a reference point. Scales for the chemical index of alteration

(CIA = [Al2O3/(Al2O3+CaO*+Na2O+K2O)] × 100, where CaO* represents CaO associated with

the silicate fraction of the sample; (Nesbitt and Young, 1982, 1984) are indicated to show the

degrees of chemical weathering with values less than 40 meaning no weathering, values

between 40 and 60 showing low weathering, values between 60 and 80 indicating moderate

weathering, and values between 80 and 100 representing intensive weathering.

Table 1. Climatic data of the studied area.

Table 2. Morphological characteristics of the different Vertisols profiles.

Table 3. Physico-chemical characteristics of the Lake Chad Basin Vertisols.

Table 4. Semi-quantitative mineralogical composition of the studied Vertisols.

Table 5. Major elements composition of the studied Vertisols (in wt.% oxide).
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Table 1

Station Parameters January Febuary May April May June July August September October November December Average
P (mm) 0 0 9.3 28.9 94.2 142.9 233.9 295.4 214.1 59.9 1.8 0.1 1080.5
Laï T (°C) 27.5 29.8 32.9 32.2 30.3 28.8 27.4 26.9 27.3 28.7 28.9 27.7 29.2
Bongor P (mm) 0 0 3.1 15.6 68.1 127.6 200.6 263.5 150.4 14.8 0.7 0 844.4
(Yagoua) T (°C) 22.5 29.7 33.4 34.3 32.7 30.5 28.5 27.8 28.6 29.9 29 27.3 29.5
P (mm) 0 0 3.7 20.6 62.9 134.3 215.9 241.3 15.9 30.1 0.35 0 866.05
Maroua
T (°C) 26.9 29 32.8 33.9 33 30.2 28.6 27.6 28.2 29.7 29.1 27.3 30
Kousséri P (mm) 0 0 0 2 27 66 153 218 106 12 0 0 584
(Ndjaména) T (°C) 25.6 28 31.9 34.5 34.7 32.5 29.6 28.1 29.4 30.7 28.9 26 31

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Table 2:
Depth above Munsell Colour Structure Consistency Rock Boundary Roots
Horizon
water table (cm) code Color Dry Wet fragments
Profile DE
Ap 0-80 10YR 4/1-2/1 GB 3c, abk h s, p v g c, m
Bss 80-180 10YR 5/8 B 3m, abk h s, p n g f, f
Bck 180 – 300 10YR 5.5/4 YB 2c, abk h s, p v - -
Profile KE
Ap 0 – 60 10YR 4/1-2/1 GB 3c, ab h s, p v g c, m
Bss 60 – 180 10YR 5/8 B 3m, ab h s, p n g f, m
Bck 180 – 320 10YR 5.5/4 YB 2c, ab h s, p v - -
Profile LA
Ap 0-60 10YR 5/2- 3.5/2 LB 3m,ab h p n g c, f
Bss 60-120 10 YR 5/5- 4/5 B 2m,ab h p n g f, f
Bssck 120-200 10YR 7/4- 5/4 LB 3c,ab h s, p n a -
Bck 200-400 10 YR 7/5- 6/6 LYB 3m,ab h p v - -
Profile NA
Ap 0 – 80 10YR 5/2- 3.5/2 LB 3m,ab h p n g c, m
Bss 80 – 160 10 YR 5/5- 4/5 B 2m,ab h p n g f, m
Bck 160 – 250 10YR 7/4- 5/4 LB 3c,ab h s, p n - -
Profile MA
Ap 0 – 60 10YR 4/1 -2/1 DG 3m,ab h p n g c, m
Bss 60 – 120 10YR 5/8 DB 2m,ab h p n g -
Bck 120 – 250 10YR 5.5/4 YB 3c,ab h s,p v - -
Profile ND
Ap 0-80 10YR 4/1 -2/1 DG 3m,ab h p n g c, f
Bss 80-160 10YR 5/8 DB 2m,ab h p n g f, f
Bck 160-250 10YR 5.5/4 YB 3c,ab h s,p v - -

Soils properties
Structure Consistency Rock fragments Horizon Boundary Roots
Size Type Grade Dry wet Abundance Thickness
vf = very fine (<5 mm) g = granular w = weak (peds barely l = loose s = sticky n = none (0%) a = abrupt f=few; f=fine;
f = fine (5–10 mm) ab = angular blocky observable) s = soft p = plastic v = very few (0%–2%) c = clear c=common m=medium
m = medium (10–20 mm) sb = subangular blocky m = moderate (peds h = hard c = common (5%–15%) g= gradual

c = coarse (20–50mm) l=lumpy observable) m = many (15%–40%) d = diffuse .

vc = very coarse (>50 mm) m=massive s = strong (peds clearly a = abundant (40%–80%)
1 = weak; 2 = moderate; 3= strong; observable) d = dominant (>80%)

Ap: surface clayey horizon with desiccation cracks; Bss: clayey horizon with slickensides; Bssck: clayey horizon with a massive structure; Bck: dark grey horizon with hydromorphic patches
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Table 3
Soil Bulk Rock Particle size distribution (%) Acidity Organics Exchangeable bases (cmolc kg-1)
property density fragment Textural CEC/ SOCSp
-1

(g cm-3) Sand Silt Clay Silt/ pH. pH. OM OC P CEC Bs SOCSh (Mg ha-2)
(%) class ∆pH TN C/N Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ S clay -2
Clay (H2O) (KCl) (%) (%) (ppm) (cmolc kg ) (%) (Mg ha )
Horizon (USDA)
Profile DE
Ap 1.80 2 25 30 45 0.67 C 6.8 5.7 1.1 1.2 0.69 0.04 17.37 2.05 8.96 4 1.29 0.13 14.38 21.2 0.47 68 97.37
Bss 2.00 0 61 19 20 0.95 SL 6.9 5.3 1.6 1.01 0.59 0.03 19.6 1.72 18.56 2.88 0.55 0.15 22.14 17.6 0.88 126 118.00 309.84
Bck 2.00 4 65 16 19 0.84 SL 6.9 5.6 1.3 0.71 0.41 0.02 20.49 0.54 25.6 5.28 0.36 0.12 31.36 16.8` 0.88 186 94.46
Profile KE
Ap 1.80 3.4 54 16 30 0.53 SCL 7.6 5.1 2.5 2.43 1.41 0.1 14.07 1.11 11.52 1.76 0.08 0.12 13.47 21.12 0.47 64 147.10
Bss 1.90 0 43 15 42 0.36 C 6.0 5.6 0.4 2.12 1.23 0.04 30.73 1.16 25.28 3.52 0.2 0.13 29.13 21.6 1.08 135 280.44 521.03
Bck 2.00 1.8 46 18 36 0.50 SCL 6.4 6.4 0 2.06 1.19 0.08 14.92 1.61 18.72 6.88 0.08 0.12 25.79 13.28 0.70 194 93.49
Profile LA

Ap 1.8 1.52 42 17 41 0.41 SC 6.7 4.8 1.9 1.51 0.87 0.03 29.1 1.6 30.72 2.08 0.08 0.12 32.99
14.8 0.36 223 92.53

Bss 1.9 0 37 16 47 0.34 C 6.4 4.8 1.6 1.32 0.77 0.06 12.76 0.9 24.48 3.52 0.2 0.12 28.32 19.52 0.42 145 87.78
416.52
B 17.6 76.80

ssck 2.0 0 37 14 49 0.29 C 6.5 6.2 0.3 0.83 0.48 0.03 16.03 1.37 9.92 1.28 0.08 0.11 11.38 0.36 65
15.6
Bck 2.0 2.8 35 15 50 0.30 C 7.1 6 1.1 0.71 0.41 0.02 20.37 0.77 23.68 1.92 0.08 0.2 25.88 0.31 166 159.41
Profile NA
Ap 1.8 0 11 5 84 0.06 Hc 7 6.5 0.5 1.57 0.91 0.04 22.75 1.61 25.92 4 0.36 0.12 30.4 16.32 0.40 186 131.04
Bss 1.8 0 9 43 48 0.90 SC 7.3 5.2 2.1 0.89 0.52 0.02 25.83 2.52 24.32 2.08 0.2 0.12 26.72 17.6 0.37 151 74.88 299.52
Bck 2.0 0 12 50 38 1.32 SiCL 6.1 6 0.1 0.89 0.52 0.03 17.22 4.57 25.28 3.04 0.08 0.15 28.55 14.4 0.29 198 93.60
Profile MA
Ap 1.8 0 23 30 47 0.64 C 7.3 6.8 0.5 2.73 1.59 0.04 39.64 3.6 20 3.68 0.36 0.15 24.19 16 0.37 151 171.72
Bss 2.1 0 45 22 33 0.67 CL 7 5.3 1.7 0.77 0.45 0.03 14.84 1.23 16 4.64 0.2 0.13 20.97 17.2 0.29 121 56.70 352.55
Bck 2.2 3.55 43 20 37 0.54 CL 8.3 6.2 2.1 0.77 0.45 0.03 15 0.69 17.28 2.4 0.08 0.17 19.93 17.8 0.28 111 124.13
Profile ND
Ap 2.0 0 18 35 43 0.81 C 7.3 6.1 1.2 1.01 0.59 0.08 7.34 2.39 5.92 5.44 0.2 0.17 11.74 19.2 0.45 61 94.40
Bss 2.0 0 15 25 60 0.42 Hc 7.2 6.4 0.8 0.83 0.48 0.04 12.02 1 16 4.22 0.2 0.15 20.57 15.4 0.26 133 76.80 270.99

Bck 2.1 4 20 17 63 0.27 C 7.4 6 1.4 0.95 0.55 0.03 18.41 0.85 31.84 2.72 0.08 0.12 34.75 13.4 0.21 260 99.79

SL: sandy loam; C: clayey; SiCL: Silty clayey loam; Hc: heavy clayey; SCL: sandy clayey loam;CL: clayey loamy; SC: sandy clay; OC: organic carbon; OM: organic
matter; TN: total nitrogen; P: available phosphorus; CEC: cation exchange capacity; BS: Base saturation (%); SOCSh: soil organic carbon stocks of horizons; SOCSP: soil
organic carbon stocks of profile; Ap: surface clayey horizon with desiccation cracks; Bss: clayey horizon with slickensides; Bssck: clayey horizon with a massive structure; Bck:
dark grey horizon with hydromorphic patches

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Table 4
Undetermined Total
Horizon Ka (%) Sm (%) Il (%) Q (%) Fe (%)
(%) (%)
Profile DE
Ap 9.1 71.46 13.7 1.79 1.98 1.17 98.83
Bss 10.41 68.18 15.54 2.77 1.93 1.97 98.03
Bck 10.16 66.27 14.18 2.33 1.92 5.14 94.86
Profile LA
Ap 10.08 71.12 13.15 2.18 3.47 0 100
Bss 15.06 61.07 14.11 6.92 1.18 1.66 98.34
Bssck 10.36 77.78 7.08 2.85 1.2 0.73 99.27
Bck 10.51 72.86 11.42 4.15 1.06 0 100
Profile ND
Ap 8.28 77.14 8.85 1.78 1.82 2.13 97.87
Bss 13.28 64.45 13.16 2.27 1.85 4.99 95.01
Bck 2.53 76.84 10.13 1.77 1.23 7.50 92.5
Ka = kaolinite, Sm = Smectite, Il = Illite, Q = Quartz, Fe = Feldspar; Ap: surface clayey horizon with desiccation cracks; Bss: clayey horizon
with slickensides; Bssck: clayey horizon with a massive structure; Bck: dark grey horizon with hydromorphic patches

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1 Table 5
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2O K2O TiO2 P2O5 Mn2O3 LOI Total
Horizon
Si/Al CIA
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Profile DE
Ap 71.46 13.7 1.79 1.98 0.06 0.1 0.22 1.11 0.33 0.01 0.05 9.1 99.91 3.07 79.74
Bss 68.18 15.54 2.77 1.93 0.02 0.1 0.14 0.87 0.21 0.01 0.07 10.41 100.25 2.58 83.68
Bck 66.27 14.18 2.33 1.92 0.01 0.1 0.12 0.69 0.16 <dl 0.03 10.16 95.97 2.75 83.61
Profile KE
Ap 73.58 10.01 2 1.03 0.17 0.09 0.1 1.19 0.75 0.03 0.02 8.36 97.33 4.26 80.08
Bss 67.97 14.74 3.78 1.2 0.24 0.18 0.07 0.95 0.91 0.03 0.02 10.2 100.29 2.67 85.70
Bck 63.42 10.49 2.89 1.11 0.18 0.09 0.09 1.1 0.69 0.02 0.02 10.02 90.12 3.51 80.88
Profile LA
Ap 71.12 13.15 2.18 3.71 0.04 0.1 0.07 0.47 0.17 0.01 0.07 10.08 101.17 5.4 75.40
Bss 61.07 14.11 6.92 1.18 0.29 0.09 0.33 1.34 0.7 0.22 0.16 15.06 101.47 4.33 81.80
Bssck 77.78 7.08 2.85 1.2 0.01 0.1 0.06 0.33 0.35 0.02 0.03 10.36 100.17 3.97 81.57
Bck 72.86 11.42 4.5 1.06 0.03 0.1 0.08 0.33 0.19 0.02 0.03 10.51 101.13 6.47 88.39
Profile NA
Ap 55.06 21.83 5.83 1.14 0.55 0.09 0.46 1.98 1.26 0.05 0.05 13.14 101.44 2.52 84.09
Bss 59.46 18.88 7.02 1.7 0.88 0.09 0.48 1.92 1.25 0.06 0.07 10.2 102.01 3.14 79.13
Bck 57.85 20.03 4.33 1.37 0.61 0.1 0.52 2.23 1.42 0.07 0.05 13.67 102.25 2.88 80.90
Profile MA
Ap 70.23 12.58 4.33 1.34 0.41 0.11 0.54 2.23 0.9 0.08 0.13 9.1 101.98 3.23 73.57
Bss 59.82 14.17 5.14 3.05 0.6 0.11 0.61 2.12 0.99 0.05 0.14 10.42 97.22 2.44 68.95
Bck 69.95 9.83 3.28 4.74 0.73 0.09 0.4 1.62 0.68 0.02 0.08 9.78 101.2 4.12 56.76
Profile ND
Ap 77.14 8.85 1.78 1.82 0.41 0.12 0.34 1.06 0.94 0.03 0.03 8.28 100.8 5.13 70.91
Bss 64.45 13.16 2.27 1.85 0.4 0.1 0.42 1.46 1.46 0.03 0.07 13.28 98.95 4.46 76.11
Bck 76.84 10.13 1.77 1.23 0.19 0.09 0.46 1.58 0.68 0.02 0.03 12.53 105.55 2.88 74.54
2 LOI: loss on ignition (1000 °C); CIA: chemical index of alteration; dl: detection limit. Ap: surface clayey horizon with desiccation cracks; Bss: clayey horizon with
3 slickensides; Bssck: clayey horizon with a massive structure; Bck: dark grey horizon with hydromorphic patches.
1
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T
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Figure 1
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T
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C R
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Figure 10
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Locality

T
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Figure 2.
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S30 cm

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A
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Figure 4
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Ap Ap Ap
Ap Ap
Ap

Bss
T
Bss Bss

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Bss Bss Bss

R
SC
Bck
Bssck

Bck Bck

U
Bck

Bck
N
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A
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Figure 5
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Key
Ap
Bss
Bck
Ap
Bss
Bck
Ap

T
Bss
Bssck (120 - 250 cm)

P
IR
Bck
Ap
Bss
Bck

C Ap

S
Bss
Bck
Ap

UA Bss
Bck

NM
Figure 6
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Ap

Bss

Bck

PI
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C R
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Bss

Bssck (120-250
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EC
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Bss
CA
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Figure 7
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Ap
T
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Ap

Bss

R
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Bck
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Bssck

S Bck

U
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M
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CA
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Bck

Figure 8
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T
P
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C
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Figure 9
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Highlights

. Characteristic of the vertisols from flooded plain Logone.

. Main mineral is smectite associated to some kaolinite, illite

. Accumulation of basic cation and the neosynthesis of smectite clays.

. Soils are classified as hypereutric haplustepts clayey isohyperthermic.